Spotting

1. Pollination
(a) Anemophily: Flowers Pollinated By Wind
Most of the angiosperms exhibit wind pollination.
Flowers are colourless, do not produce nectar and fragrance.
Pollen grains are light, small and dusty.
Stigma is hairy, feathery or branched to catch wind blown pollen grains.
Examples:Rice, Corn, Oats, Maize, Barley, Papaya
(b) Entomophily: Flowers Pollinated By Insects
The flowers pollinated by insects are bright-coloured and produce nectar.
The fragrance of the flowers attracts the insects.
The pollen is sticky, large, heavy and rough so that stick to the body of the insects.
The stigmas are also sticky so that the pollens depositing are not dispersed.
Examples:
Aster, Lithops, Magnolia
(c) Ornithophily: Flowers Pollinated By Birds
The flowers pollinated by birds are strong
The flowers are tubular and curved that facilitates nectar-sucking by birds
The flowers are odourless and bright-coloured that attracts the birds.
While sucking the nectar, the pollen gets deposited on their beaks and neck and is
transferred to the plant they visit next.
Examples:
Hibiscus, Fuchsias, Verbenas, Beebalms, Bromeliads
2. Pollen germination on Stigma through permanent slide
Theory
Pollination refers to the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the
stigma.
Once the pollen grains are deposited on the stigma, it starts to germinate
A small pollen tube is produced through the style to the ovary.
The nucleus of the tube moves down to the tip of the pollen tube.
The generative cells also pass into it and soon divide to form two male gametes.
During double fertilization, one of the two sperms fuses with the egg cell of the
ovule.
The other cell combines with two polar nuclei of the ovule that helps in the
formation of the endosperm.
The growing ovule is transformed into a seed.
3. (a) T.S. of Testes of Mice
The testes comprise several seminiferous tubules, lined by germinal epithelium.
Inside seminiferous tubules has two types of cells, sertoli cells produces nutrition
and spermatogonia develops into sperms.
Outside seminiferous tubles has leydig cells, produces testosterone hormone.
Thick fibrous tissues called tunica albuginea cover the testes.
(b) T.S. of Ovary of Mice
An ovary is a solid structure bounded by germinal epithelium and tunica albuginea
It consists of an inner medulla and an outer cortex.
The medulla comprises several round or oval bodies known as ovarian follicles.
A rupture of ovarian membrane transforms into corpus luteum helps to maintain
endometrium.
4. Meiosis in Onion Bud Cell or Grasshopper Testis through Permanent Slides
Aim
To observe the stages of meiosis on onion bud cell or grasshopper testis through
permanent slides.

Materials Required
Permanent slides of meiosis, Compound Microscope
Procedure
Place the slide on the stage of the microscope.
Look for dividing cells with lower magnification.

Observations
The different stages of meiosis are observed along on the basis of the following
features.

Stages of Meiosis I
Prophase I
In this stage, the chromosomes condense and move towards the centre of the cell.
It consists of five different sub-phases:
Leptotene: The homologous chromosomes replicate.
Zygotene: Synapsis between homologous chromosomes start.
Pachytene: The sister chromatids separate but the homologous chromosomes
remain attached.
Diplotene: The two homologous chromosomes migrate apart and disintegrate
between the chromosomal arms.
Diakinesis: The condensation of chromosomes stops at this stage and the
chiasmata is clearly visible under an electron microscope. The nucleolus and the
nuclear envelop disappear at this stage and the centrosome moves to the equator.

Metaphase I
The homologous chromosomes that contain two different alleles for each gene, line
up on the metaphase plate to be separated.

Anaphase I
The separated chromosomes are pulled towards the centrioles on either side of the
cell.

Telophase I
The chromosomes are completely pulled apart and new nuclear envelope forms.

Stages of Meiosis II
Prophase II
In this stage, the nuclear envelope disintegrates and centrioles develop.

Metaphase II
The chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate and the chromatids are on either
side of the metaphase plate.

Anaphase II
The sister chromatids separate and are known as sister chromosomes.
 Telophase II
The cell divides into two and a new nuclear envelope surrounds the chromosomes.

