Open Channel Note

Open Channel Hydraulics 2013
1. OPEN CHANNEL FLOW AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS

Introduction
The aim of the course open channel hydraulics is to present a review of the main principles
of hydraulics and to apply them in Hydraulic/Irrigation Engineering. After the course the
student should understand and should be able to apply the principles of hydraulics in
engineering problems and (s)he should be capable to make uniform and non-uniform flow
computations.
DESCRIPTION OF OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Open channel: is a conduit for flow, which has a free surface, i.e. a boundary, exposed to the
atmosphere.
The flow of water in a conduit may be either open channel flow or pipe flow. Open channel
is a conduit for flow which has a free surface, i.e. a boundary exposed to the atmosphere. The
two kinds of flows, i.e. open channel and pipe flow, are similar in many ways but differ in
one important aspect. Open channel flow must have a free surface, whereas pipe flow has
none, since the water must fill the whole conduit. A free surface is subject to atmospheric
pressure. Pipe flow being confined in closed conduit, exerts no direct atmospheric pressure
but hydraulic pressure. In the case of the flowing fluid in open channel, the motion is usually
caused by gravity effects and the pressure distribution within the fluid is generally
hydrostatic1.
Figure 1-1Comparison between pipe flow and open channel flow.
Questions:
 Where is the HGL in case of the open channel flow?
 What is the influence of the change in cross–section of the pipe?
 Is a half–filled pipe flow open channel flow or pipe flow?
1
If the flow were curvilinear or if the slope of channel were large hydrostatic law of
pressure distribution will not hold true, read pp 30- 33 Ven Te Chow and the class
lecture on pressure distribution.
AMU Water Resources & Irrigation Engineering Page 1

The two kinds of flows are compared in Figure 1 -1 shown on the left side is pipe flow. Two
piezometer tubes are installed on the pipe at section 1 and 2. The water levels in the tubes are
maintained by the pressure in the pipe at elevations represented by the so–called hydraulic
grade line. The pressure exerted by the water in each section of the pipe is indicated in the
corresponding tube by the height (y) of the water column above the centerline of the pipe.
The total energy in the flow of the section with reference to a datum line is the sum of the
elevation z of the pipe center line, the peizometric height of and the velocity head ,
where v is the mean velocity of flow. The energy is represented in the figure by what is
called the energy grade line or a simply energy line. The loss of energy that result when
water flow from section 1 to section 2 is represented by hf. A similar diagram for open
channel flow is shown on the right side of Figure 1 -1. For simplicity, it is assumed that the
flow is parallel and has a uniform velocity distribution and that the slope of the channel is
small. In this case, the water surface is the hydraulic grade line, and the depth of the water
corresponds to the peizometric height.
Despite the similarity between the two kinds of flow, it is much more difficult to solve
problems of flow in open channels than in pressure pipes.
Reasons:
 In open channels the position of the free surface is likely to change with
respect to time and space,
 Depth of flow (y), discharge (Q), and bottom slope (S) and slope of the free
surface are interdependent,
 Physical condition of open channels varies more widely than that of pipes,
 Cross section of open channel is widely variable and even might not be rigid,
 Selection of fiction coefficient is difficult and it varied with the position of the
free surface,
Examples of Open channel Flow:
Some examples of open channel flow include

- storm sewer (partially filled sewers),
- flow in rivers,
- flow in irrigation canals,
- gutters along residential streets and etc.
1.3 Types of flows

Open channels flow can be classified into many types and described in various ways. The
following classification is made according to the change in flow depth with respect to time
and space .

Steady flow and unready flow: Time as the criterion

Flow in an open channel is said to be steady if the depth of flow does not change or if it can
be assumed to be constant during the time interval under consideration at a fixed point. In
steady flow the flow variables (velocity, pressure, density, flow path etc) do not vary with
time at the spatial point in the flow. In steady flow streamline is also the path followed by an
individual water particle.
The flow is unsteady if the depth changes with time. In most open channel problems it is
necessary to study flow behavior only under steady conditions. If, however, the change in
flow condition with respect to time is of major concern, the flow should be treated as
unsteady. In floods and surges, for instance, which are typical examples of unsteady flow, the
stage of flow changes instantaneously as the wave pass by, and the time element becomes
vitally important in design of control structures. In unsteady flow the flow variables
(velocity, pressure, density, flow path etc) vary with time at the spatial points in he flow.
Examples of unsteady flow:

 Oscillatory sea waves,
 Dam break flood waves,
 Surges due to gate operation,
 Floods.
For any flow, the discharge Q at a channel section is expressed by
Q = VA Equation 1-1
Where v is the mean velocity and A is the flow cross sectional area normal to the direction of
the flow, since the mean velocity is defined as the discharge divided by the cross-sectional
area.
In most problems of steady flow the discharge is constant throughout the reach of the channel
under consideration; in other words the flow is continuous. Thus, using equation 1-1.
Q = V1 A1 = v2 A2 = - - - - Equation 1-2
Where the subscripts designate different channel sections. This is the continuity equation for
a continuous steady flow.
Equation 1.2 obviously invalid, however, where the discharge of a steady flow is non-
uniform along the channel, that is, where water runs in or out along the course of the flow.
This type of flow is called spatially varied or discontinuous flow. Spatially constant flow
occurs when the density and average velocity are the same in all points in a flow field. If
these quantities change along or across the flow lines the flow is spatially variable. Examples
are side channel spillways, roadside gutters, and the flow in uniform canal of constant slope
receiving inflow or having outflow (e.g. main drainage channels and feeding channels in
irrigation systems).

The law of continuity of unsteady flow requires considerations of the time effect. Hence, the
continuity equation for continuous unsteady flow should include time element as a variable.
Uniform flow and varied flow: space as the criterion

Open channel flow is said to be uniform if the depth of flow is the same at every section of
the channel. A uniform flow may be steady or unsteady, depending on whether or not the
depth changes with time.
Steady uniform flow is the fundamental type of flow treated in open channel hydraulics. The
depth of flow does not change during the time interval under consideration. The
establishment of unsteady uniform flow would require that the water surface fluctuate from
time to time while remaining parallel to the channel bottom. Obviously, this is a practically
impossible condition. The term “uniform flow” is therefore, used here after only to steady
uniform flow.
Flow is varied if the depth of flow changes along the length of the channel. Varied flow may
be either steady or unsteady. Since unsteady uniform flow is rare, the term “unsteady flow” is
used hereafter to designate unsteady varied flow exclusively.
Varied flow may be further classified as either rapidly or gradually varied. The flow is
rapidly varied if the depth changes abruptly over a comparatively short distance; otherwise, it
is gradually varied. A rapidly varied flow is also known as a local phenomenon; examples are
the hydraulic jump and the hydraulic drop. For clarity, the classification of open-channel
flow is summarized as:

Figur
Uniform flow
Steady Flow
Gradually Varied (non-
uniform) Flow
Varied Flow
Rapidly Varied (non-
Flow
uniform) Flow
Unsteady uniform flow
(Quasi uniform flow)
Gradually varied
Unsteady Flow unsteady Flow
Unsteady Flow (i.e.

unsteady varied flow)
Rapidly varied unsteady
flow
e 1-2 Classification of open channel flows

Real or ideal flow

Real flow implies viscosity and frictional (viscous) effects. Ideal flow is hypothetical, ideal
flow assumes no friction, which means that the velocity is zero. There are no frictional
effects between moving fluid layers or between these layers and boundary walls; there is no
energy dissipation due to friction.
Incompressible or compressible flow

Incompressible flow assumes a constant density in time and space. Also liquids are slightly
compressible, it is assumed that they are incompressible. Compressible flows consider
liquids that undergo changes in their density due to changes in absolute pressure and/or
temperature.

Dimensionless Numbers and state of flow.
Forces that may act on a fluid element include those due to gravity P g, pressure Pp, viscosity
Pv, and elasticity PE. if an element is at a liquid gas interface, there are forces due to surface
tension PT, If the summation of all forces on a fluid element does not add up to zero, the
element will accelerate according to Newton’s law. Such an unbalanced force system can be
transformed into a balanced system by adding an inertial forced P 1(=m.a), which is equal and
opposite to the resultant of the acting forces.
Thus, generally,
PG + Pp + PE + PT = Resultant = - PI
F = m *a = Pi
Thus: PG + Pp + Pv + PE + PT + PI = 0
These forces may be expressed in simplest terms as:
Gravity:
Pressure:
Viscosity:
Elasticity:
Surface tension:
Inertia:
In many flow problems some of these forces are either not present or insignificant. The state
or behavior of open channel flow is governed basically by the effects of viscosity and gravity
relative to the inertia forces of the flow. The surface tension, forces due to pressure and
elasticity of water may affect the behavior of flow under certain circumstances, but it does
not play a significant role in most open channel problems encountered in hydraulic
engineering.
Effect of viscosity: Depending on the effect of viscosity relative to inertia, the flow may
be laminar, turbulent, or transitional. The basis for this classification is a dimensionless
parameter known as the Reynold number (Re), which is given by the ratio of these two
forces:
Re=
Therefore,

Equation 1-3
Where v = characteristic velocity of flow, often taken as the average velocity of flow,
L = characteristic length. In open channel thus, the characteristic length commonly
used is the hydraulic radius, which is the ratio of the flow area (A) to the
wetted perimeter (P), .
This dimensionless number Re is more interesting in pipe flow because in pipe flow the
significant forces are inertia and fluid friction due to viscosity. In a flow through a
completely filled pipe, gravity does not change the flow pattern.
The flow is laminar if the viscous forces are so strong relative to the inertial forces that
viscosity plays a significant part in determining flow behavior. In laminar flow, the water
particles appear to move in definite smooth paths, or streamlines, and infinitesimally thin
layers of fluid seem to slide over adjacent layers.
The flow is turbulent if the viscous forces are weak relative to the inertial forces. In turbulent
flow the water particles move in irregular paths, which are neither smooth nor fixed but
which in the aggregate still represent the forward motion of the entire stream.
Between the laminar and turbulent status there is a mixed, or transitional state.
An open channel flow is laminar if the Reynolds number R e is small and turbulent if Re is
large.
Numerous experiments have shown that the flow in pipe changes from laminar to turbulent in
the range of Re between the critical value 2,000 and a value as high as 50,000. In this
experiment the diameter of the pipe was taken as the characteristic length in defining the
Reynolds number. When the hydraulic radius is taken as the characteristic length, the
corresponding range is from 500 to 12,500 since the diameter of a pipe is four times its
hydraulic radius.
For pipe flow
Flow R taken as characteristic length D taken as characteristic length

Laminar R  500 R 2000
Transitional 500  R  12, 500 2000  R  50,000
Turbulent 12,500  R 50,000  R
The laminar, turbulent, and transitional states of open channel flow can be expressed by a
diagram that shows a relation between Reynolds number and the friction factor of the Darcy.
Weisbach formula. Such a diagram, generally known as the Stanton diagram, has been

developed for flow in pipes. The Darcy weisbach formula also developed primarily for flow
in pipes. (further reading Ven Te chow, open channel hydraulics).
For practical purposes, the transitional range of R e for open channel flow may be assumed to
be 500 to 2,000.
For open channel flow
Flow R taken as characteristic length

Laminar Re  500
Transitional 500  Re  2000
Turbulent 2000  Re
Effect of gravity: the effect of gravity upon the state of flow is represented by a ratio of
inertial forces to gravity forces.
This ratio is given by the Froude Number, defined as:
Equation 1-4
Where, V is the mean velocity of flow in m/s, g is acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 and L is
a characteristic length in m. In open channel flow the characteristic length is made equal to
the hydraulic depth (D), which is defined as the cross-sectional area of the water normal to
the direction of flow in the channel divided by the width of the free surface. For rectangular
channels this is equal to the depth of the flow section.
In some handbooks this number is written as Fr2 = V2/gL.

