Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics

Earth Science
SY 2022 – 2023

Unit 3: Earth Processes

Lesson 10: Plate Tectonics

Introduction

Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that explains how major landforms are created as
a result of Earth’s subterranean movements. The theory, which solidified in the 1960s, transformed
the earth sciences by explaining many phenomena, including mountain building events, volcanoes,
and earthquakes.

Learning Objectives
After studying this module, you should be able to:

1. Explain the process of seafloor spreading;

2. Describe the structure and evolution of ocean basins; and
3. Demonstrate understanding of the theory of plate tectonics and how plate tectonic processes
lead to changes in Earth’s surface features.

Pre-requisite Skills / Review

REVIEW: Continental Drift Theory

Prior to the late 1960s, most geologists held the view that the ocean basins and continents
had fixed geographic positions and were of great antiquity. Researchers came to realize that Earth’s
continents are not static; instead, they gradually migrate across the globe. Because of these
movements, blocks of continental material collide, deforming the intervening crust, thereby creating
Earth’s great mountain chains. Furthermore, landmasses occasionally split apart. As continental
blocks separate, a new ocean basin emerges between them. Meanwhile, other portions of the
seafloor plunge into the mantle. In short, a dramatically different model of Earth’s tectonic processes
emerged. Tectonic processes are processes that deform Earth’s crust to create major structural
features, such as mountains, continents, and ocean basins.

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I. ALFRED WEGENER AND CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

The idea that continents fit together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle has been around since the 1600s,
although little significance was given to it.

The continental drift hypothesis was first articulated by Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist, in 1912.
He proposed that a single supercontinent, Pangaea (pan-jee-ah, meaning all-lands), separated into the
current continents and moved across Earth’s surface to their present locations. He published his work
through a book entitled ‘The Origin of Continents and Oceans’ in 1915.

II. EVIDENCES OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT

A. The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle
Wegener suspected that the continents might once have been joined when
he noticed the remarkable similarity between the coastlines on opposite
sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
However, other Earth
scientists immediately
challenged Wegener’s use
of present-day shorelines
to fit these continents
together.

Figure 1. Two of the Puzzle Pieces

Figure 2. Modern Reconstruction of Pangaea vs.

Wegener's Pangaea

B. Rock Types and Geologic Features

Wegener discovered that rocks on both sides of the
Atlantic Ocean were identical in terms of type and age. He
also matched up mountain ranges with the same rock
types, structures, and ages, that were now on opposite
sides of the Atlantic Ocean. The Appalachians of the
eastern United States and Canada, for example, were just
like mountain ranges in eastern Greenland, Ireland, Great
Britain, and Norway. Wegener concluded that they formed Figure 3. Matching Mountain Ranges Across the North Atlantic
a single mountain range that became separated as the
continents drifted.

C. Fossil Matching Across the Sea

Wegener learned that most paleontologists (scientists
who study the fossilized remains of ancient organisms)
were in agreement that some type of land connection was
needed to explain the existence of similar Mesozoic age
life-forms on widely separated landmasses. Just as
modern life-forms native to North America are quite
Figure 4. Fossil Evidence Supporting Continental Drift

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different from those of Africa and Australia, during the Mesozoic era, organisms on widely separated
continents should have been distinctly different.
Here are some organisms which fossils can be found in several continents.

D. Ancient Climates
Because Alfred Wegener was a student of world
climates, he suspected that paleoclimatic (paleo = ancient,
climatic = climate) data might also support the idea of
mobile continents.
He learned that evidence for a glacial period that dated to
the late Paleozoic had been discovered in southern Africa,
South America, Australia, and India. This meant that about
300 million years ago, vast ice sheets covered extensive
portions of the Southern Hemisphere as well as India.

III. THE GREAT DEBATE

Wegener’s proposal did not attract much open criticism until 1924, when his book was
translated into English, French, Spanish, and Russian. From that point until his death in 1930, the
drift hypothesis encountered a great deal of hostile criticism.

MOTIVATION:

Activity: Kwentuhan
Answer the following on the discussion board:
1. Have you experienced earthquakes?
2. If yes, what is the most memorable one? Tell us briefly your story.
3. If not, what do you think will cause the earthquake in your community? What will be your
precautionary measure before, during, and after the earthquake?