5. TSofBlastula
Observations
Thridsatge of embryonic development has 32 to 64 blastomers.
Blastula appears as a sphere with a cavity known as blastocoel.
An outer layer of blastomeres known as trophoblasts is observed.
Trophoblast helps in implantation.
One end of the blastula shows a cellular massknown as the inner cell mass.

6. To study of Mendelian inheritance using seeds of different colour/size

Aim:
To study the Mendelian inheritance using seeds of different colours/sizes of any
plant.
Materials Required:
Petri Dish, Enamel Tray, Pea Seed Samples
Procedure:
Place 100 pea seeds in an enamel tray
Separate the seeds into round and wrinkled and place them in two separate Petri
dishes
Note down the number of round and wrinkled seeds. Also, calculate their ratio.
Repeat the procedure mentioned above for other contrasting traits such as the
colour of the seeds.

Observation:
Table

7. Pedigree Charts

8. Controlled Pollination
Aim
To control pollination through emasculation, tagging and bagging.
Materials Required:
Plants with large bisexual flowers, Tweezers, Scissors, Brush, Alcohol, Rubber
bands, Paper bags, Paper clips, Tags, Magnifying Glass
(a) Emasculation:
This method is employed in the crops having flowers of sufficiently large size. Ex:
Cotton, Pea
Removal of anther from the bisexual flowers before the anthers mature is known as
emasculation.
The anthers are cut with the help pf sterilized forceps and scissors.
(b) Bagging, Tagging, Labelling
The plant is then covered with a plastic bag to prevent it from getting pollinated by
any undesired pollen.
Bring it in contact with the anther of the male plant with desired characteristics.
The pollen should be dusted on the surface of the stigma.
Cover the pollinated flower immediately with a polythene bag and label it with the
name of the seed parent.
Result:
 By the process of emasculation and cross-pollination under controlled conditions,
the female plant will produce seeds of desired characters.

9. Common diseases causing organisms

(a) Ascaris
Identification: Ascarislumbricoides
Disease caused: Ascariasis
Ascaris is a common round worm, a endoparasite of small intestine
The pathogen shows sexual dimorphism. The female is longer than male.
The posterior end of the male is curved ventrally.
Symptoms of these disease include internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anemia
and blockage of the intestinal passage.
A healthy person acquires this infection through contaminated water, vegetables,
fruits, etc.

(b) Entamoeba
Identification: Entamoebahistolytica
Disease caused: Amoebasis or Amoebic dysentery
It is a Protozoan parasite in the large intestine.
It is unicellular and feeds on RBC by damaging wall of large intestine.
Symptoms of this disease include constipation, abdominal pain and cramps, stools
with excess mucous and blood clots.
Houseflies act as mechanical carriers.
Drinking water and food contaminated by the faecal matter are the main source of
infection.

(c) Plasmodium
Identification: Plasmodium vivax
Disease caused: Malaria
Plasmodium enters human body in sporozite stage by the bite of female Anopheles
mosquito.
The sporozite is spindle shaped and uninucliate.
The sporozite infects liver cells and produces metacryptomerozoites
The metacryptomerozoitesenter RBC and produces merozoites which forms
gametocytes
The gametocytes reach the mosquito stomach and produces gametes
These gametes fertilizes and further development produces sporozites which reach
salivary glands.
Symptoms of this disease include fever, headache, diarrhoea

(d) Microsporum
Identification: Microsporumandaouini
Disease caused: Ring worm or Dermatomycosis
It infects hair, where hypae emerge from the sheath and grow up and down them.
Heat and moisture help these fungi to grow.
Appearance of dry, scaly lesions on various
parts of the body such as skin, nails and scalp
Acquired from soil or by using towels, clothes or even the comb of infected
individuals
10. Symbolic association in root nodules of Leguminous plants, Cucuta on host lichens
(a) Homologous organs :
Similar structure , different function
Developmental origin is same
Divergent evolution
Example :
Flipper – whale
Wing – bat
Fore limb -horse
Paw – cat
Hand – human
Thorn – bougainvillaea
Tendril – cucurbita

(b) Analogous organ :

Same function , different structure
Convergent evolution
Not anatomically similar
Example :
Wings of a butterfly and wings of a bird.
Flippers of penguin and dolphin
Eye of an octopus and a mammal ( both differ in retinal position but function is
same )
Sweet potato( root modification) and potato ( stem modification) – both help in
storage of food.