When Fr2 is equal to unity equation 1-4 gives :
and the flow is said to be critical state. If Fr2 is less than unity, or , the flow is sub
critical. In this state the role played by gravity force is more pronounced; so the flow has low
velocity and is often described as tranquil and streaming. If Fr2 is greater than unity, or
, the flow is supercritical. In this state the inertia forces become dominant; so the
flow has high velocity and is usually described as rapid, shooting, and torrential.
Systems involving gravity and inertia forces include the wave action by a ship, the flow in
open channels, the forces of a stream on a bridge pier, the flow over a spillway or a jet from
an orifice and other cases where gravity is the dominant force.

Velocity and Pressure Distributions in Open Channel
Owing to the presence of free surface and to the friction along the channel wall, the velocities
in open channel are not uniformly distributed. The measured maximum velocity in ordinary
channels usually appear to occur below the free surface at a distance of 0.05 to 0.25 of the
depth, the closer the banks the deeper the maximum.
As a result of non-uniform distribution of velocities over the channel section, the velocity
head of an open channel flow is generally greater than the value computed according to the
expression V2/2g, where V is the mean velocity. In practice usually average velocity across
the flow is taken and correction coefficients are applied. A correction coefficient called
Coriolis coefficient (energy coefficient)  is used in computations when energy principle is
used, i.e. the velocity head will be expressed as V2/2g. Experimental data indicate that the
value of  varies from 1.03 to 1.36 for fairly straight prismatic channels. Non-uniform
distribution of velocity also affects computation of momentum (mv = QgV), where  is
momentum coefficient or Boussinesq coefficient generally 1.01 <<1.12 for straight
prismatic channels. For channels of regular cross section and fairly straight alignment the
effect of non-uniform velocity on velocity head and momentum is small especially in
comparison with the uncertainty involved in the computation. Therefore,  and  are
assumed to be unity.

a) Parallel flow- hydrostatic pressure distribution b) Convex flow c) Concave flow

Figure 1-3 Velocity and Pressure distribution in open channel flows

2. BASIC HYDRAULICS PRINCIPLES

Kinds of Open Channels

Channel Geometry
Geometric Elements Of Channel Section



Figure 2-4 Presents geometric elements of the most common channel sections
Main Principles
To any situation in hydraulics we can apply two out of three principles:
1-a Principle of conservation of matter (continuity)

1-b Principle of conservation of energy (in case all energy “losses” are known)
2-a Principle of conservation of matter (continuity)

2-b momentum principle (in case all external forces are known)
Continuity Principle
In open channel flow the continuity principle for a constant discharge Q is:

A = the cross-sectional area in sections 1 and 2,

= the mean velocity in sections 1 and 2
If the mean velocity remains constant (V1 = V2) then the cross-sectional area A (A = Q/V)
remains constant. The open channel has a prismatic cross -section. This means for uniform
flow a constant water depth in all section. Uniform flow is a result from an exact balance
between the force of gravity and the frictional resistance.
Application of the continuity principle to unsteady, open channel flow is more difficult. In
unsteady open channel flow the water surface will change over a certain distance
and during a certain time .
During : Inflow-Outflow = Storage
As the velocity and the discharge will change over a distance.
The discharge Q will vary with time t and with the distance along the canal.
If y is the water depth and B s the width at the water surface, then the increase of volume
between the sections 1 and 2 during time
The two terms derived are equal in magnitude, but different in sign:
This is the equation of continuity for unsteady open channel flow.
Energy Principle

The energy equation and the momentum equation are used in addition to the continuity
equation in analyzing fluid-flow situations. They are both derived from Newton’s second law
of motion. In this section, the force components on a fluid particle in the direction of its
motion are equated to the product of mass of the particle and acceleration along the
streamline. The equation is obtained in differential form and requires the assumption of a
frictionless fluid and steady flow. The equation may then be integrated for particular
assumptions regarding the relation between density and pressure to obtain the energy
equation.
Figure 2-5 Force components on a fluid particle in the direction of streamline.
In figure 2-3 let S be a streamline in steady flow, and consider the forces acting on a fluid
particle in the direction S of the streamline. The element has a prismatic cross-sectional area
A and length s – a frictionless fluid is assumed in order to eliminate all shear in the fluid
(i.e. ideal flow is assumed instead of real flow). On the upstream end the element the force is
PA, in which P is the pressure intensity at the center of the face. The force on the
downstream end of the element is :-
and acts in the negative direction. Any forces acting on the sides of the element are normal
too the streamline do not enter the equation. The only other force acting is due to gravity and
is AS, acting vertically down ward. The component in the S-direction is: -AS Cos .
By substituting in to .
After dividing through by the weight of the element  AS and simplifying.

Z is the increase in elevation for a displacement S along the stream line and from Figure 2-
3.
The acceleration as is To keep this expression simple, the assumption of steady flow is
introduced, so that V is a function of S only along a streamline. Writing,
as the velocity along the streamline is . The equation becomes.
By multiplying the above equation trough by g and with the additional assumption that the
fluid is incompressible (i.e. assuming a constant density in time and space) and integrating
with respect to S.
constant. Equation 2-5
This is Energy equation (Bernoulli’s Equation) for steady flow of a frictionless,

incompressible fluid along a streamline. It states that energy per unit mass of a flowing fluid
is constant, the dimensions for this equation are , i.e. energy per unit mass.
Potential energy = mgZ  gZ is potential energy per unit mass.

Kinetic Energy is kinetic energy per unit mass.
Work/Energy = F.S =
We can represent he unit mass as: unit mass =
Therefore, Pressure Energy per unit mass =
By dividing equation 2-1 through by g we get on expression for energy per unit weight, or
more simply, meters. This expression is particularly convenient form to apply to situations
with free liquid surface, i.e. open channel flows.

For open channel section with steady flow and straight and parallel streamlines, there is no
centripetal acceleration, i.e. where the hydrostatic pressure distribution holds true, the
pressure head lies in the water surface.
- For channel with large slope

and
- For channel with small slope

Substituting for channel of large slope the total energy may be written as
In general, every streamline passing through a channel section will have a different velocity
head, owing to the non-uniform velocity distribution in actual flow. Only in an ideal parallel
flow of uniform velocity distribution can the velocity head be truly identical for all points on
the cross-section. In the case of gradually varied flow, however, it may be assumed, for
practical purposes, that the velocity heads for all points on the channel section are equal, and
energy coefficient (Coriolis Coefficient ) may be used to correct for the over all effect of the
non-uniform velocity distribution. Thus, the total energy, equation at a channel section takes
the form
According to this equation (the principle of conservation of energy), the total energy head at
upstream section 1 should be equal to the total energy head at downstream section 2 plus the
loss of energy hf between the two section ; or
This equation applies to parallel or gradually varied flow. Consider now a prismatic channel.
The line representing the elevation of the total head of flow is the energy line. The slope of
the line is known as the energy gradient, denoted by Sf. The slope of the water surface is
denoted by Sw and the slope of the channel bottom by S o = tan . In uniform flow, Sf = Sw =
So = tan .

Figure 2-6 Energy in gradually varied open channel flow
Specific Energy and Critical Depth
The “Specific energy” is the average energy per unit weight of water with respect to the
channel bottom. The piezometric head related to the bottom is (with Z = 0)
which is the water depth. Therefore, the specific energy is the sum of the water-depth (y) and
the velocity head, if the streamlines are straight and parallel.
For a given section and constant discharge (Q), the specific energy is a function of water-
depth only, since .
When the depth of flow is plotted against the specific energy for a given channel section and
discharge, a specific-energy curve is obtained (figure2-3).

Figure 2-7 Specific Energy Curve
This curve has to limbs AC and BC. The limb AC approaches the horizontal axis
asymptotically towards the right. The limb BC approaches the line OD as it extends upward
and to the right. Line OD is a line that passes through the origin and has an angle of
inclination equal to 45o. At any point P on this curve, the ordinate represents the depth, and
the abscissa represents the specific energy. Which is equal to the sum of the pressure head y
and the velocity head
The curve shows that for a certain discharge Q two flow regimes are possible, viz. slow and
deep flow or a fast and shallow flow, i.e. for a given specific energy, there are two possible
depths, for instance, the low stage y. and the high stage y 2. The low stage is called the
alternate depth of the high stage, and vice versa. At pint C, the specific energy is minimum. It
can be proved that this condition of minimum specific energy corresponds to the critical state
of flow. Thus, at the critical state the two alternate depths apparently become one, which is
known as the critical depth (YC). When the depth of flow is greater than the critical depth, the
velocity of flow is less than the critical velocity for the given discharge, and, hence, the flow
is sub critical. When the depth of flow is less than critical depth the flow is supercritical.
Hence, Y1, is the depth of a supercritical flow, and Y2 is the depth of a sub critical flow.
If the discharge changes, the specific energy will be changed accordingly. The two curves
A’B’ and A”B” (Figure 2-3) represent positions of the specific energy curve when the
discharge is less and greater, respectively than the discharge used for the construction of the
curve AB.
The critical state of Flow

The critical state of flow is defined as the state of flow at which the specific energy is a
minimum for a given discharge or it is the condition for which the Froude number (Fr 2) is
equal to unity.
For
Differentiating with respect to y and noting that Q is a constant.
The differential water area dA near the free surface (figure 2-5) is equal to Now
. and the hydraulic depth . So the above equation becomes.
But . Substituting
At the critical state of flow the specific energy is a minimum, or . The above
equation, therefore, gives.
This is the criterion for critical flow, which states that at critical state of flow, the velocity
head is equal to half the hydraulic depth. The above equation may also be written
which means Fr = 1; this is the definition of critical flow given previously.