Lesson 10.1 – Plate Tectonics

A. Asthenosphere
The lithosphere is the strong and rigid part of the
Earth consisting of the crust (the coolest and uppermost
layer)
The lithosphere is divided into two, the oceanic and the
continental, differs in both thickness and density. The
Oceanic lithosphere extends for up to 100Km in thickness
especially if away from the oceanic ridge system. The oceanic
lithosphere is made up of basaltic(mafic) rocks, therefore, is
denser.
The continental lithosphere has a thickness of around
150Km to 200Km. It is made up of granitic rocks which are less dense than basaltic rocks.
Below the rigid lithosphere lies a hotter and weaker asthenosphere (asthenos=weak,
sphere=ball). The asthenosphere is the upper part of the mantle where rocks are starting to
approach their melting points due to the increase in temperature and pressure.

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The lithosphere is effectively detached from the asthenosphere; however, it tends to respond
to the movement of the molten rocks in the asthenosphere in by bending and breaking.

B. Earth’s Plates
The lithosphere is made up of several tectonic plates, also known as lithospheric
plates of just plates. These plates are in constant movement with respect to each other.
There are seven major tectonic plates, which constitutes 94% of the Earth’s crust, namely,
the North-American, South-American, Pacific, African, Eurasian, Australian-Indian and
Antarctic Plates. The largest is the Pacific plate which holds a large percentage of the Pacific
Ocean. The other six major plates include large percentages of continents together with some
ocean floor.
Intermediate-sized plates include the Philippine, Caribbean, Nazca, Cocos, Scotia, Juan
de Fuca and Arabian plates.
Several microplates have also been identified, but was not shown in the figure.

C. Plate Boundaries
Because plates are in constant motion relative to each other, most major interactions among
them (and, therefore, most deformation) occur along their boundaries.
Plates are bounded by three distinct types of boundaries, which are differentiated by the type
of movement they exhibit. They are classified as:
a. Divergent plate boundaries (constructive margins)— where two plates move apart,
resulting in upwelling of hot material from the mantle to create new seafloor.
b. Convergent plate boundaries (destructive margins)— where two plates move together,
resulting in oceanic lithosphere descending beneath an overriding plate, eventually to be
reabsorbed into the mantle or possibly in the collision of two continental blocks to create
a mountain belt.
c. Transform plate boundaries (conservative margins)— where two plates grind past each
other without producing or destroying lithosphere.

Divergent and convergent plate boundaries each account for about 40 percent of all plate
boundaries. Transform faults account for the remaining 20 percent.

D. Divergent Boundaries
Most divergent plate boundaries (di = apart, vergere = to move) are located along the
crests of oceanic ridges and can be thought of as constructive plate margins because this is
where new ocean floor is generated.

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Here, two adjacent plates move away from each other, producing long, narrow fractures in
the ocean crust. As a result, hot rock from the mantle below migrates upward and fills the
voids left as the crust is being ripped apart. This molten material gradually cools, producing
new slivers of seafloor. In a slow and unending manner, adjacent plates spread apart, and
new oceanic lithosphere forms between them. For this reason, divergent plate boundaries
are also referred to as spreading centers.

a. Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading

The majority of, but not all, divergent plate boundaries are associated with oceanic
ridges. Oceanic ridges are elevated areas of the seafloor characterized by high heat flow
and volcanism. The global ridge system is the longest topographic feature on Earth’s
surface exceeding 70,000 kilometers (43,000 miles) in length. Various segments of the
global ridge system have been named, including the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, East Pacific Rise,
and Mid-Indian Ridge.
Representing 20 percent of Earth’s surface, the oceanic ridge system winds through
all major ocean basins like the seams on a baseball. Ridges vary in width from 1000
kilometers (600 miles) to more than 4000 kilometers (2500 miles). The crest of the
oceanic ridge is commonly 2-3 kilometers higher than the adjacent basins. Further, along
the crest of some ridge segments is a deep canyon-like structure called a rift valley. This
structure is evidence that tensional forces are actively pulling the ocean crust apart at the
ridge crest.
The mechanism that operates along the oceanic ridge system to create new seafloor
is appropriately called seafloor spreading. Typical rates of spreading average around 5
centimeters (2 inches) per year, roughly the same rate at which human fingernails grow.
Comparatively slow spreading rates of 2 centimeters per year are found along the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge, whereas spreading rates exceeding 15 centimeters (6 inches) per year
have been measured along sections of the East Pacific Rise.

