NATSCI 4 – LESSON 1: A Meteorologist’s Toolbox

Module 1

A. Intro to Meteorology
B. Historical Development of Meteorology
C. The Station Model and the Element of Meteorology

I. Competency

1. Define meteorology and identify common applications of meteorology.

2. Identify the different tools used in meteorology.
3. Discuss the elements of meteorology.

Duration : 2 weeks

II. Notes

Intro to Meteorology
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What is meteorology?
 One of the oldest observational sciences in human history and perhaps the
most relevant to a broad segment of society.
 The science that studies atmospheric phenomena, especially those that relate
to weather. The word “meteor” is derived from ancient Greek “meteoros
“meaning “high in the air.”
 It is the study of the physics and chemistry of Earth's atmosphere, including its
interactions with Earth's surface (both land and water).
 It is a study that dates to ancient times, when ancient civilizations made
observations and kept records of weather conditions, both for agricultural
purposes and out of a general curiosity about the world around them.
 It focuses on the lower parts of the atmosphere, primarily the troposphere,
where most weather takes place.

How do meteorologists apply their knowledge of the atmosphere? The list below provides
some common applications of meteorology:

 weather observation and forecasting

 computer modeling of the atmosphere
 analyzing, monitoring, and predicting air pollution
 Earth science education
 helping industries (agriculture, energy, aviation, insurance, etc.) manage the risks
posed by weather
 assisting emergency managers and disaster planners
 studying Earth's climate and climate change

Meteorologists work in these areas in academia, public-sector (government), and private

sector (business) settings. Meteorologist who forecast the weather rely on thousands of
weather stations located around the world, both on land and at sea. Meteorological
phenomena are observable weather events which illuminate and are explained by the
science of meteorology. Those events are bound by the variables that exist in Earth's
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atmosphere. Meteorologists use scientific principles to observe, explain, and forecast our
weather. They often focus on atmospheric research or operational weather forecasting.

Branches of Meteorology

Weather and Climate Atmospheric Physics Life Science

 Climatology- how  Aeronomy – How  Bioclimatology –
climate (long term chemical and How climate
weather patterns) physical properties interacts and
has varied in the are composed in affects living
past and how the upper region of things.
climate change will Earth and planets.  Geobiology – How
affect the future.  Radiometry -How the biosphere
 Meteorology- How electromagnetic relates to the
atmosphere radiation in the lithosphere and
chemistry relief atmosphere is atmosphere.
influences and observed and  Biometeorology –
physics relate to measured. How atmospheric
weather and  Aerodynamics – conditions and
climate patterns. How air circulates weather patterns
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  Topoclimatology- in the atmosphere impact living
How topographic  Hydrometeorology things.
relief influences – How water and
local climate in the energy are
lower air layer. transferred
 Barometry – How between the land
atmospheric surface and
pressure is atmosphere
measured and (hydrologic cycle)
relates to weather  Geomagnetism –
and climate. How Earth’s
 Paleoclimatology – magnetic field
How prehistoric changes at
climates have different time
changed in a scales including
geologic time pole reversals.
scale.  Geophysics- How
 Paleotempestology physical processes
– How tropical and properties
cyclones have relate to Earth and
changed in a its surrounding
geologic scale. space.

Historical Development of Meteorology

Ancient time

 340 BC Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote Meteorologica, a treatise on natural

philosophy. At that time anything that fell from the sky (including rain and snow)
and anything that was on the sky (including clouds) were called meteors, from the
Greek word meteoros, meaning "high in the sky".

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  Several years later, Theophrastus, a pupil of Aristotle, compiled a book on weather
forecasting called the Book of Signs (a work consisted of ways to foretell the
weather by noticing various weather-related indicators such as a ring around the
moon, which is often followed by rain.

 1607 - Galileo Galilei invented thermoscope, a crude thermometer

 1643 - Torricelli a student of Galileo invented the mercury barometer

 1648 - Pascal discussed atmospheric pressure decreasing with height

 1660 - Robert Boyle discovered the relationship between pressure and volume of
a gas

 1667 - Robert Hooke built pressure-plate anemometer

 1724 - Gabriel Fahrenheit introduced Fahrenheit scale in measuring temperature

 1735 - George Hadley studied trade winds

 1752 - Benjamin Franklin demonstrated the electrical nature of lightning

 1780 – Horace de Saussure, a Swiss geologist and meteorologist, invented the

hair hygrometer for measuring humidity

 1801 - Jacques Charles described the relationship between temperature and the
volume of air

 1802- Jean- Baptiste Lamarck first to classify clouds

 1803- Luke Howard modified the clouds classification with Latin names

 1806- Beaufort developed system for classifying wind speed

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  1821 - William Redfield an American saddle maker and amateur meteorologist
was able to draw a crude weather map

 1832 - Schilling invented electromagnetic telegraph

 1835- Gaspard Gustave Coriolis demonstrated the effect of earth's rotation on

atmospheric motion (Coriolis effect)

 1920 – Vilhelm Bjerknes and Tor Bergeron developed a model explaining the life
cycle of a middle latitude storm system

 1946 - American chemist and Nobel laureate Irving Langmuir and American
atmospheric physicist Vincent Schaefer found that tiny pellets of dry ice could
induce supercooled liquid water droplets to crystallize. The same year Bernard
Vonnegut an American chemist discovered that silver iodide crystals cause these
same water droplets to freeze. These events ushered in an active period of cloud
seeding.

