PHY101

FLUID MECHANICS (SOME PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS)

SURFRACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY

S. A. Adewinbi
Dr. O. O. Alabi
 Objectives
• To understand the basic knowledge of adhesion and cohesion and surface
tension in fluid motion
• To understand the pressure relation of water droplets, soap bubbles and
liquid jets
• To understand and solve basic problems attached to viscosity and capillarity
• To derive continuity equation and solve some basic problems attached.
• To derive Bernoulli’s equation and solve some basic problems attached.
• To derive Poiseuille’s equation and solve some basic problems attached.
 COHESSION OF ADHESSION

 Cohesion means intermolecular attraction between molecules of the same

liquid.

 Surface tension is due to cohesion between particles at the free surface.

 Adhesion Means attraction between the molecules of a liquid and the

molecules of a solid boundary surface in contact with the liquid..

 Capillary action is due to both cohesion and adhesion.

 Surface Tension
 Definition: Surface Tension is defined as the tensile force acting in the surface
of a liquid in contact with a gas or on the surface between two immiscible liquid
such that the contact surface between is like a membrane and tension.
 It is caused by the force of cohesion as at the free surface.
 Some important examples of phenomenon of surface tension are:
 rain drops
 rise of the sap in the tree,
 collection of dust particles in water surface
 break up of liquid jets est.
 It is expressed in (unit:) N/m.
 Determination of pressure inside a water droplet, soap bubbles and a
liquid jet with the use of surface tension

4𝜎
 Water droplet : 𝑃 =
𝑑

4𝜎
 Soap Bubble : 𝑃 =
𝑑

2𝜎
 Liquid Jet : 𝑃 =
𝑑
 Where σ = surface tension of the
liquid, d = diameter
P = pressure inside the droplet
 Example: 1.1 If the surface tension at air-water interface is
0.069 N/M, what is the pressure difference between inside and
outside of an air bubble of diameter 0.0009mm?

 Solution:
Lower: = 0.069 N/M, d = 0.0009mm? An air bubbles has only
4𝜎 4 ×0.069
one surface. Hence, 𝑃 = = = 30669 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑑 0.000009
 Example: 1.2 A soap bubbles 62.5 mm diameter has an internal
pressure in excess of the outside pressure of 20 N/m. What is the
tension in the soap film.

 Solution
Given: Diameter of the bubbles, d = 62.5 mm
62.5 8 10m-3; Eternal pressure in excess is expressed as:
8𝜎
𝑃=
𝑑
8𝜎 8𝜎
∴ 20 = = −3
⇒ σ = 0.156 𝑁/𝑚
𝑑 62.5 × 10
Capillarity
 Definition: Capillary is a phenomenon by which is liquid ( depending
upon its specific gravity) rises into a thin glass tube above or below
its general level.
 It arises from the combined effects of cohesion and adhesion of
liquid particles.
 It is the rises and falling of liquid above its general level in a thin
glass tube (capillary tube).
4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
 In a capillary tube the liquid height h is defined as ℎ = where
𝑊𝑑
d = diameter of the capillary tube; θ = angle of contact of the water
surface r = surface tension force for unit length and w = weight
density ( g)
4𝜎
 For thin glass tube filled water , θ=0; therefore, ℎ =
𝑊𝑑
Equation of Continuity:
Consider the flow of an incompressible fluid through a pipe of cross-
sectional area A. If the average velocity of the fluid is v, then the rate (Q)
of fluid flow is given as;
Q = Av . The unit is m/s2.

Consider the flow of fluid through a pipe of different cross-sectional areas

A1 and A2 and the velocities V1 and V2 at sections 1 and 2.
The rate of flow of fluid at section 1 is equal to the rate of fluid flow at
section 2 .i.e.
Q1 = Q 2
A1 V1 = A2 V2,
This is referred to as the equation of continuity.
Fluids will have its velocity increased if the pipe is narrow.
And have its velocity decreased if the pipe is wide.
 Example: 1.3 A clean tube of diameter 2.5mm is immersed in a
liquid with coefficient of surface tension = 0.4 N/m. The angle of
content of liquid with the glass can be assumed to be 13.50. The
density of the liquid = 13600 kg/m3. what would be the level of the
liquid in the tube relative to the free surface of the liquid inside the
tube?

 Solution:
Given: Diameter of the pore, d = 2.5mm, σ = 4 N/m. θ = 13.5o
4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 4×0.4×cos 135
and ρ = 13600 kg/m3. ℎ= − =− =
𝑊𝑑 9.8×13600 ×2.5×10−3
− 3.39 × 10−3 mm or − 3.39 mm.
The negative indicates there is a capillary depression (fall) of 3.39 mm.
 Examples: 1.4 Determine the minimum size of glass tubing
that can be used to measure water level, if the capillary rise in
the tube does not exceed 0.3mm. Take surface tension of
water in contact with air as 0.0735 N/m.

