Assignment submitted to Faculty of Post Graduate Studies

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN HORTICULTURE (FRUIT SCIENCE)

Division of Fruit Science Sher-e-Kashmir University of

Agricultural Sciences & Technology of Jammu, Main Campus, Chatha,
Jammu – 180009 2022

Title of the Assignment : “Growth and development”

Major Subject
Course Title
Course No.
Course Instructor
Name of the Faculty
Name of the University
sciences and technology, Jammu
Name of the Student
: Fruit Science
: Growth and Development of Horticultural Crops
: FSC-507
: Dr.Amit Jasrotia & Dr.Akash Sharma
: Horticulture (Fruit Science)
: Sher-e-Kashmir university of Agricultural
: Simran Hans
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TOPIC PAGE.NO

I. DEFINITION: GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 1

II. TYPES OF GROWTH 2

III. GROWTH RATES AND SIGMOID CURVE 3-4

IV. GROWTH PHASES, SINGLE AND DOUBLE SIGMOID CURVE 5

V. GROWTH FACTORS AND LIMITATION OF GROWTH FACTORS 6-7

V. DEVELOPMENT 8

VII. GROWTH ANALYSIS AND PARAMETERS OF GROWTH 9-13

DEFINITION:
GROWTH: Growth is defined as the irreversible increase in the number and size of a cell,
organ, or whole organism related to change in size and mass.
DEVELOPMENT: refers to the sum of all the changes that an organism undergoes through its
life cycle from seed germination, through growth, maturation, flowering and senescence.
Growth is restricted only to living cells and is accomplished by metabolic processes
involving synthesis of macromolecules, such as nucleic acids, proteins, lipids and
polysaccharides at the expense of metabolic energy. Growth at cellular level is also
accompanied by the organization of macromolecules into assemblages of membranes,
plastids, mitochondria, ribosomes and other cell organelles. Cells do not definitely increase in
size but divide, giving rise to daughter cells. An important process during cell division is
synthesis and replication of nuclear DNA in the chromosomes, which is then passed into the
daughter cells. Therefore, the term growth is used to denote an increase in size by cell
division and cell enlargement, together with the synthesis of new cellulose materials and the
organization of cellulose organelles. Growth is also defined as a vital process which brings
about a permanent change in any plant or its part in respect to its size, form, weight and
volume.
Plant Growth Generally is Indeterminate:
Plant growth is unique because plants retain the capacity for unlimited growth throughout
their life. This ability of the plants is due to the presence of meristems at certain locations in
their body. The cells of such meristems have the capacity to divide and self-perpetuate. The
product, however, soon loses the capacity to divide and such cells make up the plant body.
This form of growth wherein new cells are always being added to the plant body by the
activity of the meristem is called the open form of growth.
Some plant structures are determinate: it grows to certain size and then stops, eventually
undergoing senescence and death. Leaves, flowers, and fruits are good examples of
determinate structures. On the other hand, the vegetative stem and root are indeterminate
structures. They grow by meristems that continuously replenish themselves, remaining live.
The root apical meristem and the shoot apical meristem are responsible for the primary
growth of the plants and principally contribute to the elongation of the plants along their axis.
In dicotyledonous plants and gymnosperms, the lateral meristems, vascular cambium and
cork cambium appear later in life. These are the meristems that cause the increase in the girth
of the organs in which they are active. This is known as secondary growth of the plant.
TYPES OF GROWTH:
1.Primary Growth: apical meristems extend roots and shoots by giving rise to primary plant
body.
2.Secondary Growth: lateral meristems add girth by producing secondary vascular tissue
and periderm.
3.Determinate Growth: Some plant structures grows to certain size and then stops,
eventually undergoes senescence and death. Leaves, flowers and fruits are good examples of
‘’determinate or limited growth.’’
4.Indeterminate Growth: the root and the shoot system of plants grows continuously from
the germination stage to the death or throughout the lifespan of the plant. It is called the
‘’unlimited or determinate type of growth”.
Growth is measurable:
Growth, at a cellular level, is principally a consequence of increase in the amount of
protoplasm. Since increase in protoplasm is difficult to measure directly, one generally
measures some quantity which is proportional to it. Growth is, therefore, measured by a
variety of parameters some of which are: increase in fresh weight, dry weight, length, area,
volume and cell number. One single maize root apical meristem can give rise to more than
17,500 new cells per hour, whereas cells in a watermelon may increase in size by upto
3,50,000 times. In the former, growth is expressed as increase in cell number; the latter
expresses growth as increase in size of the cell. While the growth of a pollen tube is measured
in terms of its length, an increase in surface area denotes the growth in a dorsiventral leaf.
Phases of Growth
Growth Rates:
The increased growth per unit time is termed as growth rate. Thus, rate of growth can be
expressed mathematically. An organism, or a part of the organism can produce more cells in
a variety of ways. The growth rate shows an increase that may be arithmetic or geometrical.
In arithmetic growth, following mitotic cell division, only one daughter cell continues to
divide while the other differentiates and matures. The simplest expression of arithmetic
growth is exemplified by a root elongating at a constant rate. On plotting the length of the
organ against time, a linear curve is obtained. Mathematically, it is expressed as
Lt = L0 + rt
Lt = length at time ‘t’
L0 = length at time ‘zero’
r = growth rate / elongation per unit time.

