ED 201 – BASIC INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Definition of Terms:

1. Statistics- is the theory and method of collecting, organizing, analyzing and

interpreting a set of data.

Methods for organizing, summarizing, presenting, & interpreting information

(data).

Branches of Statistics:

a. Descriptive statistics- a set brief descriptive coefficients that summarize a given

data set, which can either be a representation of the entire population or a sample.

This measures used to describe the data set are measures of central tendency and

measures of variability or dispersion.

- Gives numerical and graphic procedures to summarize a collection of data in a

clear and understandable way.

b. Inferential statistics- makes inferences about populations using data drawn

from the population. Instead of using the entire population gather data, the

statistician will collect a sample or samples from the millions or residents and

make inferences about the entire population using the sample.

- Provides procedures to draw inferences about a population from a sample.

- The statistical procedures for describing, synthesizing, analyzing, and

interpreting quantitative data.

2. Population- is the totality of observation which we are concerned.

 3. Sample – is a subset of population.

4. Sampling – is the process of selecting a small number of elements from a larger

defined target group of elements such that the information gathered from the

small group will allow judgements to be made about the larger groups.

The Sampling Design Process:

1. Define the Population

2. Determine the Sampling Frame

3. Select Sampling Techniques

4. Execute the Sampling Process

Types of Sampling Methods:

Probability Nonprobability

Simple Random Sampling Convenience Sampling

Systematic Random Sampling Judgement Sampling

Stratified Random Sampling Quota Sampling

Cluster Sampling Snowball Sampling

Descriptive Measures:

1. Central Tendency Measures - they are computed to give a “center” around

which the measurements in the data are distributed.

Mean – average

-Sum of all measurements divided by the number of measurements.

 Median –middle value

-a number such that at most half of the measurements are below it and at

most half of the measurements are above it.

Mode – most frequently observed value(s)

2. Variation or Variability Measures (Dispersion) – they describe “data spread”

or how far away the measurement are from the center.

Range – highest to lowest values

Standard Deviation – how closely do values cluster around the mean value.

Skewness – refers to symmetry of curve

5. Nominal Scale – a discrete classification of data, in which data are neither

measured nor ordered but subjects are merely allocated to distinct categories: for

example, a record of student’s course choices constitutes nominal data which

could be correlated with school results. It is a measurement used for identification

purpose.

6. Research – the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources

in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.

7. Research Problem – is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be

improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exist in

scholarly literature, in theory,, or in practice that points to the need for meaningful

understanding and deliberate investigation.

 8. Frequency Distribution Table – is a table that displays the frequency of various

outcomes in a sample. Each entry in the table contains the frequency or count of

the occurrences of values within a particular group or interval, and in this way,

the table summarizes the distribution of values in the sample.

9. Frequency Distribution - is the organizing of raw data in table form, using

classes and frequencies.

10. Data – data can be defined as collection of facts or information which conclusions

may be drawn.

-Collection of information, comprised of 2 parts

(1) Individuals ( also called cases or observations ) – Individuals are ANY

OBJECTS described by data, Do NOT have to be people.

(2) Variables – are characteristics recorded on/from the individuals; A

variable is something that changes over time or, varies across individuals.

Types of Data:

Data can be classified as:

1. Qualitative/Non-metric

2. Quantitative/Metric

and as:

1. Discrete 2. Continuous

and as:

1. Nominal 3. Interval

2. Ordinal 4. Ratio
Why do we care about types of Data?

1. Different statistics used for different types of data

2. Distinction between categorical vs. quantitative matters a lot

3. Distinction between interval vs. ratio will not matter much

11.Data Analysis – making sense out a set of raw observations with the aim

of addressing the goal(s) of the research.

As Researchers:

- diagnose the problem

- specify statistical test

- retrieve analysis results

- interpret analysis results

Diagnosing a Problem:

- what are the questions to be answered?

- what’s the analysis required by the question

- what is the nature of the data?

- for comparative analysis, how many means are to be compared?

Common S-Tests

Type of Analysis
Nature of Data
Descriptive Correlational Comparative
NOMINAL  Mode  Fisher Exact  Chi-square Test
 Frequency  Chi-square Test
Distribution of Association
 Percentage  Phi coefficient
Distribution
Ordinal  Frequency  Gamma  Chi-square Test
Distribution Coefficient of Independence
 Percentage  Spearman rho
Distribution

Interval or Ratio  Range  Pearson r 2 Groups

 Mean  Dependent T-
 Standard test
Deviation (SD)  Independent T-
 Median test
3 or more groups
 N-way Analysis
of Variance
(ANOVA)

Examples:

1. What is the average course grade of those students who attended the review

and those who did not?

Type of Analysis:

-Descriptive

Nature of Data

-Interval or Ratio
Data Analysis

-Mean

-SD

2. How many are pro or against the merging of departments when analyzed

gender?

Types of analysis:

-Descriptive

Nature of Data

-Nominal

Data Analysis

-Frequency Distribution

-Percentage Distribution

3. Do the average grade of those students who attended the review

significantly differ from those who did not attend?