Momentum Principle
The momentum equation is developed from Newtons second low of motion by summing up
the resultant force on a free body of fluid on one side of the equation and by developing the
other side of the equation into an equivalent expression in terms of rates of in flow and
outflow of momentum.
According to Newton's second law of motion the change of momentum (dmv) per unit time,
is equal to the resultant of all external forces acting on a body (body of water flow in a
channel in our case).
The momentum passing a section A per unit time (t = 1sec):
mv = * (A. V) V
dt
v
A
Where, A*V represent the volume passing per unit time.
mv = QV
Or including the momentum coefficient (Boussinesq coefficient)
mv =  *  * Q * v
mv =  *  *
Within the control volume defined in the figure there is an unknown energy loss and/or force
acting on the flow between section 1 and 2; the result is a change in the linear momentum of
the flow. In many cases, this change in momentum is accompanied by a change in depth of
flow. The application of Newton's second law, in a one dimensional flow to the control
volume, i.e. equating the sum of all external forces (F) to the rate of change of momentum (
Q V) for any two cross-sections 1 and 2 gives:

Or including the momentum coefficient
Consider a channel section of mild slope and analyzes the forces acting.
F wsin
Ff F
W 
Thus, F =  (2v2 – 1v2) implies

F = F1 –F2 + w sin  - Ff =  (2 v2 - 1v1)
F1 and F2 are the resultant pressure forces acting on the two sections and w is the weight of
the water between the two sections. Ff is the total friction force acting along the surface of the
body. The slope is mild assume sin   So = 0
 W sin  = 0
and for a flow with parallel flow lines the pressure is assumed to be hydrostatic.
The force F1 is gAy+, where A is the cross- sectional area and of y + the depth of the center
of gravity of the area A (the depth of centroid of the cross sectional area measured below the
surface of flow) . For rectangular section of small slope
F = g by (½y) (y+ = ½ y)
(Remark for canals with large slope F = g bdcos  ½ dcos  = ½ g bd 2 cos2)
Therefore, substituting
W sin  = o
F1 = g A1y1+
F2 = gA2y2+
F1 – F2 + w sin - Ff =  (2v2 - 1v1)
 g A1y1+ - g A2 y2+ - Ff = Q (2v2 - 1 v1)
 - Ff = g A2y2+ - g A1y1+ Q2

 - Ff = g
The term between brackets is called the momentum function (M) or in general:
M = A y+ +
 = M1 – M2
For a given discharge Q, channel shape and coefficient  the function, M depends only on the
water depth y. Plotting M against ay gives a similar figure as for the specific energy Es
against depth y. This curve is called specific force curve. In the figure two regions can be
determined, namely sub and supercritical flow. For every M > M min two water –depths exist,
which are called the initial and sequent depth. Together they are the conjugate depths.
b
1
h
2
B
In applying the momentum principle to a short horizontal reach of a prismatic canal, the
external forces of friction and the weight effect of water can be ignored. Thus, with  = 0 and
Ff = 0 the equation becomes:
A1 y1+ + = A2 y2+ +

The momentum function M = y+A + consists of two terms. The second term is
the momentum of the flow passing through the channel section per unit time per unit weight
of water, and the first term (Ay+) is the force per unit weight of water. Since both terms are
essentially force per unit weight of water, their sum may be called the specific force.
Accordingly, it may be expressed as F1 = F2.
Thus, in analogy with the concept of specific energy) for a given value M, the M- y curve
predicts two possible depths of flow – conjugate depths of a hydraulic jump.
For a rectangular cross section y1 = ½ y. Assuming,  = 1 results in m = ½ Ay +
The function per unit width (b = 1) reads
M = ½ y2 +
The function has on extreme for :

Y3 =
Y = yc = =
for y = yc 
The minimum value of the specific momentum function can be found under the assumptions
of parallel flow and uniform velocity distribution by taking the first derivative of M with
respect to y and setting the resulting expression equal to zero or

Where d (y+A) = [A (y++dy) + Ady and where it is assumed that
(dy)2 = 0 – Then substituting dA/dy = Bs, v =
We get which is the same criterion developed for the minimum value of specific
force (momentum) occurs at minimum specific energy or critical depth.
The given number 3 is positive, so for momentum value for y =y c . It has to be noted that the
given relation for yc is only applicable for open rectangular (prismatic) channels.
For other cross sections the impulse momentum equation should be used
With these equation it is possible to compute one unknown among the four variables (F, Q,
A1 ,A2) for a given channel shape and 1 =2 = 1; (y+ is also a function of channel shape and
water level).
The impulse momentum principle also follows from Newton’s second law. The flow may be
compressible or incompressible, real (with friction) or ideal (frictionless), steady or unsteady
moreover, the equation is not only valid along a streamline. The advantage of the impulse
momentum principle is that only the conditions at the end sections of the control volume
govern the analysis. It has a special advantage for application to problems involving high
internal energy changes, such as the problem of the hydraulic jump. If the energy equation is
applied to such problems, the unknown internal energy loss represented by hf is
indeterminate, and the omission of this term would result in a considerable errors. If instead
the momentum equation is applied to these problems, since it deals only with external forces,
the effects of the internal forces, the effects of the internal forces will be entirely out of
consideration and need not be evaluated. The term for frictional losses due to external forces,
on the other hand, is unimportant in such problems and can safely be omitted, because the

phenomenon takes place in a short reach of the channel and the effect due to external forces
is negligible compared with the internal losses.

3. FLOW COMPUTATION FORMULAS

Critical flow
As described in chapter 2, the critical state of flow through a channel is characterized by
several important conditions.
Recapitulating:
1) The specific energy is a minimum for a given discharge,
2) The discharge is a maximum for a given specific energy,
3) The specific force is a minimum for a given discharge,
4) The velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth in a channel of small slope,
5) The Froude number is equal to unity,
6) The velocity of low in a channel of small slope with uniform velocity distribution is
equal to the celerity of small gravity waves in shallow water caused by local
disturbance.

Discussions on critical stage of flow have referred mainly to a particular section of a channel,
known as the critical section. If the critical state of flow exists throughout the entire length of
the channel or over a reach of the channel, the flow in the channel is critical flow. The slope
of a channel that sustains a given discharge at a uniform and critical depth is called the
critical slope (Sc). A slope of the channel less than the critical slope will cause a slower flow
of sub critical state for the given discharge, as will be shown later, and hence, is called a mild
or sub critical slope. A slope greater than the critical slope will result in a faster flow of
supercritical state, and is called a steep or supercritical slope.
A flow at or near the critical state is unstable. This is because a minor change in specific
energy at or close to critical state will cause a major change in depth. This fact can also be
recognized in the specific energy curve. It can be observed also that, which the flow is near
the critical state, the water surface appears unstable and wavy. Such phenomena are generally
caused by the minor changes in energy due to variations in channel roughness, cross-section,
slope or deposits of sediment or debris. In the design of channel, if the depth is found at or
near the critical depth for a greater length of the channel, the shape or slope of the channel
should be altered, if practicable, is order to secure greater stability.
The criterion for a critical state of flow
is the basis for the computation of critical flow. Two major applications of critical, flow
theory are flow control and flow measurement.
The section factor for critical flow computation
Take the criterion for a critical state of flow
Substituting v = Q/A gives
Equation 3-6
But Z = is defined in section 2.1 as the section factor for critical flow computation
(When is not assumed to be unity Z = )

The above equation stages that the section factor Z for a channel section at a critical state of
flow is equal to the discharge divided by the square root of g. Since the section factor Z is a
function of the depth, the equation indicates that there is only one possible critical depth for
maintaining the given discharge in a channel and similarly that, when the depth is fixed, there
can be only one discharge that maintains a critical flow and makes the depth critical in the
given channel section.
Equation 3.1is a very useful tool for the computation and analysis of critical flow in an open
channel. When the discharge is given, the equation gives the critical section factor Z c and,
hence the critical depth yc. On the other hand when the depth and, hence the section factor are
given, the critical discharge can be computed by the following form.
Q =
Q =
Computation of critical flow
Computation of critical flow involves the determination of critical depth and velocity (y c &
vc) when the discharge and the channel section are known. The methods illustrated by
examples are given below. On the other hand, if critical depth and channel section are
known, the critical discharge can be determined from the relation Q =
Algebraic method: For a simple geometric channel section, the critical flow can be
determined by an algebraic computation using the basic equations.
Example 5
For a trapezoidal channel with base width b = 6.0 m and side slope m = 2, calculate the
critical depth of flow if Q = 17 m3/s.
Solution
The criterion for critical state of flow is the basis for the computation of critical flow viz.

The hydraulic depth (D) and water area of the trapezoidal section are expressed in terms of
the depth y as
A = (b+ my) y = (6 +2 y)y

B2 = B + 2my = 6 + 4y
Substituting the above relations in gives
Simplifying,
7.4 (3+ 2y) = [(3+y) y]3
By trial and error, the critical depth is approximately,
yc = 0.84 m
and the corresponding critical velocity is
Vc =
Method of design chart: the design chart for determining the critical depth can be used with
great expediency. In developing a chart for this purpose, it is convenient to define the section
factor for critical flow computation as discussed before. Substituting V = is the criterion
for critical state of low yields after simplification
The left hand side of the above equation is by definition the section factor for critical flow Z,
and the right hand side of the equation is a function of only the channel shape and the depth
of flow. A design chart for the purpose of solving the critical depth problem is given is figure
.....
Example 6

A circular channel 0.91 m in diameter conveys a flow of 0.71 m 3/s; estimate the critical depth
of flow.
Solution
For complex designed sections which can not be treated by either the analytical method or
the design chart method, a graphical method may be used. This method is also applicable to
natural channels. In this procedure, a curve of yc versus Z is constructed such that for a
specific value of Z = the value of yc may be estimated.
Example 7
A trapezoidal channel with b = 6.0 m and m = 1.5 conveys a flow 17 m 3/s ; estimate the
critical depth of flow.
Solution
The first step in solving this problem is to construct a y versus Z curve (figure). The value of
the section factor is then computed from given data
Then from the figure yc = 0.85 m.
Yc

Z=
Control section (flow control)
The control of flow in an open channel or at a structure means the establishment of explicit
relationship (one to one relationship) between the stage (water level) and the discharge of
flow. When the control of flow is achieved at a certain section of a channel or structure, this
section is called the control section. Holding a fixed stage –discharge relationship, the control
section is always suitable for gauging station since it is always suitable site for developing
the discharge rating curve, a curve representing the depth – discharge relationship.
At critical state of flow a definitive stage discharge relationship can be established and
represented by t he equation Z = . This equation theoretically independent of the
channel roughness and other uncontrolled circumstances. Therefore, the critical flow section
is a control section.
Control sections occur at entrances and exists to channels and at changes in channels slopes,
under certain conditions. A gate in channel can be a control for both the upstream and
downstream reaches. When a flow changes from subcritical to super –critical conditions or
vice versa, the water depth must pass through the critical depth. The change from sub critical
to supercritical occurs in a control section. The change from super –critical to sub –critical is
only possible by means of a hydraulic jump.
A small change in downstream conditions (depth or discharge) of a flow will and cannot
change the upstream conditions when the upstream depth is critical or less than critical
(yupstream = < yc). In this case downstream conditions do not control the flow.
All super – critical (rapid) flows are controlled by upstream conditions and computations of
surface profiles start at the upstream end of a channel. However, sub –critical (or tranquil)
flows will be affected by small changes in downstream conditions and therefore the latter
controls these flows. Sub critical or tranquil flow computations start at the downstream end
of a reach and are carried out in an upstream direction.
If a flow over a spillway passes through critical stage at the channel, the depth can be
computed there fore a given discharge or the discharge can be found from the given
(measured) water depth. In case of steep channel the computation proceed in the downstream
direction.

