CHAPTER 1

HISTORY AND OVERVIEW

OF COMPUTER
ARCHITECTURE
 REPORT OUTLINE

CHAPTER 1: History and Overview of Computer Architecture

1. Introduction - Computer Organization vs Computer Architecture
2. Classification of Computer Architecture
2.1 Von Neumann Architecture
2.2 Non Von Neumann Architecture
2.2.1 SISD
2.2.2 SIMD
2.2.3 MIMD
3. Factors Influencing the Success of Computer Architecture

CHAPTER 2: Relevant Tools, Standards and/or Engineering Constraints.

INTRODUCTION
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
VS COMPUTER
ARCHITECTURE
INTRODUCTION
Computer Organization vs Computer
Architecture
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
Computer architectures represent the means of
interconnectivity for a computer's hardware
components as well as the mode of data transfer and
processing exhibited. Different computer architecture
configurations have been developed to speed up the
movement of data, allowing for increased data
processing. The basic architecture has the CPU at the
core with a main memory and input/output system on
either side of the CPU.

A second computer configuration is
the central input/output controller
A third computer architecture uses the main
memory as the location in the computer system
from which all data and instructions flow in and out.
A fourth computer architecture uses a common data
and control bus to interconnect all devices making
up a computer system
An improvement on the single shared central bus architecture is the dual bus
architecture. This architecture either separates data and control over the two buses or
shares them to increase overall performance
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
Computer Organization is realization of what is specified by the
computer architecture .It deals with how operational attributes are
linked together to meet the requirements specified by computer
architecture. Some organizational attributes are hardware details,
control signals, peripherals
CLASSIFICATION
OF COMPUTER
ARCHITECTURE
SISD, SIMD, MISD AND MIMD
FLYNN'S LASSIFICATION
In 1966 Michael J. Flynn proposed a classification system where architecture
can be divided into 4 types:

SISD -Single Instruction Single Data

SIMD-Single Instruction Multiple Data
MISD-Multiple Instruction Single Data
MIMD-Multiple Instructionn Multiple Data
SINGLE INSTRUCTION SINGLE DATA (SISD)
A single processor takes data from a single address in
memory and performs a single instruction on the data of
time

The original Von Neumann Architecture was SISD.

Pipelining can be implemented, but only one instruction

will be executed at a time.

All single processor are SISD.

SINGLE INSTRUCTION SINGLE DATA (SISD)
Advantages
Cheap
Low power Consumption
Disadvantages
Limited Speed due to being single core
Uses
Microcontrollers
Older Mainframes
 SINGLE INSTRUCTION MULTIPLE DATA (SIMD)
A single instruction is executed on multiple different
pieces of data

These instructions can be performed sequentially,

taking advantage of pipelining, or in parallel using
multiple processors.

Modern GPUs, containing Vector processors and array

provessors, are commonly SIMD systems.
SINGLE INSTRUCTION MULTIPLE DATA (SIMD)
Advantages
Verify efficient where you need to perform the same
instruction on large amounts of data
Disadvantages
Limited to specific applications
Uses
GPUs
Scientific processing
 MULTIPLE INSTRUCTION SINGLE DATA (MISD)
This is where multiple processors work on the
same data set, performing different
instructions at the same time.
MULTIPLE INSTRUCTION SINGLE DATA (MISD)
Advantages
Useful where real time fault detection is
critical
Disadvantages
Very limited application so not available
commercially
Uses
Space shuttle flight control systems
 MULTIPLE INSTRUCTION MULTIPLE DATA (SIMD)
Multiple autonomous processors perform operations
on difference pieces of data, either independently or as
part of shared memory space.

This means that several different instructions can be

executed at the same time, using different data
streams.
MULTIPLE INSTRUCTION MULTIPLE DATA (MISD)
Advantages
Great for situations where multitasking is required
Disadvantages
Much more complicated architecture so more
expensive
Uses
Most modern PCs, Laptops, Smart Phones
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE
SUCCES OF COMPUTER
ARCHITECTURE
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SUCCESS OF COMPUTER
ARCHITECTURE

ARCHITECTURAL OPEN/CLOSED
MERIT ARCHITECTURE

SYSTEM SYSTEM
PERFORMANCE COST
ARCHITECTURAL MERIT
MEASURED BY:
APPLICABILITY
EFFICIENCY
MALLEABILITY
EXPANDABILITY
COMPATIBILIT
APPLICABILITY EFFICIENCY
Utility of architecture for that it was Measure of the average amoung of hardware
intended for. that remains busy during normal computer use

MALLEABILITY
Ease which computers in the same family can
be implemented using this architecture
Example- machines that differ in size and
performance
EXPANDABILITY
The measure of how easy is to increase the
capabilities of a computer system such as
its maximum memory size or arithmetic
capabilities.

