Lecture 3:

12.12.2022
Review
What are International Institutions?
• “International institutions” as sets of rules meant to govern
international behaviour.
• John Mearsheimer provides a useful definition of institutions as ‘sets
of rules that stipulate the ways in which states should cooperate
and compete with each other’.
• Institutions are viewed as explicitly normative- they specify what
states should do.
What are International Organizations?
• The collective forms or basic structures of social organization as
established by law or by human tradition
THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO IOS
AND IIS
Realism
• All realists see power exerting the true influence behind the façade of
these structures.
• Hans Morgenthau attributed apparently rule-consistent behavior either
to convergent interests or prevailing power relations, arguing that
governments ‘are always anxious to shake off the restraining influence
that international law might have upon their foreign policies, to use
international law instead for the promotion of their national interests
....’ (Morgenthau 1985).
• For traditional realists, IIs and IOs are epiphenomenal to state power
and interests (Carr 1964).
Neorealist
• Neorealists’ role in institutional analysis in the 1980s and 1990s was
been that of forceful critic.
• Joseph Grieco (1988) and John Mearsheimer (1994–95) argue that
relative-gains concerns prevent states from intensive cooperation:
since the benefits of cooperation can be translated into military
advantages, concerns about the distribution of the gains impede
substantial sustained cooperation.
• Joanne Gowa uses this logic to argue that allies are much more
likely to trade during periods of bipolarity than during periods of
multipolarity when there are greater uncertainties about friends
and foes (Gowa 1994).
 Rational functionalism
• Rational functionalism developed in the early 1980s as one response to
these kinds of puzzles.
• The work of Robert Keohane (1984) drew from functionalist approaches
that emphasized the efficiency reasons for agreements among regime
participants.
• This research sought to show that IOs and IIs provided a way for states to
overcome problems of collective action, high transactions costs, and
information deficits or asymmetries.
• The strength of this approach has largely been its ability to explain the
creation and maintenance of IOs and IIs.
English school

• Scholars associated with English scholarship, have emphasized the

importance of international society in maintaining international order.
• Bull and Watson (1984) define international society in state-centric terms, as
a group of states that have ‘established by dialog and consent common rules
and institutions for the conduct of their relations, and recognize their
common interest in maintaining these arrangements.
• International society, in this conception, is the legal and political idea on
which the concept of international institutions rests (Buzan 1993).
• Martin Wight’s work emphasized the role of cultural unity in the identity of
international society (Wight 1977).
• Bull, on the other hand, saw the possibilities of the international society
for any group of states that shared coherent goals, such as limits on the
use of force (Bull 1977).
• The English school has offered a definition of institutions that is much
broader sense: ‘a cluster of social rules, conventions, usages, and
practices … , a set of conventional assumptions held prevalently among
society-members ... [that] provide a framework for identifying what is
the done thing and what is not in the appropriate circumstances’
(Suganami 1983)
Social constructivism
• Constructivist approaches are highly attentive to the framing of rules
and norms as clues to a deeper understanding of their intended
meanings.
• When a rule is embedded in the context of international law, for
example, governments have to forgo idiosyncratic claims and make
arguments based on rules and norms that satisfy at a minimum the
condition of universality.
• Indeed, most constructivist theorists would go further and insist on the
mutually constitutive nature of norms and actors’ identities.
• Constructivist scholars emphasize that international institutions can
alter the identities and interests of states, as a result of their
interactions over time within the auspices of a set of rules or within a
specific organization that actors imbue with meaning
• Social constructivist approaches have been especially appropriate for
appreciating the ways in which international institutions create, reflect,
and diffuse intersubjective normative understandings.
Evolution of International Institutions
Starts
• as the consular Institutions and the Ambassador
• which were pre-fifteenth century institutions
• and have remained extant in contemporary times.
As time progressed, and with the attendant growth in international relations,
it became necessary that modality for representing the interests of all states
concerned be evolved, especially where more than two states are involved.
 International conference
• Sequel to this, there came into existence the international conference which was a
gathering of representatives from several state and which was tagged “Diplomatic
Writ Large”. The conference yielded the following:
(i) The Peace westphalia in 1648
(ii) The settlement after the Napoleonic wars in 1815.12 and;
(iii) The treaty of versailles negotiated at the paris conference of 1919.
• These conferences were also convened for the purposes of settling some other
problems apart from war issues. In these regard the following conferences come
to mind:

• a. The congress of Berlin of 1871

b. The Hague conferences of 1899 and 1907.
The conclusion of such conferences normally gave rise to a formal treaty or
convention.
• This and many other shortcomings of the conferences gave rise to coming
together by certain private international unions. Who felt their interest had
an international character which can only be promoted through the
instrumentality of a more permanent international association interacting
with such bodies in different Countries