A change in a channel slope from mild to steep causes the flow to pass through critical stage
at the beak in slope. Computation advance both upstream and downstream from the control
section at the break.
Example of a control section is for example a reservoir (pool) created by a dam and the
water flowing over the dam through an overflow spillway. Different flow conditions might
occur in the channel downstream of the spillway.
If the channel has a critical slope, then the flow is initially critical and remains critical
throughout the channel. In the proximity of the dam, however, the flow in the reservoir is sub
critical and the reservoir surface will approach the horizontal. At the downstream end of the
reservoir, near the spillway a so called drawdown curve will develop, extending in an
upstream direction, starting at a section near the spillway crest. The drawdown curve will be
asymptotic to the upstream reservoir level.
If the channel upstream of the spillway has a mild slope, the flow near the entrance is initially
subcritical. In the presence of the dam, the reservoir level will be raised for a long distance
(upstream from the spillway crest). The additional height in water level is required to build
up enough energy head, necessary to convey water over the spillway crest. This effect of
raising the water level upstream of s spillway is known as a backwater curve.
When in channel the bottom slope changes and the flow at that point alters from sub –critical
to super –critical, then the slope upstream of the break is mild, because the upstream flow is
sub critical and yn > yc. At the break the depth passes through critical depth. This point called
the control section since the depth at the break controls the upstream depth.
A similar situation occurs when water from a reservoir enters a canal in which t he uniform
depth is smaller than the critical depth (yn < yc). In this case the depth passes through critical
depth in the vicinity of the entrance. Once again, this section is the control section. By
measuring the depth at the control section, a reasonably accurate value of Q can be
computed.
Change from sub critical to supercritical flow at a change in slope
Another example where critical depth occurs is that of a free outfall with sub –critical flow
upstream of the outfall. Since friction produces a constant decrease in energy in the direction
of flow, it is clear that at the outfall the total energy is less than at any point upstream. As
critical depth is the value for which the specific energy is a minimum, one would expect
critical depth to occur at the outfall. However, the value for the critical depth is derived on
the assumption that the water is flowing in straight and parallel flow lines. However at the
free outfall gravity forces create curved streamlines. So that the depth at the brink (outfall) y b
is 0.72 *yc. Critical depth occurs somewhere upstream of the brink (between 3 y c and 10 yc).
For super –critical flow conditions; upstream of the outfall, on drop down curve develops.

Flow measurement
It was mentioned in the preceding article that, at a critical control section, the relationship
between the depth and the discharge is explicit, independent of channel roughness and other
uncontrollable circumstances such an explicit relationship between stage –discharge
relationship offers a theoretical basis for the measurement of discharge in open channels
Based on the principle of critical flow, various devices for flow measurement have been
developed. In such devices the critical depth is usually created by the construction of a low
hump on the channel bottom, such as a weir, or by contraction in the cross- section, such as a
critical flow flume. (venturi flume) (Example, par shall flume). The use of a weir i. a simple
method, but it causes relatively high head loss. If water contains suspended particles, some
will be deposited in the upstream pool formed by the weir, resulting in a gradual change in
discharge coefficient. These difficulties, however, can be overcome at least partially by the
use of critical -flow flume.

Example 8
Derive an equation showing critical discharge through a rectangular channel section in terms
of the channel width and the total heads.
Solution
- For the rectangular section
- At critical state of flow the depth
But yc = 2/3 H
Replacing
Q –=weir
- Broad –crested 1.7 B.H 3/2
Figure 3-8 Curve for Determining Critical Depth


Uniform flow
Uniform flow in open channels has the following main characteristics
a. the depth, water area, velocity, and discharge at every section of the channel are
constant;
b. the energy line, water surface, and channel bottom are all parallel; i.e. their slopes are
all equal Sf = Sw = So
Uniform flow is considered to be steady only, since unsteady uniform flow is practically
nonexistent. In natural streams, even steady uniform flow is rare, for rivers and streams in
natural states scarcely ever experience a strict uniform flow condition. Despite this deviation
from the truth, the uniform flow condition is frequently assumed in the computation of flow
in natural streams. The results obtained from this assumption are understood to be
approximate and general, but they offer a relatively simple and satisfactory solution to many
practical problems.
Establishment of uniform flow
When flow occurs in an open channel, the water encounters resistance as it flows
downstream.
This resistance is generally counteracted by the components of gravity forces acting on the
body of the water in the direction of motion. A uniform flow will be developed if the
resistance is balanced by the gravity forces, i.e., the head loss due to turbulent flow is exactly
balanced by the reduction in potential energy due to the uniform decrease in the elevation of
the channel. The magnitude of the resistance, when other physical factors of the channel are
kept unchanged, depends on the velocity of flow.
If the water enters the channel slowly, the velocity and hence the resistance are small and the
resistance is outbalanced by the gravity forces, resulting in an accelerating flow in the
upstream reach. The velocity and the resistance will gradually increase until a balance
between resistance and gravity force is reached. At this moment and afterwards the flow
become uniform. The upstream reach that is required for the establishment of uniform flow is
known as the transitory zone. In this zone the flow is accelerating and varied. If the channel
is shorter than the transitory length required by the given conditions, uniform flow couldn't
be attained. Towards the end of the channel the resistance may again be exceeded by the
gravity forces and the flow may become varied. In general, uniform flow can occur only in
very long, straight, prismatic channels where a terminal velocity of flow can be achieved.
Figure 3-9 Establishment of uniform flow in longitudinal channel

For purposes of explanation, a long channel is shown with three different slopes (figures
given during your lecture or refer Ven Te Chow) : sub critical, critical and supercritical. At
the sub critical slope the water surface in the transitory zone appears adulatory. The flow is
uniform in the middle reach of the channel but varied at the two ends. At the critical slope
(middle sketch) the water surface of the critical flow is unstable. Possible undulations may
occur in the middle reach, but on the average the depth is constant and the flow may be
considered uniform. At the supercritical slope the transitory water surface passes from the
sub critical stage to the supercritical stage through a gradual hydraulic drop. Beyond the
transitory zone the flow is approaching uniformity. The depth of uniform flow is called the
normal depth. In the figures the long dashed lines represents the normal- depth line,
abbreviated as N. D. L, and the short dashed or dotted lines represents the critical –depth line,
or C. D .L.
Computation of Uniform flow
For computational purposes, the average velocity of a uniform flow can be computed
approximately by one of a number of semi empirical uniform flow equations. All of these
equations have the form
V = CRx Sy
Where
V = average velocity
R = hydraulic radius
S = channel longitudinal slope
C = resistance coefficient
X and y coefficients
The popular two equations are the Chezy equation, developed in 1769, and the Manning
equation, developed in 1889.
The chezy equation can be derived from the definition of uniform flow with an assumption
regarding the form of the flow resistance coefficient, with reference to the figure below, the
definition of uniform flow requires that the forces resisting flow exactly equal the forces
causing motion. The force causing motion is
Figure 3-10 Forces on a column of flowing water
F = W sin =  A L sin 

Where: W = weight of third within control volume

R = third specific weight (98)
L = control volume length
 = Longitudinal slope angle of a channel.
If  is small, which is usually the case, then sin   S0. Thus
F = AL So = gAL S0
For a reach of length L with a wetted perimeter p, the force of resistance is
Ff =  * P * L
Equating F = Ff
 * P * L = g AL So
 is shear stress along the perimeter, if we let shear velocity V * = the above
equation implies.

=  V*2
V* is known as shear velocity.
From experiments it is shown that the force per unit area of the channel perimeter resisting
motion. Ff, is proportional to the square of the average velocity or
Ff  V2
Therefore, for a reach of length L with a wetted perimeter P, the force of resistance can also
be written as
Ff = KLPV2
Where K = constant of proportionality. Setting the force casing motion equal to the force
resisting motion, i.e. F = Ff.

Where the subscript associated with s has been dropped. For convenience define.
C =
The resistance coefficient, c, defined as is commonly known as the Chezy C and in

practice is determined by either measurement or estimate. The coefficient of resistance
defined by the above equation is not dimensionless but has dimensions of acceleration; i.e.
length /time2 or LT-2.
Substituting this gives the famous Chezy Formula
V = C
Where V is the mean velocity is m/s, R is the hydraulic radius in m, S is the slope of energy
line (m/m), and C is a factor of flow resistance, called Chezy’s C.
The Manning equation is the result of a curve fitting process and thus is completely empirical
in nature. In application of the Manning equation, it is essential that the system of units being
used be identified and that the appropriate coefficient be used. In the SI system of units, the
Manning equation is
V = 1/n R2/3
Where n = Manning resistance coefficient. As was the case with the chezy resistance
coefficient, n is not dimensionless but has dimensions of TL-1/3 or in the specific case of the
equation above S/m1/3.

From the viewpoint of modern fluid mechanics, the dimensions of the resistance coefficients
C and  and to take these dimensions into account where appropriate.
Since the chezy and Manning equations describe the same phenomena, the coefficients C and
n must be related setting equation (*) is equal to equation (**), i.e Vchezy = VManning yields.
C = 1/n R1/6
Calculation of Normal Depth and Velocity
From the previous section:


The Manning equation gives V = 1/n R2/3 S1/2

The Chezy equation gives V =
and by law of conservation of mass this equations, when multiplied by the flow area, yields
an equation for uniform flow rate or

Manning Q = 1/n AR2/3S1/2

Chezy Q = C AR1/2 S1/2
In Manning equation the parameter 1/n AR 2/3 and in the Chezy equation the parameters
CAR1/2 are called the conveyance of a channel section. It is measure of the carrying capacity
of a channel section; since it is directly proportional to Q.
 Manning K = 1/n AR2/3 =
 Chezy K = CAR1/2 =
The above two equations are used to compute the conveyance when the geometry of the
water area and the resistance factor or roughness coefficient are given. Since Manning
formula is used extensively, most of the following discussions and computations will be
based on Manning’s equation.
Conveyance of a channel section increases with in increase in hydraulic Radius R or with

decrease in the wetted perimeter.
K  R  1/P Q = 1/n AR2/3 S1/2

Q = 1/n K S1/2
From a hydraulic viewpoint, therefore, the channel section having the least wetted perimeter
for a given area has a maximum conveyance; such a section is known as
the best hydraulic section.