Constant linear growth, a plot of length L against time t

Geometrical growth:
In most systems, the initial growth is slow (lag phase), and it increases rapidly thereafter – at
an exponential rate (log or exponential phase). Here, both the progeny cells following mitotic
cell division retain the ability to divide and continue to do so. However, with limited nutrient
supply, the growth slows down leading to a stationary phase. If we plot the parameter of
growth against time, we get a typical sigmoid or S-curve. A sigmoid curve is a characteristic
of living organism growing in a natural environment. It is typical for all cells, tissues and
organs of a plant

.
The exponential growth can be expressed as W1 = W0 e rt
W1 = final size (weight, height, number etc.) ,
W0 = initial size at the beginning of the period
r = growth rate
t = time of growth
e = base of natural logarithms
Here, r is the relative growth rate and is also the measure of the ability of the plant to produce
new plant material, referred to as efficiency index. Hence, the final size of W1 depends on
the initial size, W0
Quantitative comparisons between the growth of living system can also be made in two
ways : (i) measurement and the comparison of total growth per unit time is called the absolute
growth rate. (ii) The growth of the given system per unit time expressed on a common basis,
e.g., per unit initial parameter is called the relative growth rate.
VEGETATIVE GROWTH PHASE:
 From seed germination through growth of the primary supportive structures.
 Vegetative growth is the growth of leaves, stem, roots. More the vegetative growth,
more leaf surface is created which is utilized for sugar production.
 Three important processes occur: Cell division, cell enlargement, cell differentiation.
REPRODUCTIVE GROWTH PHASE:
 Maturation of tissues manufactured during vegetative phase.
 Production of growth regulators.
 Development of flower buds, flowers, fruits and seed or the development of storage
organs.
 Most of the carbohydrates are accumulated in the fruit, seed or storage organs.
IN ANNUAL FRUIT CROPS such as strawberry, vegetative growth is terminated by
reproduction. Leaves, stems and other vegetative parts not only fails to compete for current
assimilate during ripening of fruits but also sacrifice previously accumulated carbon and
minerals through mobilization and redistribution.
PERENNIAL FRUIT CROPS such as mango and apple make only partial commitment to
reproduction and shoot that bear fruits may remain healthy and new vegetative shoots are
generated from auxiliary buds.
Single Sigmoid Growth Pattern: A single sigmoid seasonal growth pattern begins with a
slow initial growth rate followed by a phase of rapid linear increase in fruit size and then a
declined growth rate when approaching full maturity. Examples of fruits expressing a single
sigmoid growth pattern are apple, pear, strawberry, walnut, pecan, etc. Such fruits in the slow
initial growth stage show few physiological changes but rapid morphological changes
corresponding to the cell division phase. The mid-season fast growth stage corresponds to
cell enlargement and rapid physiological changes. The declined final growth rate signals the
maturation of the fruit.
Double Sigmoid Growth Pattern: Some fruits express a double sigmoid seasonal growth
pattern with two separate rapid size increasing phases linked by a slow-growth phase.
Examples include stone fruits (peach, plum, cherry, etc.), and other fruits (grape, fig, etc.).
Changes in fruit size are not significant during the slow mid-season growth phase while
internal physiological and morphological growth proceeds. In stone fruits, the slow-growth
phase is corresponding to the hardening of the endocarp and the formation of the pit (Dardick
et al. 2010). In grape, development of the embryo inside the seed is almost completed by the
end of the slow growth phase.
GROWTH FACTORS:
1.LIGHT: is important for seed germination, growth of seedlings, photosynthesis, flowering.
Very low light and very high light cause abnormal growth. Plants grown in absence of light
are etiolated, their stems have excessive growth, plants look pale yellow as there is no
chlorophyll formation.
2.TEMPERATURE: Growth increases with the increase in temperature. Plants can grow
and survive in a specific range of temperature. The suitable growth temperature is 10–15-
degree C ,18-20 degree C for flowering and fruiting. Extreme high and low temperature can
affect plant growth. High temp. Results in problems like sunburn in apple, fruit cracking in
pomegranate, spongy tissue in mango whereas extreme low temp. can cause injury to plant
due to chilling and freezing.
3.Water: Plant absorbs water by its roots and use it in photosynthesis and other physiological
processes. Deficiency and excess of water can retar the growth of plant.
4.Soil: Proper soil texture and structure with good organic matter content accelerates the
growth of the plant. Plants absorbs nutrients from the soil which help in growth and
development of plants.