Types of Analysis:

-Comparative

Nature of Data

-Interval or Ratio

# of means compared

-2, coming from different sample

Data Analysis

-T-test for independent samples

4. Does the average grade of students significantly differ before and after

taking the review?

Type of Analysis:

-Comparative

Nature of Data

-Interval or Ratio

# of groups compared

-2, coming from different samples

Data Analysis

-T-test for independent samples

5. Is there a significant difference in the work performance of employees who

are 5 years or below, 6-10 years and 11 or more years in the company?

Type of Analysis:

Comparative

Nature of Data

-Interval or Ratio

#of groups compared

-3, coming from different samples

Data Analysis

-ANOVA

6. Is there a significant relationship between gender of the youth and their

stand on abortion issue?

Type of Analysis:

-Correlational

Nature of Data

-Nominal

Data Analysis

-Chi-square test of association

-Phi coefficient

Note: The data on the variables being related should come from the same sample.

7. Is there a significant relationship between grades of the students and the

salary of their teachers?

Type of Analysis

-Correlational

Nature of Data

-Interval or Ratio

Data Analysis

-Pearson r
Interpreting results: p-value approach

- alternative to classical approach (tabular approach)

- focus is on the probability (p-value) that you would be wrong if you reject the

hypothesis-not on the computed and the standard test statistic.

- generate the p-value of a certain test

- compare the p-value to the level of significance (usually 0.05)

- decide over the Ho:

- if p-value is < to 0.05; the result of the test is significant; reject Ho.

- do not reject Ho, if otherwise

- connect with that others have

Examples:

1. What is the average of grade of those students who attended the review and

those who did not?

Result:

Review Attendance Grade Verbal Description

Mean SD

89 1.02 Very Good

Attended

83 1.13 Fair
Did Not

1. Who’s grades are relatively higher?

2. Are these results similar to what others have found out? Or nor?
 3.Do the average grade of those students who attended the review significantly differ

from those who did not attend?

Learners Test
for Equality of T-test for Equality of Means
Variances
95% Confidence
F Sig t df Sig Mean Std Error Interval of the
(2-tailed) Differen Differenc Difference
ce e Lower Upper
GRADE Equal
variances assumed 1.361 277 1.416 8 0.30 6 0000 2.5417 -2.2611 9.4611

Equal variances not

assumed 1.416 5735 030 60000 2.5417 -2 6896 9 8896

1. What do the numbers mean?

2. Are these results similar to what others have found out? Or not?

3. Is the work performance of the respondents significantly related to their monthly

salary and number of working hours?

 Correlations

PERFORMANCE SALARY WORKHOURS

Performance
Pearson Correlation 1,000 602 664
Sig (2-tailed) 066 036
N 10 10 10
Salary
Pearson Correlation 602 1000 896
Sig (2-tailed) 066 000
N 10 10 10
Workhours
Pearson Correlation -664 896 1000
Sig (2-tailed) 036 000
N 10 10 10

Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

4. Is there a significant difference in work performance of the respondents who

earned undergraduate, graduate and post graduate degrees?

GRADE BE Descriptive

95% Confidence Interval

N Mean Std Std for Mean Minimum Maximum
Deviation Error Lower Upper
Bound Bound
Undergraduate 4 84 2500 2 9861 1 4930 79 4985 89 0015 80 00 87 00
Graduate 3 88 6667 5774 3333 87 2324 90 1009 88 00 89 00
Postgraduate 3 93 0000 1 0000 5774 90 5159 95 4841 92 00 84 00
Total 10 88 2000 4 2374 1 3400 85 1687 91 2313 80 00 94 00
GRADE BE ANOVA

Sum of Mean
Square df Square F Sig
Between Groups 132 183 2 66 092 15 727 003
Within Groups 29 417 7 4 202
Total 161 600 9

1. The performance of the 3 groups significantly differ.

2. Reject HD

3. But, is it the graduates with significantly diff. performance compared to the

undergraduates? Or is it the post graduates against the undergraduates?

Undergraduates vs. Graduates

Undergraduates vs. Postgraduates

Graduates vs. Postgraduates

Multiple Comparisons

Dependent Variable Grade_Be

LSD
Mean Sig 95% Confidence Interval
(1) EDUC (2) EDUC Difference Std
Lower Upper
(I-J) Error
Bound Bound
Undergraduate Graduate -4 4167* 1.5657 026 -8.1189 -7144
Postgraduate -8 7500* 1.5657 002 -12 4523 -5.0477
Graduate Undergraduate 4 4167* 1.5657 026 7144 8.1189
Postgraduate -4 3333* 1.6738 036 -8 2912 -3754
Postgraduate Undergraduate 8 7500* 1.5657 001 5.0477 12.4523
Graduate 4 3333* 1.6738 036 3754 8.2912
*The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
Graduates over the undergraduate

Postgraduate over the undergraduates

Postgraduates over the graduates