COMPATIBILITY
Ability of different computers to run the same programs.
upward compatibility
downward compatibility
OPEN / CLOSED
ARCHITECTURE
OPEN ARCHITECTURE
Are so called Open System, it refers to a hardware specification or design
that is publicly released, allowing other manufacturers to produce similar
products that are compatible and usually compliant with one another.
A good example of open architecture is IBM compatible
computers(International Business Machine); these computers allow anyone
to purchase a product from any manufacturer with the understanding it will
work with their compatible computer.
Adv. Any one can add-on products for it. That is designed to make adding,
upgrading and swapping components easy from it
EXAMPLE OF
OPEN ARCHITECTURE
1. IBM PC - International Business Machine (IBM) the IBM personal
computer, commonly known as the IBM PC
2. The Apple IIe (styled as Apple //e) is the third model in the Apple II
series of personal computers produced by Apple computer. The e in the
name stands for enhanced, referring to the fact that several popular
features were now built-in that were available only as upgrades or add-
ons in earlier models
CLOSED ARCHITECTURE
A computer or other hardware design that a manufacturer will not
share or open to other manufacturers, making it incompatible with
other software and computers.
For example, the Apple computers are closed architecture computers
and a brand of computer only developed and manufactured by Apple.
A system whose technical specifications are not made public. Such
systems restrict third parties from building products that interface
with or add enhancements to them.
EXAMPLE OF
CLOSED ARCHITECTURE
DOS Windows and Macintosh Architecture
Apple computers
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
Is the amount of work accomplished by a computer
system.
is the process collecting, analyzing and/or reporting
information regarding the performance of an individual,
group, organization, system or component.
WHAT AFFECTS A SYSTEM PERFORMANCE?
Overall, the performance of a computer is dependant on how well it works
together as a whole. Continually upgrading one part of the computer while
leaving outdated parts installed will not improve performance much, if at all.
Below, we discuss some of the most important parts of the computer
regarding it's speed and computing power
Processor speed
System RAM speed and size
Disk speed and size
PROCESSOR SPEED
Clock speed, a.k.a. processor speed is often played up to be
the major factor in a computer's overall performance

Things like encoding video or encrypting files, or anything that

computes large, complex, numbers requires a lot of provessor
power. Most users spend most of their typing, reading email or
viewing web pages.
SYSTEM RAM SPEED AND SIZE
The amount and speed of the RAM in your computer makes a
huge difference in how your computer performs.
Memory affects computer speed because the CPU must move
information into memory and retrieve data from it when running
applications.
If you have a lot of memory, the CPU can move larger chunks of it
faster. Computers also use your hard drive as a virtual memory
area when your RAM cannot hold any more
DISK SPEED AND SIZE
The biggest factor in your computer's performance is the hard disk
speed. How fast the hard drive can find (average seek time), read,
write, and transfer data will make a big difference in the way your
computer performs. A well-organized drive, with plenty of empty
space and no heavy fragmenting, will help the read/write head find
the requested information faster. Hard drives are measured in
rotations per minute, or RPM, which essentially means how fast they
spin to allow the read/write head to find the requested data.
VIDEO CARD
Whenever your computer puts an image on the screen something has to
render it. If a computer is doing this with software it is often slow and will
affect the performance of the rest of the computer. Also, the image will not
be rendered as crisp or as smoothly in the case of video. Even a low-end
video card will significantly improve the performance of the computer by
taking the large task of rendering the images on the screen from the CPU
to the graphics card. If you work with large image files, video or play games
you will want a higher end video card. • Video editing programs, your
graphic card's speed may become important.
SPEED OF THE COMPUTER
The general term, computer speed, refers to CPU clock speed. This is
how fast the CPU operates, usually measured in gigahertz (GHz). One
gigahertz is equal to 1 billion hertz, or cycles per second. So a 1 GHz
computer has a CPU that operates at 1 billion cycles per second.
Operating at 1 GHz does not mean a computer can do 1 billion
operations every second. Different CPUs use different instructions that
affect how many cycles it takes to complete an operation or how many
operations can be completed in one cycle.
BENCHMARK TESTS
a test using benchmark to evaluate a computer system's performance
that measure the chips' abilities to do actual work