In Manning’s equation the parameter AR2/3 is termed as the section factor for uniform flow
computation; it is an important element in the computation of uniform flow. From Manning’s
equation
AR2/3 =
The right side of the equation contains the values of n, Q, and S; but the left side depends
only on the geometry of the water area. Therefore, it shows that, for a given condition of n,
Q, and S, there is only one possible depth for maintaining uniform flow, provided that the
value of AR2/3 always increases with increase in depth, which is true in most cases. This
depth is the normal depth. When n and S are known at a channel section, from the equation
there can be only one discharge for maintaining a uniform flow through the section, provided
that AR2/3 always increases with increase of depth. This discharge is the normal discharge.
When the discharge, slope, and roughness are known, this equation gives the section factor
AR2/3 and hence, the normal depth yn. On the other land, when n, s and y n, hence the section
factor are given, the normal discharge Q can be computed from
Q = 1/nAR2/3 S1/2
This essentially the product of the water area and the velocity defined by the Manning
formula.
In general, the most difficult and tedious normal flow calculation occurs when Q, the shape
of the channel, bottom slope and n are known and y n must be estimated. In such cases, an
explicit solution is not possible and problem must be solved by
 Trial and error (Algebric method)

 Numerical method (using computer)
 Design chart (using graph)
In order to simplify the computation, dimensionless curves showing the relation between
depth and section factor AR2/3 have been prepared for rectangular, trapezoidal, and circular
channel sections. This self explanatory curves will help to determine the depth for a given
section factor AR2/3, and the vice versa.
In the case of a closed conduit having a gradually closing top, the value of AR 2/3 will first
increase with depth and then decrease with depth when the full depth is approached, because

a maximum value of AR2/3 usually occurs in such a condition at a depth slightly less than the
full depth. Consequently, it is possible to have two depths for the same AR2/3.
Example 9
Given a trapezoidal channel with a bottom width of 3m, side slope 1.5, a longitudinal slope
of 0.0016 and estimated on of 0.13, find the normal depth of flow for a discharge of 7.1m3/5.
Solution:
With
Then the following table in constructed by assuming values of y and computing

corresponding values of AR2/3 matches the value computed from the problem statement, the
corrected value of yn has been determined
Trial y, m A, m2 Pm R, m AR2/3
2.50 16.88 12.01 1.40 21.16

2.55 17.4 12.19 1.43 22.06
2.6 17.94 12.37 1.45 22.98
2.61 18.0 12.39 1.45 23.08
2.70 19.04 12.73 1.49 24.08
Resistance Coefficient Estimation
The primary difficulty in using either the Manning or Chezy equation in practice is
accurately estimating an appropriate value of the resistance coefficient. In general, it is
expected that n and c should depend on the Reynolds number, of the flow (Reynolds number
reflect the effect of viscosity in relation to inertia), the boundary roughness, and the shape of
the channel cross-section.

4. GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW (GVF)
In uniform flow the cross section through which water flows remains constant. Also the
velocity remains the same, in magnitude and direction. In varied flow the cross section
changes in the flow direction, the water depth changes along the length of the channel.
Varied flow may be either steady or unsteady. Since unsteady uniform flow is rare, the term
"unsteady flow” is used for unsteady varied flow exclusively. Varied flow may be further
classified as either rapidly or gradually varied.
The flow is rapidly varied if the depth changes abruptly over a comparatively short distance;
otherwise, it is gradually varied. A rapidly varied flow is also known as local phenomenon
examples are the hydraulic jump and the hydraulic drop.
Gradually varied flow is a steady flow, whose depth varies gradually along the channel. This
means that 3 conditions are met.
 The hydraulic flow characteristics remain constant in time;

 The streamlines are practically parallel meaning the hydrostatic pressure prevails,
 Bed friction is assumed to be equal to the friction in uniform flow (Manning, chezy).
Also, the uniform- flow formula may be used to evaluate the energy slope of GVF at a
given channel section.
Therefore, when the depth of flow in an open channel flow varies with longitudinal distance,
the flow is termed as gradually varied. Such situations are found both upstream and
downstream of control sections. In this chapter the theory and analysis of gradually varied
flow are considered.
General Equation for Gradually varied flow
The main forces involved in open channel flow are inertia, gravity, hydrostatic force due to
change in depth and friction. The first three forces represent the kinetic and potential energy,
while the forth dissipates useful energy into the useless kinetic energy of turbulence and
eventually into heat due to action of viscosity. The total energy of an elementary volume of
water is given as:
E = Z + Y +
Where:
Z + Y is the potential energy head above a datum

is the kinetic energy head (v = mean velocity in the section).

Each term of the equation represents energy. The gradually varied flow equation is derived
by assuming that for gradually varied flow the change in energy with distance is equal to the
friction loss. For the general equation other losses than friction, like eddy, bend and/or bridge
losses are not included.
Therefore, at any section, the total energy is
E =Z+Y+
Where y = dept of flow, Z = elevation of the channel bottom above a datum and assuming 
= 1 and cos = 1 (slope channel is small sin So). Differentiating this equation with
respect to the longitudinal distance x yields:
The term is the change of energy with longitudinal distance or the friction slope.
Define,
It should be noted that the friction loss dE is always a negative quantity in the direction of
flow (unless outside energy is added)
The term is the change of elevation of the bottom of the channel with respect to distance
or the bottom slope.
Define,
It should be noted that the slope is defined as the sine of the slope angle and that it is
assumed positive if it descends in the direction of flow and negative if it ascends. But the
change in the bottom elevation dZ is a negative quantity where the slope descends. Thus, the
slope of the channel bottom So = sin  = -
For a given flow rate Q, the term becomes

Substituting, in
This equation is called the general equation of gradually varied flow (also known as dynamic
equation of GVF). It describes the variation of the depth of flow in a channel of arbitrary
shape as a function of So, Sf and Fr2. Sf represents the slope of the energy line For
uniform flow the bed slope (So) and the friction slope (Sf) are parallel. The friction slope (Sf)
for non-uniform, gradually varied flow is not parallel to the bottom slope, but is evaluated
using Manning’s the Chezy’s (Colebrook–white) equation. There is no general explicit
solution (although particular solutions are available for prismatic channels). Numerical
methods are normally used.
Note that
The later is derived as:

E = Z+Y+

But
The slope of the water surface is equal to the bottom slope S o of , Sw < So if is
positive, and greater than So if is negative. In other words, the water surface is parallel
to the channel bottom when , rising when is positive, and lowering when is
negative.
The term, Sf in the general GVF equation represents the energy slope. According to our
initial assumption, this slope at a channel section of GVF is equal to the energy slope of the
uniform flow that has the velocity and hydraulic radius of the section. When Manning’s
formula is used .
Sf =
When the Chezy formula is used
Sf =
For uniform flow (So = Sf)
Yn – normal or equilibrium depth
This general equation for GVF can also be driven as:

but
Substituting ,
But Assuming there is no inflow and outflow across the reach ,
Putting back 2g (i. e dividing by 2g)
Classification of Flow Profiles

Surface profiles for gradually varied flow conditions in wide rectangular channels are
analyzed by using the expression:
The term dy/dx represents the slope of the water surface relative to the channel bottom. If
dy/dx is positive, the depth is increasing in downstream direction (x). When the channel
bottom is going down in the direction of flow, S o is positive. Similarly Sf in downstream
direction is always positive; the energy is decreasing in downstream direction. For uniform
flow Sf = So, which means dy/dx is zero and the water surface parallel to the bottom.
For a given discharge Q, Sf and Fr2 are functions of depth (y) only, e.g.
Both parameters decrease with increasing A and hence increasing y; S f = So when y = yo

(uniform flow).
Hence:
Sf > So When y < yo Fr2 > 1 when y < yc
Sr < So when y > yo Fr2 < 1 when y > yc
These inequalities are used to find the sign of dy/dx for any condition. For gradually varied
flow the surface profile may occupy 3 regions and the sign of dy/dx is found for each region.
The profiles of the water surface depend on:
a. Bed slope
Horizontal slope So = 0 Type H
Mild slope 0 < So < Sc Type M
Critical slope So = Sc Type C
Steep slope So > Sc Type S
Adverse slope (negative) So < 0 Type A or N
b. Depth range
Region 1 y > yn and y > yc
Region 2 yn < y < yc
Region3 y < yn and y < yc
Letter Type of bottom Characteristics

slope
S Steep So > Sc
C Critical So = Sc
M Mild 0 < So <Sc
H Horizontal So = 0
A Adverse So < 0
The common classification of varied flow consists of 12 classes.
Classification of varied flow profiles

S1 C1 M1 - -
S2 - M2 H2 A2
S3 C3 M3 H3 A3
The classification is based on the relationship between the actual water depth and the normal
water depth (if existing) and the critical water depth.
Some frequent encountered curves are:
M1: The back water curve upstream of a dam or a gate. At the dam the water depth is given
and y > yn and y > yc. Also is given a mild slope (M), which means yn > yc. The flow is
sub–critical and dy/dx is positive, the water depth y increases in the downstream
direction; or the water depth decreases in an upstream direction.
M2: The draw–down curve, for example above a transition from a mild slope to a less
mild.
M3: Supercritical flow downstream of a gate of weir. The transition of M3 to M2 or to M1

gives a hydraulic jump (from super to sub critical flow). The slope is mild (yn > yc) and
yn > yc > y. The flow is super–critical and dy/dx is positive, the water depth y increases
in the downstream direction; or the water depth decreases in an upstream direction.
C3 : If a channel has a critical slope, then the flow is initially critical and remains critical
throughout the channel. In the proximity of a dam or a gate, however, the flow in
upstream of the dam or gate is sub–critical and the water surface will approach the
horizontal.
Another example of a flow profile is that of a free outfall, where critical depth occurs and
with sub–critical flow upstream of the outfall. Since friction produces a constant decrease in
energy in the direction of flow, it is clear that at the outfall the total energy is less than at any
point upstream. As critical depth is the value for which the specific energy is a minimum, one
would expect critical depth to occur at the outfall. However, the value for the critical depth is
derived on the assumption that the water is flowing in straight and parallel flow lines.
However, at the free outfall gravity forces create curved streamlines, so that the depth at the
brink (outfall) yb is 0.72* yc. Critical depth occurs somewhere upstream of the brink (between
3yc and 10yc).
For super–critical flow conditions, upstream of the outfall, no drop–down curve develops.