 Solution:
Given: Capillary ride, h = 0.3mm = 0.3 x 10-3m surface
tension, = 0.0735N/m, specific weight of water, w =
9810N/m, size of glass tubing, d:
4𝜎
ℎ= (i.e for water, θ ≈ 0).
𝑊𝑑
−3 4×0.00735
So, 0.3 × 10 = ⇒ 𝑑 = 100 𝑚𝑚
9810×𝑑
 Tutorials

Exercise 1: A soap bubbles 50mm diameter has internal pressure in excess of the
outside pressure of 25N/m. Calculate tension in the soap film. (Ans.
0.156N/m)

Exercise 2: Determine the minimum size of glass tubing that can be used to
measure water level, if the capillary rise in the tube does not exceed
0.25mm. Take surface tension of water in contact. With air as
0.0735N/m. ( Ans. 120mm)
 Viscosity
 Viscosity may be defined as the property of a field which determined its
resistance to shearing stresses. Viscosity of fluids is due to cohesion is due to
cohesion and interaction between particles.

 Newton’s law of Viscosity

This law states that the shear stress (τ ) on a fluid element layer is directly
proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportional is
called the co-efficient of viscosity.
Mathematically,
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
 Water, kerosene, and air are some of the examples the Newtonian fluid.
(Lubricant oil and water vision then water)
 Example 1.5: A plate 0.05mm distant from a fixed plate moves at 1.2m/s and
requires a force of 2.2N/m2 to maintain this speed. Find the viscosity of the
fluid between the plates.

 Solution:
Viscosity of the moving plate, V = 1.2m/s, distance between the plate, dy =
0.05mm =0.05 x 10-3
Force on the moving plate, F = 2.2N/m2 = τ
𝑑𝑢
𝜏 = 𝜇 , du = Change of velocity = u - 0 = 1.2m/s.
𝑑𝑦
1.2
therefore, 2.2= 𝜇 ⇒ μ = 9.16 × 10−5 𝑁/𝑚2
0.05 ×10−3
 Bernoulli’s Principle:
 The work done in moving volume, V of fluid from section 1 of pipe to section
2 is given as : W = (P1 – P2) V

 The change in kinetic energy ,(ΔK.E) of a flowing fluids is given as:

ΔK.E = ½ x mass x v22 - ½ x mass x v12
but ρ = m/V⇒ m = ρV. Hence, ΔK.E = ½ ρV (v22 -v12)
 The change in potential energy (ΔP.E) of the fluid moving from height h1 to h2
is given as: ΔP.E = mgh ,but m = ρV. Hence, ΔP.E = ½ ρVg (h2 -h1)

 The work done = total energy change

W = ΔP.E + ΔK.E
(P1 – P2) V = ½ ρV (v22 - v12) + ρVg (h2 - h1)
(P1 – P2) = ½ ρ (v22 - v12) + ρg (h2 - h1)
P1 + ½ ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2 + ½ ρv22+ ρgh2 (Bernoulli’s equation)
 Example 1.6: What volume of water will escape per minute from an open
tank through an opening 3cm in diameter that is 5m below the water level
in the tank?(A) 42m3/min (B) 4.2m3/min (C) 4.8m3/min (D) 0.49m3/min
(E) None of the above

 Solution
 Using Bernoulli’s equation:
P1 + ½ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2 + ½ρv22 + ρgh2
P1= P2, v1 = 0m/s , h1-h2 = 5m
ρg(h1- h2) = ½ ρv22 , ⇒ v2 = √(2g(h1 – h2))
v2 = √(2(9.8) (5)) = 9.9m/s
 Flow rate ; Q = Av = (πd2x v)/4
Q = (π (0.03)2x 9.9)/4 = 0.007m3/s
Q = 0.007m3/s x 60s/1min = 0.42m3/min (E)
 Example 1.7: A bullet is fired into an open water tank creating a
hole that is a distance of 10m below the water surface. With what
speed does the water emerge from the hole below. (A) 26m/s2 (B)
14m/s2 (C) 10m/s2 (D) 5m/s2 (E) None of the above

 Solution
Using Bernoulli’s equation:
P1 + ½ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2 + ½ρv22 + ρgh2
P1= P2, v1 = 0 m/s , h1-h2 = 10m
ρg(h1- h2) = ½ ρv22 , ⇒ v2 = √(2g(h1 – h2))
v2 = √(2(9.8) (10)) = 14m/s (E)