5.GROWTH REGULATORS: such as auxins, cytokinin, gibberellins, ethylene influence
the plant growth and development.
 AUXIN acts as rooting hormone [IBA], 2-4D acts as herbicide, helps in apical
dominance [suppresses the growth of lateral buds].
 Gibberellins helps in root growth, elongation of internodes, bolting and flowering.
 CYTOKINNIN helps in cell division, cell enlargement, delaying senescence, induce
flowering in short-day plants.
 ETHYLENE helps in fruit ripening e.g.: banana, apples, pears, citrus etc
 ABSCISIC ACID induces dormancy in fruits, senescence and stomatal closing.
Limitation of growth factors
a) Liebig law of minimum:
This concept was formulated by German chemist Justus von Liebig, often called the “father
of the fertilizer industry”. This is an example of Liebig’s Law of the Minimum, which states
that plant growth will continue as long as all required factors are present (e.g. light, water,
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium etc.). When one of those factors is depleted, growth stops.
Increasing the amount of the “limiting” component will allow growth to continue until that
component (or another) is depleted.
b) Blackman's law of limiting factors (1905) :
The law states that “When a process is conditioned as to its rapidity by a number of separate
factors, the rate of process is limited by the pace of the slowest factor”. To explain the
principle of limiting factor, Blackman gave the following illustration which is also shown
graphically. Suppose a leaf is exposed to a certain light intensity which allows the leaf to
utilize 5 mg of CO2 per hour in photosynthesis. The photosynthesis will not occur if the CO2
is totally absent in the atmosphere. If one mg of CO2 is available, the rate of photosynthesis
is limited due to CO2 factor. If the CO2 concentration is increased in the atmosphere from 1
mg to 5 mg / hour, the rate of photosynthesis increases along the line AB. Thus, the increase
in photosynthetic rate will be proportionate with the increase in CO2 concentration up to 5
mg. Any further increase in amount of CO2, will not increase the rate of photosynthesis and
the rate becomes constant along the line BC. This is because the light factor (low intensity)
has now become the limiting factor. Addition of CO2 with increase in light intensity
increases the rate of photosynthesis along the line BD. Under these conditions increase of
CO2 will not increase the rate of photosynthesis. The rate becomes constant along the line
DE. Here also the light intensity becomes the limiting factor. Further, increase in light
intensity from the medium to high, increases the rate of photosynthesis along the line DF by
adding CO2. When the rate attains maximum at F, further, increase in CO2 will not increase
the rate of photosynthesis, which becomes constant along the line FG. It indicates that
sunlight again becomes the limiting factor. Besides, light and CO2, other factors such as
temperature, water, etc may also become limiting under certain conditions.
c) Mitscherlich: law of diminishing returns:
Mitscherlich (1909) a Soil Scientist observed that when plants had adequate amounts of all
but one limiting element, the growth response is proportional to the limiting element,
however plant growth increased with additional increments, of a limiting factor, but not in
direct proportion. The law of diminishing return states that the "increase in any crop produced
by a unit increment of a deficient factor is proportional to the element of that factor from the
minimum". The response is curvilinear, instead of linear, as Blackman suggested.
Growth correlations
Plants acquire a characteristic shape or form by correlated growth of component parts.
Favourable environment can enhance growth quantitatively, but the geometry of the parts and
the whole plant is relatively constant. The relationship between the growth rate of individual
parts of an organ or organism is called as allometry. The relationship between two variants (X
and Y) may be expressed as Y = bxk .
Where X and Y are physical parameters b and k are constant. K, being the allometric
constant. The quantity of K can be calculated from the equation log Y = log b + k log 2 or by
linear regression analysis of the data set Y and X. E.g., If length and breadth of a leaf expand
at the same rate, the slope of the regression line (the coefficient of allometry or K) is 1.0
(one). Similarly the harvest index (proportion of seed weight to whole plant weight) has a
relatively high coefficient of allometry. Actually allometry deals with the correlation of
physiological process, specifically with reference to growth analysis of crops.
 Shoot-root ratio: It is a type of allometric growth that reflects one type of tolerance to
drought stress. Though the shoot root ratio is under genetic control, it can be modified by the
environment. For example, under high nitrogen regime approximately 90per cent of the
photosynthate is partitioned into shoot compared to 50 per cent to the shoot under low N.
Similarly the water deficits significantly affect the shoot growth.