A similar situation occurs when water from a reservoir enters a canal in which the uniform
depth is smaller than the critical depth (yn < yc). In this case the depth passes through critical
depth in the vicinity of the entrance. Once again, this section is the control section.
There are limiting conditions to surface profiles. For example, as y approaches yc, the
denominator approaches zero. Thus dy/dx becomes infinite and the curves will cross the
critical depth line perpendicular to it. Hence, surface profiles in the vicinity of y = y c are only
approximate. Similarly, when y approaches to yn, the numerator approaches to zero. Thus the
curves approach the normal depth, yn asymptotically.
Finally, as y approaches to zero, the surface profile approaches the channel bed
perpendicularly, which is impossible under the assumptions for gradually varied flow.
Summary of Flow Profiles
Backwater curve Uniform flow curve Draw–down curve
y > yn Sf < So So – Sf > 0 Gradually varied

y = yn Sf = So So – Sf = 0 Uniform flow
y < yn Sf > So So – Sf < 0 Gradually varied
y > yc Fr < 1 1 – Fr2 > 0 Sub –critical
y = yc Fr = 1 1 – Fr2 = 0 Critical
y < yc Fr > 1 1 – Fr2 0 Supercritical
y > yn y < yn
Water surface profiles y > yc y < yc y > yc y < yc
So – Sf + n.a. + -
1 – Fr 2
+ n.a. - -
yn > yc dy/dx + n.a. - +
type M1 n.a. M2 M3
So – Sf + n.a. n.a. -
yn = yc 1- Fr 2
+ n.a. n.a. -
dy/dx + n.a. n.a. +
type C1 n.a. n.a. C3
So – Sf + + n.a. -
yn < yc 1 – Fr2 + - n.a. -
dy/dx + - n.a. +
type S1 S2 n.a. S3
Remarks: + positive value; - negative; n.a. Doesn’t exist

Bottom Flow type Depth range of y,yc and yn Type of Flow type
slope 1 2 3 Region 1 Region 2 Region 3 curve
Steep S S1 y>yc>yn Backwater Sub-critical
So >Sc S2 Yc>y>yn Draw down Supercritical
Yn<yc S3 Yc >yn > y Backwater Supercritical
Critical C C1 Y > y c = yn Backwater Sub- critical
So = Sc C2 Yc =yn= yc Uniform Critical
yn = yc C3 Y < y c = yn Backwater Supercritical
Mild M M1 Y > y n > yc Backwater Sub- critical
0 < So < Sc M Yn >y >yc Draw down Sub-critical
yn > yc 2
M Yn > yc >y Backwater Supercritical
3
Horizontal n.a.
H H2 y> yc Draw down Sub-critical
So = 0 H3 Yc > y Backwater Supercritical
Yn = 
Adverse A n.a.
So < 0 A2 Y >yc Draw down Sub-critical
Yn = none A3 Yc > y Backwater Supercritical
Depth range
Region 1 Y > yn and y > yc
Region 2 Y n < y < yc
Region 3 Y < yn and y < yc


Figure Examples of Flow Profiles
Figure Flow Profiles in a closed conduit


GVF Computations
The direct step method (distance from depth)
The direct step method is a simple method applicable to prismatic channels. Depths of
flow are specified and the distances between successive depths are calculated. The
equation may be used to determine directly (with means explicit) the distance between
given differences of depth . The equation may be rewritten in finite difference form
as:
The equation can also be written as:
Es is the specific energy. In the computation S f is calculated for the depths y1 and y2 and
the average is taken, which is denoted by Sfm.
Figure

The hydraulic elements are independent of the distance along the (prismatic) channel. An
approximate analysis can be achieved by dividing the channel in a number of successive,
short reaches. For each of the reaches the water depth at the beginning can be estimated.
Next the length of reaches can be calculated (step by step) from one end of the reach to
the other end. The Chezy or Manning formula is applied to average conditions in each
reach to provide an estimate of S fm and So, with the depth and velocity at one end of the
reach given, the length can be computed.
Depths of flow are specified and the distances between successive depths are calculated.

For the computations are needed:

 Discharge Q
 Depth of flow y
 Area A
 Hydraulic radius R
 Roughness coefficient n or C
 Coefficient of Coriolis
For the given data, the computations are carried out in tables.
Graphical Integration
This method integrates the equation of gradually varied flow by a numerical procedure.
Consider two channel sections at distance x1 and x2 and with corresponding depths of
flow y1 and y2. The distance along the channel is X. If a graph of y against f(y) is plotted,
then the area under the curve is equivalent to X. The value of the function f(y) may be
found by substitution of A, P, So and Sf for various values of y and for a given Q. Hence,
the distance X between the given depths (y 1 and y2) may be calculated (numerical
integration) or measured (graphical integration).this numerical/graphical method gives
the distance from depth.
Fig

By this method the larges errors are found in the area with the strongest curvature. This is
the region near the control point(s). The accuracy can be improved by varying the steps
as a function of the curvature. This method has broad application. It applies to flow
in prismatic as well as non-prismatic channels of any shape and slope. The procedure is
straightforward and easy to follow. It may become very laborious when applied to actual
field problems.
Standard step method
The standard step method is carried out step by step from station to station. The distance
between the stations is given, and the procedure is to determine the depth of flow at he
stations. As mentioned in chapter 5.6 the computation procedure is usually carried out by
trial and error.
For the computation are needed:

1. Discharge Q
2. length of the reach ?
3. Area A as function of y
4. Hydraulic radius R as function of y
5. Roughness coefficient ( n or C)
6. Corilois coefficient 
The total heads at the two end sections are:

1. Prismatic Cannels

2.Natural Channels
Z = stage, level of water surface above datum in m

Compare E2-2 and E2-1; if the difference is not within prescribed limits (e.g. 0.01m),
Re-estimate Z2 and repeat until agreement is reached.
The computation of the flow profile by the standard step method is arranged in
tabular form .
Each column of the table is explained as follows:
1. The location of the stations is fixed.
2. Water-surface elevation Z at the station. A trial value is first entered in this
column; this will be verified or rejected on the basis of ht computations made in
the remaining columns of the table.
For the first step, this elevations must be given or assumed. In most cases the first
entry is known. After this value in the second step has been verified, it becomes
the basis for the verification the trial value in the next step, and so on
3. Depth of flow y corresponding to the water-surface elevation in col. 2. For
instance, the depth of flow y at the second station is equal to water-surface
elevation minus bottom elevation (distance form the first site times bed slope)
4. Water area A corresponding to y in col.3
5. Mean velocity v equal to the given discharge divided by the water area in col. 4
6. Velocity head in m, corresponding to the velocity col. 5
7. Total head E computed, equal to the sum of Z in col. 2 and the velocity head in
col. 6
8. Hydraulic radius R corresponding to y in col. 3
9. Friction slope Sf with n or C, V from col. 5 and R from col. 8

10. Average friction Sfm slope through the reach between the sections in each step,
approximately equal to the arithmetic mean of the friction slope just computed in
col. 9 and that of the previous step.
11. Length of the reach between the sections.
12. Friction loss in the reach, equal to the product of the values in cols. 10 and11.
13. Elevation of the total head E. this is computed by adding the values of h f (and hc if
calculated in a previous column) in col. 12 to the elevation at the lower end of the
reach, which is found in col. 13 of the previous reach.
If the value so obtained does not agree closely with that entered in col. 7, a new
trial value of the water-surface elevation is assumed, and so on, until agreement is
obtained. The value that leads to agreement is the correct water-surface elevation.
The computation may then proceed to the next step.
In the next examples the eddy losses in the reaches are equal to zero and
neglected in the calculations. If the eddy losses are not neglected an extra column
should be inserted between column 12 and 13

5. RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW (RVF)

5.1 Characteristics of RVF
 Pronounced curvature of streamlines.
Abrupt change of flow profile (virtually broken)
 Example: Hydraulic Jump
In view of contrast with GVF, the following characteristic features of RVF should be
noted.
o Pronounced curvature  hydrostatic pressure distribution can not be
assumed
o Rapid variation in flow regime takes place in a very short distance.
Effect of boundary friction, which would play a primary role in a GVF, is
comparatively small and in most cases insignificant.
o In RVF the velocity-distribution coefficients  and  are much greater than
unity and can not be accurately determined.
o Flow is actually confined by separation zones as well as solid boundaries.
(Because profiles could be broken).
5.2 Approach to the problem
The theory that assumes Parallel flow, Hydrostatic distribution of pressure

does not apply in RVF computation.
For RVF of continuous flow profile a mathematical equation of flow can be

established, based on an inviscid and potential flow condition.
Approach to the solution of such equation include
Graphical method (e.g. flow-net analysis)
Numerical method (e.g. method of relaxation)
Despite such developments, no satisfactory general solution has yet been

obtained
Practical Hydraulicians opt to treat Various RVF phenomena as isolate cases

each with its own semi-empirical/empirical treatment. In most cases the
experimental results are used empirically. The physical concepts of the
aspects of the flow will be interpreted qualitatively using energy principle,
momentum principle, geometry plus sometimes dimensional analysis.
Three isolated cases of RVF are discussed here. Viz.
- Flow over spillway
- Hydraulic jump

- Flow under gate
5.3 Flow over spillways
Spillway: is a structure over or through a dam for discharging flood flows; overflow channel;
opening built into a dam or the side of a reservoir to release (to spill) excess floodwater.
SHARP-CRESTED WEIR (SCW) VS BROAD CRESTED WEIR (BCW)
BCW
o Overflow structure with horizontal crest above which the deviation from a
hydrostatic pressure distribution because of centripetal acceleration may be
neglected.
 stream-lines are parallel and straight
o Criteria 0.5  H1/L0.07

- If 0.07 H1/L the energy loss above the crest can not be neglected
- 0.5  H1/L so that he hydrostatic pressure distribution can be assumed
Where L = length of the weir crest in the direction of flow, H 1 total energy head over the
weir crest.
SCW
- Overflow structure (H1/L > 15)
- The crest length in the direction of the flow is short enough not to influence
the H-Q relationship of a weir
- In practice, 0.002m L so that even at a minimum head of 0.03m the nappe is
completely free from the weir body after passing the weir  no adhered
nappe can occur
- An air pocket beneath the nappe form from which a quantity of air is removed
continuously by the over falling jet.
- Therefore, Precaution is required not to ensure that the pressure in the air
pocket is not reduced. Otherwise resulting undesirable effects:
 Owing to the increase of the under pressure the curvature of the over
falling jet will increase, causing increase of the discharge coefficient
 Irregular supply of air to the pocket will cause vibration of the jet
resulting an unsteady flow
- SCW is the simplest form of overflow spillway
- Motto:
 Spillways must discharge the peak flow under smallest possible head.
 Negative pressure on the crest must be limited to avoid danger of
cavitation on the crest or vibration of the structure.
 Theoretically, there should be atmospheric pressure on the crest

Round-Crested overflow spillway

 Designed in conformity with the shape of the low surface of the flow
nappe over a sharp-crested weir
 shape of the flow-nappe is interpreted by the principle of the projectile

Derivation of Nappe Profile over Sharp Crested Weir by the Principle of Projectile.
- Let Vo = the velocity at pt-x = 0,  is angle of inclination of the velocity Vo

with the horizontal
- Horizontal velocity = Vo Cos  - constant and the only force acting on the
nappe is gravity.
 Horizontal distance traveled is time t

X = Vo t Cos , V= (1)
 In same time t, the particle will travel a vertical distance y (taking y is positive
downward)
(2)
 Move the origin up so that it coincides with the peak.
 Eliminating t from 1 & 2, from 1
 Dividing each term by the total head H above the crest

 Let A = , B= - tan, &
= General equation for the lower surface of the nappe in

dimension less term
 Since the horizontal velocity component is constant, the vertical thickness of the
nappe T may be assumed constant and
 Adding a term to the above equation the general equation for the upper
surface of the nappe is
 These equations are quadratic hence, the nappe Surfaces are theoretically parabolic.
 Several experimental studies on the nappe over a sharp-crested weir have been made.
- Reputed works has been done by US Bureau of Reclamation; they developed
the following equations for the constants in the general nappe equations.
A = - 0.425 + 0.25
B = 0.411 - 1.603 -
C = 0.150 – 0.45
D = 0.57 – 0.02 (10m)2 exp (10m)
Where:
hv = the velocity head of the approach flow
m= - 0.208
 For high weirs, the velocity of approach is relatively small and can be ignored (hv  0)
A = 0.425
B = 0.055
C = 0.150
D = 0.559
 Experimental data have indicated that these equations are not valid When,
< 0.5 and that > 0.2
i.e., Additional data for verification are required
For < 0.5, The pressure with in the nappe in the Vicinity of the weir crest is > Patm
because of the convergence of the streamlines. Consequently, forces other than gravity are
acting on the nappe, which makes the principle of the projectile invalid.