 1960- The first weather satellite to be considered a success was Tiros 1

 1980s onwards, networks of weather radars are further expanded in the

developed world. Doppler weather radar is becoming gradually more common,
adds velocity information

 1992- Computers first used in US to draw surface analysis

 2001- National Weather Service begins to produce a Unified Surface Analysis,

ending duplication of effort at the Tropical Prediction Center, Ocean Prediction
Center and Hydro-meteorological Center

 2010s- Weather radar dramatically advances with more detailed options

Elements of Meteorology

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 For meteorologists, the first step in studying the atmosphere is making observations.
Commonly, meteorologists display these observations in something called a station
model (, which is a graphical template showing current weather conditions at a
weather station (often located at an airport).

A sample of a station model with temperature, dew point, visibility, and

present weather boxed in red.

Elements of Meteorology
 Temperature
Temperature is a measurement of the amount of kinetic energy present in the air, which
manifests itself physically through the experience of heat or cold.

The scales typically used to measure temperature are Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin. The
instrument used to measure temperature is called a thermometer. In more practical terms,
it means that the particles in the air move or vibrate at a certain speed, which creates
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kinetic energy. When the particles start to move/rotate around faster, temperature
increases. When the particles begin to slow down, the temperature also starts to decrease.

Instrument For Measuring Temperature

The thermometer is the instrument used to measure temperature. They come in all shapes
and sizes and date all the way back to 1714. The mercury, bimetal, and digital
thermometer are the 3 most used instruments for measuring ambient temperature.

 Air pressure
Air pressure is another essential element of weather, especially when it comes to creating
or changing atmospheric conditions. It is also one of the critical variables used to make
accurate weather forecasts. Air Pressure is the result of the pressure created by the
weight of the air in the Earth's atmosphere. The weight of the particles in the air creates
pressure due to the gravitational force of the Earth. Since more air is present above the air
close to the ground, air pressure is the highest on the planet's surface and decreases as
altitude increases.

Dew point is the temperature at which more condensation than evaporation occur. When
air temperature drops below the dew point, condensation forms dew, fog, and clouds.

Instruments For Measuring Air Pressure

Barometer is the instrument used to measure air pressure. The unit of measurement is
hectopascal or millibar.

Dew Point
By definition, the dew point is the approximate temperature to which the water vapor (the
gaseous form of water) in the air must be cooled (at constant pressure) in order for it to
condense into liquid water drops. As it turns out, the dew point temperature is also an
absolute measure of the amount of water vapor present. The higher the concentration of
water vapor, the higher the dew point, and as such, the dew point affects the way the air
“feels” – whether it be dry or muggy. Since our skin temperature is regulated to some
degree by evaporation of sweat, it would be logical that we would be affected to some
degree by the dew point temperature.

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 A general level of human comfort versus various dew point temperatures.

Dew Point General level of comfort

60 degrees For most people, the air starts to feel a tad "muggy" or "sticky."
65 degrees The air starts to feel "muggy" or "sticky."
70 degrees The air is sultry and tropical and generally uncomfortable.
75 degrees or The air is oppressive and stifling.
higher

 Wind

The movement of air (wind) is one of the main driving forces of weather. The majority of
major and even extreme weather events like cold & warm fronts, clouds, thunderstorms,
and hurricanes are all driven by wind. Wind is the large-scale movement of air from an
area of high to an area of low pressure in the atmosphere.

The speed and strength of wind are determined by the distance between the low-pressure
and high-pressure areas, as well as the difference in air pressure.

Instruments For Measuring Wind Speed and Direction

The anemometer is the instrument used to measure wind speed. Consisting of 3-4 half-
cups on arms rotating around a central axis, you can typically find it on top of a weather
station or at an elevated position.

A wind vane (or weather vane) is the instrument used to measure wind direction. It is a flat-
shaped object that spins freely on an axis. Very often, in the shape of an arrow or cockerel,
you can also find it on top of a weather station or highly elevated objects. It is common to
see them on top of roof chimneys, church towers, and even communication towers.

 Humidity

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Humidity is another weather element that cannot be seen but can be felt. It not only plays a
big part in weather formation but also directly influences our physical comfort levels.
Humidity is the amount of water vapor that is present in the atmosphere at any specific
time.
Water vapor is nothing more than water in a state of gas (after the liquid has evaporated).
Although humidity and its effects can usually be felt, it is normally invisible to the naked
eye. Humidity can be challenging to understand and interpret correctly.

Instrument For Measuring Humidity

The hygrometer is the instrument used to measure wind speed. You also find more than
one type of this device, like the psychrometer and the resistance hygrometer.