E. Convergent Boundaries and Subduction

New lithosphere is constantly being produced at the oceanic ridges. However, our
planet is not growing larger; its total surface area remains constant. A balance is maintained
because older, denser portions of oceanic lithosphere descend into the mantle at a rate equal
to seafloor production. This activity occurs along convergent plate boundaries, where two
plates move toward each other and the leading edge of one is bent downward, as it slides
beneath the other.

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Convergent boundaries are also called subduction zones because they are sites where
lithosphere is descending (being subducted) into the mantle. Subduction occurs because the
density of the descending lithospheric plate is greater than the density of the underlying
asthenosphere.

Deep-ocean trenches are the surface manifestations produced as oceanic lithosphere

descends into the mantle. The Marianas trench in the Western Pacific contains the lowest
point in the Earth’s crust known as the Challengers Deep.
As oceanic lithosphere ages (gets farther from the spreading center), it gradually cools, which
causes it to thicken and increase in density. In parts of the western Pacific, some oceanic
lithosphere is 180 million years old—the thickest and densest in today’s oceans.

Lesson 10.2 – Types of Convergent Boundaries

Types of Convergent Boundaries

Although all convergent zones have the same basic characteristics, they may vary
considerably, based on the type of crustal material involved and the tectonic setting.
Convergent boundaries can form between two oceanic plates, one oceanic plate and one
continental plate, or two continental plates.

a. Oceanic-Continental Convergence
When the leading edge of a plate capped with continental crust converges with a slab
of oceanic lithosphere, the buoyant continental block remains “floating,” while the
denser oceanic slab sinks into the mantle. Sediments and oceanic crust contain large
amounts of water, which is carried to great depths by a subducting plate. As the plate
plunges downward, heat and pressure drive water from the voids in the rock. At a
depth of roughly 100 kilometers (60 miles), the wedge of mantle rock is sufficiently
hot that the introduction of water from the slab below leads to some melting. This
process, called partial melting, is thought to generate some molten material, which is
mixed with unmelted mantle rock. Being less dense than the surrounding mantle, this
hot mobile material gradually rises toward the surface. Depending on the
environment, these mantle-derived masses of molten rock may ascend through the
crust and give rise to a volcanic eruption. However, much of this material never
reaches the surface; rather, it solidifies at depth—a process that thickens the crust.

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b. Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence

An oceanic–oceanic convergent boundary has many features in common with

oceanic–continental plate margins. Where two oceanic slabs converge, one descends
beneath the other, initiating volcanic activity by the same mechanism that operates at
all subduction zones.
Water squeezed from the subducting slab of oceanic lithosphere triggers melting in
the hot wedge of mantle rock above. In this setting, volcanoes grow up from the ocean
floor rather than on a continental platform. When subduction is sustained, it will
eventually build a chain of volcanic structures large enough to emerge as islands. The
newly formed land consisting of an arc-shaped chain of volcanic islands is called a
volcanic island arc, or simply an island arc.

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c. Continental-Continental Convergence

The third type of convergent boundary results when one landmass moves toward the
margin of another because of subduction of the intervening seafloor. Whereas oceanic
lithosphere tends to be dense and sink into the mantle, the buoyancy of continental
material inhibits it from being subducted. Consequently, a collision between two
converging continental fragments ensues.
This event folds and deforms the accumulation of sediments and sedimentary rocks
along the continental margins as if they had been placed in a gigantic vise. The result
is the formation of a new mountain belt composed of deformed sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks that often contain slivers of oceanic crust.
Such a collision began about 50 million years ago, when the subcontinent of India
“rammed” into Asia, producing the Himalayas—the most spectacular mountain range
on Earth.
During this collision, the continental crust buckled and fractured and was generally
shortened horizontally and thickened vertically. In addition to the Himalayas, several
other major mountain systems, including the Alps, Appalachians, and Urals, formed as
continental fragments collided.

Lesson 10.3 – Plate Tectonics (Continuation)

F. Transform Boundaries
Along a transform plate boundary, also called a transform
fault, plates slide horizontally past one another without producing or destroying lithosphere.
The nature of transform faults was discovered in 1965 by Canadian Geologist J. Tuzo Wilson,
who proposed that these large faults connect two spreading centers (divergent boundaries)
or, less commonly, two trenches (convergent boundaries).