N.B: The above theory and equations apply only if the approach flow is sub critical. For
Supercritical flow, or Fr < 1, the nappe profile becomes essentially a function of the Froude
number rather than a function of the boundary geometry as described above.
Discharge of Sharp Crested weir
 Discharge formula over sharp-crested weir can be expressed in the general form as:
Where C = discharge Coefficient.

L = effective length of the weir crest
H = is the measured head above the crest; excluding velocity head
 Effective length may be computed as
L = L' - 0.1NH
Where L’ = is the measured length of the crest

N = number of contractions (Eg. piers for gates)
N = 2 for two end contractions
N = 1 for one end contraction
N = 0 for no contraction
 According to a well-known Rehbock formula
C = 3.27 + 0.40
Where h – is the height of weir.
N.B - This equation holds up to = 5 but can be extended to = 10 with fair
approximation.
- For > 15 the weir becomes a sill, and a critical section immediately upstream
from the sill controls the discharge. The critical depth of the section is
approximately equal to H+h. By the critical depth – discharge relationship, it can be
shown that the coefficient C is: -
C = 5.68
 The transition between weir and sill (between = 10 & 15), however, has not yet
been clearly defined.
 Experiments have shown that the coefficient C remains approximately constant for
sharp-crested weir under varying heads if the nappe is aerated.
Weir: Low river dam used to raise the upstream water level, built across a stream to
control raise or diver) the flow of water. Measuring weirs are across a stream
for the purpose of measuring the flow.
Sill: horizontal overflow section of an irrigation check or measuring structure also

used for under water of structure across a river or canal.
Aeration of the Nappe
 In the preceding discussion the over falling nappe is considered aerated; i.e., The upper
and lower nappe surfaces are subject to full atmospheric pressure.
 In practice, usually insufficient aeration below the nappe occurs due to removal of air by
over falling jet.
 Effects of reduction of pressure
- Increase in pressure difference on the spillway itself
- Change in the shape of the nappe for which the spillway crest is designed
- Increase in discharge, sometimes accompanied by fluctuation or pulsation of
the nappe, which may be very objectionable if the weir or spillway is used for
measuring purposes.
- Unstable performance of the hydraulic model
Crest Shape of Overflow Spillways
 Earliest shapes were based on a simple parabola designed to fit the trajectory of the
falling nappe (the equation for the lower surface of the nappe).
 Bazin’s made comprehensive laboratory investigation for nappe shapes. the used of
Bazin’s data in design will produce a crest shape that coincides with lower surface of as
aerated nappe over a sharp-crested weir.
 Such a profile is known as Bazin profile Advantage
- Should couse no negative pressure on the crest (the presence of negative
pressure will lead to danger of cavitation damage).
- In selecting a suitable profile avoidance of negative pressure should be
considered an objective, along with such other factors as maximum hydraulic
efficiency, practicability, stability & economy.
 Extensive experiments on the shape of the nappe over-sharp crested weir were conducted
by U. S Bureau of Reclamation; including Bazin’s, The Bureau has developed coordinates
of the nappe surface for various slope faced weirs.
 On the basis of the Bureau data, The U.S Army. Corps of Engineers has developed
several standard shapes at its Waterways Experimental Station. Such shapes designed as
the WES standard spillway shapes, can be expressed by the following equation:-
Where
- X and Y are Coordinates of the crest profile with the origin at the highest
point of the crest.
- Hd is the design head excluding the velocity head of the approach flow

- K & n are parameters depending on the slope of the upstream face. values of k
& N are given as flows
Slope of upstream face k n

Vertical 2.000 1.850
3 pm 1 (V = H) 1.936 1.836
3 on 2 1.939 1.810
3 on 3 1.873 1.776
 For intermediate slopes: approximate value of k and n may be obtained by plotting the
above values against the corresponding slopes and interpolating from the plot the required
values for any given slope within the plotted range.
The upstream face of the spillway crest may some times be designed to set back, as shown in
the figures.
Discharge of WES Spillway
 The discharge over a spillway can be computed by an equation in the form of

SCW/BCW
Q = CLHe1.5
He the total energy head on the crest, including the velocity head in the approach canal.
 The effect of the approach velocity is negligible when height h of the spillway is
greater than 1.33Hd (h > 1.33 Hd), where the design head exclude the approach velocity
head.
 Under this condition, i.e. h/Hd > 1.33, He = Hd can be taken (the approach velocity
head is negligible) and the coefficient of discharge C has been found to be C = 2.21 (if is
in ft C He = 4.03)


 shown by the dashed lines
Hydraulic Jump
The theory of jump developed is for horizontal or slightly inclined channels in which the
weight of water in the jump has little effect upon the jump behavior and hence is ignored in
the analyses. The results thus obtained however can be applied to most channels encountered
in engineering problems.
For channels of large slope, the weight effect of water in the jump may become so
pronounced that it must be included in the analysis.
Practical Applications
- To dissipate energy in water flowing over a dam, weir and other hydraulic structure
and thus prevent scouring d/s from the structure.
- To recover head or raise the water level on the d/s side of a measuring flume and thus
maintains high water level in the channel for water distribution purposes.
- To increase weight on the apron and reduce uplift pressure by raising the water depth
on the apron.
- To increase the discharge of a sluice gate by holding sack tail water, thus preventing
drawn jump.
- To mix chemical used for water purification.
- To aerate water for city water supplies
Jump in Horizontal Rectangular channel
For supercritical flow in a horizontal rectangular channel, the energy of flow is dissipated
through frictional resistance along the channel, resulting in a decrease in velocity and an
increase in depth in the direction of flow.
A hydraulic jump will form in the channel if the Frond Number F r1 of the flow, the flow
depth y1, and a drown stream depth y2 satisfy the following equation:
This has been verified with experiments
Types of Jump
Hydraulic Jumps on horizontal floor are of several distinct types. They can be conveniently
classified according to Froud Number Fr1 of the incoming flow as follows.
 Fr1 =1 critical flow no jump can form

 1< Fr1 < 1.7 the water surface shows undulation (undular jump)
 1.7 < Fr1 < 2.5 a series of small rollers develop on the surface of the jump, but
the d/s water surface remains smooth. The velocity throughout
is fairly uniform, and the energy loss low. The jump is called
weak jump.
 2.5 < Fr1 < 4.5 there is an oscillating jet entering the jump bottom to surface
and back again with no periodicity. Each oscillation produces a
large wave of irregular period which, very common in canals,
can travel for miles doing unlimited damage to earth banks and
ripraps. This jump is called Oscillating Jump.
 4.5 < Fr1 < 9.0 steady Jump:- The down stream extremity of the surface roller
and the point at which the high-velocity jet tends to leave the
flow occur at practically the same vertical section. The action
and position of this jump are least sensitive to variation in tail-
water depth. The jump is well balanced and the performance is
at its best. The energy dissipation ranges from 45 to 70%.
 Fr > 9.0 Strong jump:- The high-velocity jet grabs intermittent slugs of
water rolling down the front face of the jump, generating
waves down-stream and a rough surface can prevail. The jump
action is rough but effective since the energy dissipation may
reach 85%.
N.B. It should be noted that the ranges of the Froude Number given above for the various
types of jump are not clear-cut but overlap to a certain extent depending on local conditions.
Basic characteristics of the Jump
Energy Loss: the loss of energy in the jump is equal to the difference in specific energy
before and after the jump.
Efficiency: the ratio of the specific energy after the jump to that before the jump is defined
as the efficiency of the jump.

This equation indicates that the efficiency of a jump is a dimension less function, depending
only o the Froude Number of the approach flow. The relative loss is equal to , this
also is a dimensionless function. of Fr1.
Height of Jump:- the difference between the depths after and before the jump.
Hj = y2 – y1
Expressing each term as a ratio with respect to initial specific energy.
Where is the relative height, is the relative initial depth, and is the relative
sequence depth. All these ratios can be shown to be dimensionless function of F1. For
example
Length of Jump:
The length of a jump (also length of stilling basin) is empirically given as
Where, k – is a coefficient derived from laboratory and filed experiment. 4.5 < k < 5.5 where
the lower k = 4.5 applies of Fr2 > 10 and the highs for Fr2 < 3.
Flow under Gates

Gates in canals are mainly used as water level regulators. Sometimes, gates are used as
discharge regulator (measuring device). They are under-shot or underflow structures.
Example slice gate, radial gate roller gate
The design of underflow gate focuses on head-discharge relationship (Q-H). The objective is
to minimize head loss; this means that the gate has to be lifted out off the water for design
discharge. The other concern of the design is the pressure distribution over the gate as a
function of opening and gate form.
The H-Q relationship for gate depends on the shape and dimension of the control section and
the resulting curvature of the streamlines.

For gated structures the control section is defined by the vena contract, being the smallest
cross section just down steam of the gate. In the vena contract, streamlines are straight and
parallel.
In gate flow 3 flow types can be distinguished.
Free flow: the opening is relatively small and the contraction of the steam-lines
in vertical direction is strong. The down stream water level (h2) wont affect the flow
underneath the gate and a hydraulics jump will occur down stream of the vena contra. The
discharge depends up on the gate opening the upstream water level and the contraction
coefficient.
Submerged flow: the d/s water level influences the flow underneath the gate. The
hydraulic jump is drowned and the jet underneath the gate is submerged. The discharge
depends upon the upstream and downstream water level and the gate opening.
The boundary between free and submerged flow is a sharp one, which can be cleanly found
from the gate opening and the two water levels.
Weir flow: on off gate
The Discharge equation for a free flow underneath a sharp edged gate is:
Cd = discharge coefficient
B = Width of gate opening
a = height of gate opening
h1 = upstream water depth
The discharge coefficient Cd
Where, CC = Contraction coefficient of the jet depending on the shape of the gate and on
d = diameter of the rounded bottom edge
For : CC = 0.51 + 0.1*

For
Where d is diameter of the rounded bottom edge. For sharp edged gates d is small and C C =
0.61.
The limit between tree flow and submerged flows follows from.
h2 = downstream water level

H1 = upstream energy level
CC is 0.611 for sharp edged gates (d=0) and C C is 0.99 for rounded of edged gates with
For submerged flow, some equations include the difference between the upstream and
downstream depths and others use the upstream water level only. The general equation is
given as.
Where,
a = vertical opening of the gate (a< 0.67h1)
h1 = Upstream water depth
B = Effective width of the opening
C2 = discharge coefficient.
The equation is the same as for free flow but the discharge coefficient C 2 is a function of
Where h2 is the downstream water depth, C2 values range between 0 and 1.