BENCHMARK
Benchmark is the act of running a computer program, a set of
programs, or other operations, in order to assess the relative
performance of an object, normally by running a number of standard
tests and trials against it.
TYPES OF
1. Real programs
BENCHMARK
• word processing software
(Ex. MSWord, Excel, Photoshop,CAD...)
2. Kernels – Unlike real programs, no user would run kernel programs. They exist solely to
evaluate performance
• contains key codes
• normally abstracted from actual program
• popular kernel: Livermore loop EX .Linpack benchmark (contains basic linear algebra
subroutine written in FORTRAN language)- Is a method of measuring the floating point rate
of execution of a computer by running a program that solves a system of linear equations
TYPES OF BENCHMARK
3.Toy Benchmarks - are typically between 10 and 100 lines of code and
produce a result the user already knows before running the toy program
• Examples: Sieve of Eratosthenes, Puzzle, Quicksort
4. Synthetic benchmarks
• which are fake programs invented to try to match the profile and behavior of
real applications, such as Dhrystone
• code that matches frequency of key instructions and operations to real
programs
• 2 types -Whetstone (floating point operations)
TYPES OF BENCHMARK
5.I/O benchmarks
6.Database benchmarks
• to measure the throughput and response times of database
management systems (DBMS')
7. Parallel benchmarks
• used on machines with multiple cores, processors or
systems consisting of multiple machine
SPEC -THE STANDARD PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
CORPORATION
• SPEC is a non-profit corporation formed to "establish, maintain and endorse a
standardized set of relevant benchmarks that can be applied to the newest generation of
high-performance computers"
• SPEC develops suites of benchmarks intended to measure computer performance
– These suites are packaged with source code and tools and are extensively tested for
portability before release
– They are available to the public for a fee covering development and administrative
costs
SPEC - BENCHMARK SUITE
Main categories of benchmark suites:
• Desktop benchmarks: CPU, memory, and graphics
performance
• Sever benchmarks: throughput-oriented, I/O and OS intensive
• Embedded benchmarks: measuring the ability to meet
deadline and save power
CHAPTER 2
RELEVANT TOOLS,
STANDARDS AND/OR
ENGINEERING
CONSTRAINSTS
DESIGN GOALS
The precise shape of a computer system is determined by the constraints and objectives for
which it was designed. Standards, cost, memory space, latency, and throughput are typically
traded off in computer architectures. Other variables, such as features, scale, weight,
reliability, expandability, and power consumption, are also taken into account.

The most popular method carefully selects the bottleneck that slows down the machine the
most. In an ideal world, the cost will be distributed proportionally to ensure that the data rate
for all parts of the computer is approximately the same, with the most expensive component
being the slowest. Commercial integrators that are skilled at optimizing personal computers
do so in this manner.
Cost
Costs are generally kept constant, and are dictated by
device or commercial criteria.
PERFORMANCE
The clock speed of a computer is often used to describe its output (usually in
MHz or GHz). This is the number of cycles per second that the CPU's main clock
runs at. However, this measure can be deceiving, as a system with a higher
clock rate does not always mean it will work better. As a result, manufacturers
have abandoned clock speed as an output indicator. The speed of
a computer may also be affected. The amount of cache a processor has can
also be used to assess computer performance. If the rpm, measured in MHz or
GHz, were a vehicle, the cache would be a traffic light. A green traffic light will
not stop the vehicle, no matter how fast it is driving. The faster a processor
runs, the higher its speed and the larger its cache.
POWER CONSUMPTION
Another quality criterion that influences the design of modern computers is
power consumption. Power efficiency is often exchanged for results or cost
savings. Power efficiency has become more important as the number of
transistors per chip scales (Moore's Law), owing to the power density of
modern circuits. Recent processor designs, such as the Intel I7, have placed
a greater focus on increasing performance. Recent processor designs, such
as the Intel I7, have put a greater focus on energy efficiency. In addition,
power efficiency has long been and continues to be the primary design
objective in embedded computing, second only to success.
INSTRUCTION SET ARCHITECTURE
Computer architecture composes of computer organization and
the Instruction Set Architecture, ISA. ISA gives a logical view of
what a computer is capable of doing and when you look at
computer organization, it talks about how ISA is implemented.
Both these put together is normally called computer architecture
and in this course, we are trying to cover both the computer
organization part as well as the ISA part.
THANK YOU
FOR LISTENIG
 REFERENCES

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https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/technological-university-of-the-philippines/computer-engineering-
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6_PHIL4LZEU