Most transform faults are found on the ocean floor, where they offset segments of the
oceanic ridge system, producing a step-like plate margin. Notice that the zigzag shape of the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge roughly reflects the shape of the original rifting that caused the breakup
of the supercontinent of Pangaea.

Most transform fault boundaries are located within the ocean basins; however, a few
cut through continental crust. Two examples are the earthquake-prone San Andreas Fault of
California and New Zealand’s Alpine Fault. San Andreas Fault connects a spreading center
located in the Gulf of California to the Cascadia subduction zone and the Mendocino Fault

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located along the northwest coast of the United States. Along the San Andreas Fault, the
Pacific plate is moving toward the northwest, past the North American plate.

G. What Drives Plate Motions?

Although the mantle consists almost entirely of solid rock, it is hot and weak enough
to exhibit a slow, fluid-like convective flow, a simple type of convection. Convection id a type
of heat transfer that involves the actual movement of a substance. In case of the Earth, the
hotter, more buoyant molten rocks spread out into the surface while the cooler, denser
molten rocks sink to the bottom of the Mantle.
There is general agreement that subduction of cold, dense slabs of oceanic lithosphere is a
major driving force of plate motion. This phenomenon, called slab pull, occurs because cold
slabs of oceanic lithosphere are denser than the underlying warm asthenosphere and hence
“sink like a rock” that is pulled down into the mantle by gravity.

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Another important driving force is ridge push. This gravity-driven mechanism results
from the elevated position of the oceanic ridge, which causes slabs of lithosphere to “slide”
down the flanks of the ridge. Ridge push appears to contribute far less to plate motions than
slab pull. The primary evidence for this is that the fastest-moving plates—the Pacific, Nazca,
and Cocos plates—have extensive subduction zones along their margins. By contrast, the
spreading rate in the North Atlantic basin, which is nearly devoid of subduction zones, is one
of the lowest, at about 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) per year.

Although the subduction of cold, dense lithospheric plates appears to be the dominant
force acting on plates, other factors are at work as well. Flow in the mantle, perhaps best
described as “mantle drag,” is also thought to affect plate motion. When flow in the
asthenosphere is moving at a velocity that exceeds that of the plate, mantle drag enhances
plate motion. However, if the asthenosphere is moving more slowly than the plate, or if it is
moving in the opposite direction, this force tends to resist plate motion. Another type of
resistance to plate motion occurs along some subduction zones, where friction between the
overriding plate and the descending slab generates significant earthquake activity.

(On-site Session)
PETA 3.2 Laboratory experiment regarding two types of weathering (separate file)

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Key Concepts

❖ Lithosphere- is the strong and rigid part of the Earth consisting of the crust (the coolest
and uppermost layer).
❖ Asthenosphere- is the upper part of the mantle where rocks are starting to approach
their melting points due to the increase in temperature and pressure.
❖ Divergent plate boundaries (constructive margins)— where two plates move apart,
resulting in upwelling of hot material from the mantle to create new seafloor.
❖ Convergent plate boundaries (destructive margins)— where two plates move together,
resulting in oceanic lithosphere descending beneath an overriding plate, eventually to be
reabsorbed into the mantle or possibly in the collision of two continental blocks to create
a mountain belt.
❖ Transform plate boundaries (conservative margins)— where two plates grind past
each other without producing or destroying lithosphere.

Learning Activity
Directions: Identify the following concepts define in each statement.
_________________1. It is the strong and rigid part of the Earth consisting of the oceanic and
continental crust.
_________________2. It is a type of plate boundary where two plates move apart, resulting in
upwelling of hot material from the mantle to create new seafloor.
_________________3.These are ridge segments and a deep canyon-like structure formed in diverging
plate boundary.
_________________4. The mechanism that operates along the oceanic ridge system to create new
seafloor.
_________________5. It occurs because cold slabs of oceanic lithosphere are denser than the
underlying warm asthenosphere and that is pulled down into the mantle by
gravity.
_________________6. It is a type of plate boundary where two plates move together, resulting in
oceanic lithosphere descending beneath an overriding plate.
_________________7. It is the product formed when two oceanic plates converged.
_________________8. It is a type of plate boundary where two plates grind past each other without
producing or destroying lithosphere.
_________________9. It is the lowest or deepest point in the Earth’s crust known as the Challengers
Deep.
_______________10. It is the upper part of the mantle where rocks are starting to approach their
melting points due to the increase in temperature and pressure.

or other natural defenses against soil erosion. In addition, some landscapers replace natural
ground cover with plant species unsuited to the climate, and these plants may not be as effective
at preventing erosion.