 Precipitation
All types of moisture reaching the of earth from atmosphere. It is a basic input to the
hydrology. Factors determining precipitation or the amount of atmospheric moisture over a
region are climate and geography Ocean surfaces is the chief source of moisture for
precipitation. Precipitation is water in its different states, which form after condensation
turned water vapor into its liquid or solid form, which falls to the ground after it becomes
too heavy to stay suspended in the air. Precipitation can take the form of rain, snow, hail,
or graupel. It is primarily the result of evaporation and condensation.

Instrument For Measuring Rainfall

A rain gauge is the instrument used to measure rainfall. It is essentially a measured
container that captures rain and measures the amount that falls over a set period of time.

Forms of precipitation

A. Rain - is the most common precipitation in our atmosphere. It can either showers
or drizzles. Raindrops generally have a diameter greater than 0.5 mm (0.02 in).
They range in size up to about 3 mm (about 0.13 in) in diameter, and their rate of
fall increases, up to 7.6 m (25 ft) per sec with their size. There are generally three

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 types of rainfall: orographic rain (also known as relief rain), convectional rain and
frontal/cyclonic rain. Rain gauge is used to measure liquid precipitation. The unit of
measurement is millimetres (mm)
Types of rainfall
What are the different types of rain and where do they happen?

1.Relief Rain or Orographic - This type of rainfall is characteristic of mountainous regions.

It occurs when air has been blown over the sea and is then forced up over an area of high
land. This causes the air to cool and the moisture in the air condenses and rain falls.

2. Convectional Rain – This type of rainfall is characteristic of hot climates. When air is hot
is rises and cools and condenses forming rain. If the air is hot enough, it rises very quickly
and can cause thunderstorms.

3. Frontal Rain – This types of rainfall takes place at the boundary, or front, between a
mass of warm air and a mass of cold air. The moisture in the warm air condenses as it
cools which causes clouds and rain.

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B. Snow – is the second most common precipitation in the Northeast. Snow forms when
water vapor turns directly into ice without ever passing through a liquid state. This happens
as water condenses around an ice crystal.

C. Hail - is created when moisture and winds are together. Inside the cumulonimbus clouds
ice crystals form and begin to fall towards the surface of the Earth. When this starts
happening wind gusts start to pick up the ice crystal pushing them up high into the clouds.
As they start to fall down again, they continue to grow in size. A wind gust might catch the
hail stone again which will push it back up into the clouds. This whole process gets
repeated several times before the hail stone becomes so big that it is too heavy for the
wind to carry so it must fall towards Earth.

 Visibility
Visibility may seem like a very unlikely element of weather but it is especially important
when discussing & measuring weather conditions like fog, mist, freezing drizzle, and smog.
It is the measurement of the degree through which an object can be observed over a
certain distance. This measurement is crucial when conditions like mist, haze, fog, and
freezing drizzle are present, which can severely impede visibility.

The importance of the ability to measure this element is often underestimated. It is

especially applicable in areas where visibility plays a crucial role, like airports and harbors,
where it can literally be a matter of life or death.

Instrument For Measuring Visibility

Visibility sensors like the "forward scatter sensor" are the instruments used to measure
visibility. In the past, using your own vision (eyes) to measure the degree to which you can
observe an object was the standard.

 Clouds (Type & Cover)

Clouds are water droplets or water in different states (like ice and snow crystals), which
formed after water vapor reached condensation level and could no longer remain in
gaseous form. The layer below the tropopause is called the troposphere all weather
processes of interest to us occur in the troposphere.
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Instrument For Measuring Clouds
The advanced instruments meteorologists use to study clouds in detail are weather
satellites and radars. Satellite and radar images are able to accurately measure cloud
density, the amount of moisture, the temperature, and the movement of the clouds.

 Sunshine Duration

The amount of sunshine the Earth receives (which is a characteristic of solar radiation)
greatly influences other elements of the weather like ambient temperature, and more
indirectly, humidity and air pressure. Sunshine duration is the length of time the Earth's
surface is directly exposed to solar radiation. It is also referred to as sunlight hours and
measure the amount of exposure over a set period of time (generally in hours per day or
year.)
Instrument For Measuring Sunshine
Sunshine recorders, more specifically Campbell–Stokes recorders, are the instruments
used to record sunshine duration. Campbell–Stokes recorders basically consist of a
spherical lens that focuses sunlight on a specific type of tape to make its measurement.

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IV References:
1.Basic Concepts in Earth Science, JMC Press, Inc
2.https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/meteorology/
3.https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/288978main_Meteorology_Guide.pdf
4. http://metasofsda.in/school/wp content/uploads/sites/4/2020/04/GEOGRAPHY
5. https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-meteorology-definition-history-facts.html
6. Microsoft Word - 1LevineTeacherguide27.doc (nasa.gov)
7. https://earthhow.com/what-is-meteorology/

8. The Elements Of Weather And Climate & Instruments Measuring Them

(ownyourweather.com)

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Date Accomplished Pre-service Teacher’s

Signature over Printed Name

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 ________________________

Date Received

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