 Beware of (B) because the unit provided is that of acceleration

(m/s2)
  Poiseuille’s equation
 In a steady (ordered) flow, Poiseuille stated that the volume flowing per
second depends on the viscosity , the radius r of the pipe and the
pressure gradient, P/L.
𝜋𝑟 4 𝑃
Hence, 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐. =
8μ 𝑙

 Exercise: In a giving a patient a blood transfusion, the bottle is set up so that

the level of blood in it is 1.3 m above the needle, which has an internal
diameter of 0.36 mm and its 3cm in length. In one minute, 4.5cm3 of blood
passes through the needle. Calculate the viscosity of blood, assuming its
density is 1020 kg/m3. (Ans: 2.43 x 10-3 Ns/m2).
INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES

The thermodynamic properties need to be considered when a fluid is

influenced by change of temperature. The following equation, known as
the characteristic equation of a state of a perfect gas is used for this
purpose.
PV = MRT

Where, P = Absolute pressure

V = Volume of M kg of gas
M = Mass of gas
T = Absolute temperature, and
R = Characteristics gas constant
  Example 1.8 (a) What will be the gauge pressure and (b) the absolute
pressure of water at depth 12m below the surface? w = 1000kg/m3 and P
atmosphere = 101KN/m2

 Solutions:
a. Pgauge = density x acceleration due to gravity x height
= ρgh
= 1000 x 9.8 x 12
= 117720N/m2or = 117.7kN/m2

b. Absolute pressure
Pabsolute = Pguage + Patmosphere
= 117720 + 101000
= 218720N/m2 = 218.720kN/m2.
 Example 1.9 (a) At what depth below the surface of oil, relative density 0.8,
will produce a pressure of 120kn/m2? (b) What depth of water is the
equivalent to this?

 Solutions:
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝜌𝑜 )
 a. R𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝛿 = = 0.8
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝜌𝑤 =1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3)
⇒ 𝜌𝑜 = 800 𝐾𝑔/𝑚3
𝑃 120×103
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ ⇒ ℎ = = = 15.29 𝑚 𝑜𝑓𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝜌𝑔 800×9.8

𝜌𝑜 120×103
 b. If ρw is considered, ℎ = = = 12.23 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝜌𝑤 𝑔 1000×9.8
 Example 1.10: What would pressure in KN/m2 be if the equivalent heed is
measured as 400mm of (a) Mercury = 13.6, (b) water (c) oil specific weight 7.9
KN/m3 (d) a liquid of density 520 kg/m3? (g = 9.81 m/s2) h = 400 mm = 0.4
m).
 Solution
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 (𝜌𝑚 )
 a. 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝛿 = = 13.6 ⇒ 𝜌𝑚 = 𝜌𝑤 × 𝛿 =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝜌𝑤 )
(1000 × 13.6) 𝐾𝑔/𝑚3
𝑁
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.4 = 53366 2
𝑚
 b. 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 1000 × 9.81 × 0.4 = 3924 𝑁/𝑚2

 c. 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜌𝑔 ⇒ 𝑊𝑜 = 𝜌𝑜𝑔 = 7.9 𝐾𝑁/𝑚3

𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑊𝑜ℎ = 7.9 × 103 × 0.4 = 3160 𝑁/𝑚2

 d. 𝑃1 = 𝜌1𝑔ℎ = 520 × 9.81 × 0.4 = 2040 𝑁/𝑚2

 Example 1.11: A manometer connected to a pipe indicates a negative gauge
pressure of 50mm of mercury. What is the absolute pressure in the pipe in
newton per square meters, if the atmosphere pressure in 1 bar (R.D.(δ) = 13.6
for mercury).

 Solution
 h = -500mm = -0.05m; Patmosphere = 1 bar = 1 x 105 N/m2
 Pabsolute = Pguage + Patmosphere= ρgh + Patm
but 13.6 = ρm/ρw ⇒ ρm = 13.5 x 1000

 Pabsolute = [ (13.6 x 1000) x 9.81 x (-0.05) ] + 10

= -6670 + 100000 = 93330 N/m2
= 93.33 kN/m2.
 Example 1.12. What height would a water barometer need
to be to measure atmosphere pressure?

 Solution:
 Patm = 1 bar = 1 x 105N/m2
105
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ ⇒ 105 = 𝜌𝑤𝑔ℎ ⇒ ℎ =
1000 × 9.81
= 10.194 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
105
𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⇒ ℎ = = 0.75 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦
13600 × 9.81
Exercise.
 Recommended texts for further readings and
understandings

 Fundamentals of physics by Halliday and Resnick , 9th

edition, JEARL WALKER.

 College physics by Raymond A. Serway, Chris Vuille and

Jerry S. Faughn, 8th edition.

 Schaums’s outlines of college physics, by Frederick J.

Bueche and Eugene Hecht, 9th edition.