Others roughly classify the flows as,
For values of the discharge follows the

equation for a broad-crested weir.
.



6. UNSTEADY FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS

INTRODUCTION
Unsteady flow changes with time (dy/dt 0): steady flow does not. The difference is not an
absolute one, but may be dependent on the observer. Suppose for example that a land slide
falls into a river and partially blocks it, sending a surge wave upstream. A surge wave, often
simply called a surge, is a moving wave front which brings about an abrupt change in depth;
another example of this phenomenon is tidal "bore" by which the tide invades certain rivers.
Now an observer on the bank would see this as an unsteady-flow phenomenon, since the flow
changes its velocity and depth as the sure passes him. However, an observer who is moving
along with the surge sees the situation as one of steady flow, at least in the first stages of the
movement before the surge begins to decay. He is level with a stationary wave front, and
there is flow of unchanging velocity and depth upstream of him (assuming the river has a
uniform slope and cross section) and downstream of him.
The distinction being made here is not an academic one, for the equations of motion are very
much easier to write down and manipulate for steady flow than they are for unsteady flow. It
is one of the most interesting features of fluid mechanics that one may greatly simplify the
analysis of a problem by changing one's viewpoint from, say, that of a stationary to that of a
moving observer, and so changing the flow situation from an unsteady to a steady one.
There are, of course, many cases in practice where there is no such dependence on the
viewpoint of the observer and the flow would be classified as steady (or unsteady as the case
may be) by any observer. Such a case is the progress of a flood wave down a river: a man
standing on the bank would clearly see the phenomenon as unsteady and so would another
man moving downstream and keeping pace with the peak of the flood, since the magnitude of
the peak discharge itself tends to reduce as the flood moves downstream. In a problem such
as this one cannot take the easy way out by transposing to a steady -flow case, and the
problem must be treaded as on of unsteady flow.
Unsteady flow occurs where flow parameters vary with time at a fixed point.
PROBLEMS: Oscillatory Sea Waves,

Predicting Waver Levels in Rivers in Flood,
Dam Break Flood Waves,
Surges due to gate operation, e.g. in irrigation canal.
WAVES -Definitions
" a wave is a temporal variation in the water surface which is
propagated through a fluid medium" .
The celerity of a wave is the speed of propagation of the disturbance relative to the fluid.

Waves -Classification
CAPILLARY due to surface tension
ELASTIC due to fluid compression
GRAVITY WAVES
a. Oscillatory Wave [e.g. sea waves)

Zero net mass transport
b. Translatory Waves [e.g. Flood Waves]
net transport of fluid in direction of wave
Solitary Wave Wave Train

Rising limb, Created by
Single peak Sequence of
Followed & preceded Several Waves
by steady flow
Further definitions.................................
Downstream Wave - moves down channel slope

Upstream Wave - moves up channel slope
Increase in level from steady flow - positive wave

Decrease in level from steady flow - negative wave
Monoclonal - single faced

Two faced - symmetrical or asymmetrical

Oscillatory
Solitary Translatory (a) Gradually Varying (b) Rapidly varying

Deep water waves ~ only surface layers disturbed
Shallow waver waves ~ Entire depth disturbed (bottom effect)
WAVE CELERITY,
This material will not include rigorous proofs of equations, for these proofs are based on the
methods of theoretical hydrodynamics, which are beyond the scope of this course. Complete
treatment of the proofs is given in a number of advanced texts, for example Open Channel
flow by Henderson.
In order to distort a liquid surface it is necessary to work against both gravity (by lifting
liquid from below mean water level to above the level) and surface tension (by elongating
free surface).
Surface tension has very little effect unless the wavelength is quite small and the effect of
viscosity is small, it is distinctly second order effect. Airy theory neglects viscosity (viscous
damping of oscillatory waves) and surface tension. For small amplitude 2-D flows:
L
Where:
L = the wave length y
C = celerity (wave velocity)
The behavior of the tanh function shows that
when:
~ deep water wave equation

y/L < 0.05 (small), tanh
~ Shallow water
This is known as the LAGRANGE equation

Development of St. Venant Equations

 Basic equations for unsteady flow in open channels.
 Pair of quasi-linear, partial differential hyperbolic equations ~ same class as for
unsteady flow in pipes.
(i) CONTINUITY (ignore compressibility)
A.V  A.V 
A.V .  . x
x
x
(flow out - Flow in) Rate of change of storage
[ wedge Storage] + [prism] + = 0 .................. CONTINUITY
Examine
where  is the Carioles coefficient which accounts for deviation of velocity from the mean
value.
0.5    1.0 depends on geometry of section
e.g.  = 0.5 - triangular
 = 1.0 - rectangular
Accounts for non primordial channels

= rate of increase of breadth
 by A
Let A/bs =  ( = mean depth based on surface width)
Rearrange and recall
Replacing
Multiplying everything by
Fa
F1  

F2    . A. z 
.A. W 
  . x
. A. Z 
x
Ff S0
x
Force on element due to pressure forces on each end -
= depth of cenroid below surface

 = specific weight ( = g)
Assume negligible vertical acceleration, ie. no streamline curvature...................

Therefore, can apply hydrostatic pressure
Weight component acting down slope

If  is small,   sin  tna  S0
Neglect small secondary quantities: .A.x. S0 and force due to air resistance Fa
Force due to friction
 - friction stress
= wetted perimeter
Summation of these forces cause rate of change of momentum, by Newton's 2nd law,
y
.x
x
A
.x 
x z
A
Examine the term,
Taking moments about surface at downstream end
Assume is small
Ignoring 2nd order quantities,
Thus
But

Therefore, the Dynamic equation becomes...
-
Dividing by . A.x
But............ = energy loss per unit weight of fluid
Thus :
~ Dynamic Equation
Examine dynamic equation in form:-
If Sf = S0 ~ Steady uniform flow

If Sf = S0 - ~ Steady non-uniform flow (GVF)
Proof,
But E = y + v2/2g
The continuity and dynamic equations in this form,

Are known as the St Venant equations (sometimes written de Saimt Venant)
Solutions of the St. Venant equations
- a complicated matter, even for rectangular channels.

- general solutions are only possible by numerical methods
- some remarks
 3 principal numerical methods
 finite differences method (FDM)
 characteristic methods (MOC)
 finite elements method (FEM)
- It is not possible to solve it analytically.
The Methods of Characteristics

Our problem now, stated in general terms, is to solve the two independent equations
Continuity and Dynamic Equations. For the two unknowns v and y (for a given cross section
A is known function of y). As already noted the equations are not explicitly soluble except in
certain simple cases, but these cases, simple as they are, can be of deep practical interest.
The approach dealt with in this section leads to the so-called Method of Characteristics, a
semi-graphical method by which explicit solutions, if they exist, are readily obtained, and by
which numerical solutions can be worked out I the more general cases where no explicit
solutions are possible.
In introduce the method; we deal first with the simplest possible type of channel: The one
having a rectangular section of constant width, and a constant bed slope. The first step is to
remove y by the substitution c2 = gy, where C is the speed of shallow wave in water depth y;
accordingly c becomes our measure of depth.
Dynamic Equation
Dynamic Equation multiplied by g and rearranged
We know c2 = gy and d(gy) = D (c2) = 2cdc thus replacing

substituting this in the above equations

eqn*
Recalling continuity equation for unsteady flow
Replacing g = vy we expand the continuity equation to:
Whence, multiplying throughout by g, and substituting c2 = gy as before, we obtain.
Or, dividing throughout by c:

eqn **
By writing the sum of equation * and ** we obtain
Eqn***
By writing the difference of again equation * and ** we obtain:

Eqn
****
Recall the basic equations of partial differentiation, namely
In these equations y is a variable dependent on the two independent variables x and t, and the
equations give the rate of change of y if x and t are simultaneously varied in some prescribed
manner, given, given by dx/dt. If y, x and t have their usual meaning in open channel flow,
we may think of the situation in this way: to an observer walking along the river bank with a
speed dx/dt (which he may choose himself) y will appear to vary with time at the rate given
by the equation
A similar result would of course be true for any other parameter such as v, q or c.
Factoring out (v + 2c) and (v + c) in equation *** & ****

From equation *** factoring out (v + 2c)

From this equation factoring out (v + c)
Similarly, from equation ****
Factoring out like terms
There fore
If we let y = v + 2c and y = v-2c in this two equations, respectively and if we compare it

with the above recalled basic equation of partial differentiation we see.
Where the total-derivative operators represent rate of change from the

viewpoint of observers moving with velocities (v + c) and (v – c) respectively. Note also if
we assume the difference So – Sf  0  E = constant then g(So-Sf) = 0  y = v + 2c ory =
v-2c is constant along the lines with slope respectively.
The significance of this result is that the paths of these two imaginary observers can be traced
on the x - t plane and a complete solution obtained for any prescribed unsteady-flow
situation.

Open Channel Note

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Open Channel Hydraulics 2013

1. OPEN CHANNEL FLOW AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS

DESCRIPTION OF OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Figure 1-1Comparison between pipe flow and open channel flow.

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Examples of Open channel Flow:

Some examples of open channel flow include

1.3 Types of flows

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Steady flow and unready flow: Time as the criterion

Examples of unsteady flow:

For any flow, the discharge Q at a channel section is expressed by

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Uniform flow and varied flow: space as the criterion

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Unsteady Flow (i.e.

e 1-2 Classification of open channel flows

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Real or ideal flow

Incompressible or compressible flow

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Dimensionless Numbers and state of flow.

These forces may be expressed in simplest terms as:

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For pipe flow

Flow R taken as characteristic length D taken as characteristic length

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For open channel flow

Flow R taken as characteristic length

This ratio is given by the Froude Number, defined as:

In some handbooks this number is written as Fr2 = V2/gL.

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Velocity and Pressure Distributions in Open Channel

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a) Parallel flow- hydrostatic pressure distribution b) Convex flow c) Concave flow

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2. BASIC HYDRAULICS PRINCIPLES

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Geometric Elements Of Channel Section

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To any situation in hydraulics we can apply two out of three principles:

1-a Principle of conservation of matter (continuity)

2-a Principle of conservation of matter (continuity)

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A = the cross-sectional area in sections 1 and 2,

During : Inflow-Outflow = Storage

As the velocity and the discharge will change over a distance.

This is the equation of continuity for unsteady open channel flow.

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Figure 2-5 Force components on a fluid particle in the direction of streamline.

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as the velocity along the streamline is . The equation becomes.

constant. Equation 2-5

This is Energy equation (Bernoulli’s Equation) for steady flow of a frictionless,

Potential energy = mgZ  gZ is potential energy per unit mass.

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- For channel with large slope

- For channel with small slope

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Figure 2-6 Energy in gradually varied open channel flow