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Enrichment Activity
Directions: Read each item carefully. Choose the best answer among the choices.
______1. The lithospheric plates are believed to be moving slowly. What is the driving force that allows this
movement?
A. Force of the atmosphere
B. Magnetic force at the poles
C. Convection current in the mantle
D. Gravitational force of the moon

For items 2 and 3, analyze the figure below:

Figure 1. Map showing the relative motion of plates (Arrows indicate the direction of motion)

______2. What type of plate boundary occurs between Nazca plate and South American plate?
A. Transform fault C. Convergent
B. Divergent D. Subduction

______3. Based on the plate boundary that occurs between Nazca and South American plate, which of the
following will result?
A. Mid-ocean ridge C. Mountain ranges
B. Trenches D. Rift valley

______4. When a new seafloor is formed at the mid-ocean ridge, the old seafloor farthest from the
ridge is destroyed. Which of the following processes describes how the oceanic crust
plunges into the Earth and destroyed at the mantle?
A. Convection C. Diversion
B. Subduction D. Construction

______5. Trenches or oceanic trenches are the deepest part of the ocean. Which of the following
plate boundaries will trenches occur?
A. Divergent C. Transform fault
B. Convergent D. Subduction

______6. The Himalayan Mountain range is formed because of ________________.

A. convergence of two continental plates
B. convergence of oceanic plate and continental plate
C. convergence of two oceanic plates
D. divergence of two oceanic plates

______7. How is an oceanic ridge formed?

A. A gap is created when two oceanic lithosphere separates, the gap is filled by rising
magma, magma cools and solidifies to create new oceanic lithosphere
B. A gap is created when two oceanic lithosphere separates, the gap is filled by stones `
carried by underwater current.
C. A gap is created when two oceanic lithosphere separates, the gap is filled by materials when
underwater volcanoes erupt.
D. A gap is created when two oceanic lithosphere separates, the gap is filled by materials when
tsunami arise.

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______8. The picture below is a summary diagram of processes at plate boundary between an
oceanic and continental plate. What can you infer about the location of the volcano and the
mountain range?

A. Volcanoes are located on the same area where there are mountains.
B. Volcanoes are located on a different place from the locations of mountains.
C. Volcanoes are located far from the location of mountains.
D. The picture does not exactly tell the answer.

______9. Scientist have determined that there is a close connection between the formation of
volcanoes, and the movement of the tectonic plates. Such findings are indicated on the map
below. Which of the following DOES NOT include these findings?

Lines indicate plate boundaries. Dots indicate active volcanoes.

A. Nearly 80% of the earth’s volcanoes are found near the tectonic plate boundaries of
the Pacific Ocean.
B. The oceanic crust is subducting or plunging beneath the continental crust in this
region.
C. Volcanoes can also be found at divergent plate boundaries where tectonic plates are
splitting apart.
D. Volcanoes cannot be found in the middle of tectonic plates.

______10. The portion of the ocean floor which is relatively much deeper than the rest as indicated
by the arrow on the picture below which is called ___________.

A. Trench
B. Linear sea
C. Oceanic ridge
D. Rift valley

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______11. Which of the following is NOT TRUE about rift valleys?

A. Rift valleys are formed when Earth’s crust come together.
B. Rift valleys can appear on land or beneath bodies of water.
C. Rift valleys are long, deep valleys bounded by parallel faults.
D. Rift valleys are formed where Earth’s crust is being pulled apart.

______12. San Andreas fault which stretches from the Imperial Valley in southern California to
Point Arena on the Northern Coast and out to sea is a classical ____________boundary.
A. Convergent
B. Divergent
C. Earthquake
D. Transform fault

______13. The East Pacific Rise, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Mid-Indian Ridge are evidences of
______________.
A. Trenches
B. Mountain ranges
C. Seafloor spreading
D. Earthquakes that have occurred long time ago

______14. Which of the following is the type of plate boundary where two plates move apart,
resulting in upwelling of hot material from the mantle to create new seafloor?
A. Divergent C. Transform fault
B. Convergent D. Subduction

______15. Which is NOT considered a major tectonic plate?

A. African plate
B. Nazca Plate
C. North American plate
D. Pacific plate

Tutorial Videos

Plate Tectonics: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RA2-Vc4PIOY

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