DEVELOPMENT: It includes all the changes that a plant undergoes during its life cycle
from germination of the seed to senescence.
 To begin with, it is essential and sufficient to know that the development of a mature
plant from a zygote [fertilized egg] follow a precise and highly ordered succession of
events.
 During this process a complex body organization is formed that produces roots,
leaves, branches, flowers, fruits and seeds and eventually they die.
 Development is associated with morphogenesis and differentiation.
MORHOGENSIS: is the process of development of shape and structure of a plant or an
organism.
 When a cell loses the capacity to divide, it leads to differentiation. Differentiation
results in development of structures that is commensurate with the function the cells
finally has to perform.
 General principles for differentiation for cell, tissues and organs are similar.
 A differentiated cell may dedifferentiate and then redifferentiate.
 Since differentiation in plants is open, the development could also be flexible i.e., the
development is the sum of growth and differentiation.
DIFFERENTIATION:
 Cellular differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more
specialized type.
 Cells derived from meristems and cambium differentiate and mutate to perform
specific functions which is termed as differentiation.
 Cells undergoes structural changes during differentiation. Changes takes place both in
cell wall and protoplasm.Eg: Cells lose their protoplasm during the formation of
treachery elements.
 Plants develop a strong, elastic, lignocellulosic secondary cell walls, to carry water to
long distances even under extreme tension
DEDIFFERENTIATION: An undividable differentiated cell sometimes regains the power
of division. This process is called dedifferentiation. It is common during secondary growth
and wound healing.
REDIFFERENTIATION: A dedifferentiated cell can divide and produce new cells. New
cells produced again loose the power of division and becomes a part of permanent tissue
which is called redifferentiation. Eg: formation of tumour cells.
Growth and differentiation :
Plant development is a combination of complex processes of growth and differentiation that
leads to an accumulation of dry matter.
While growth is the increment in weight or volume due to cell division and cell enlargement,
differentiation is the formation of specialized cells like xylem and phloem and formation of
different plant parts like root, stem, leaves, etc. Differentiation processes have three
requisites:
i. Available assimilates in excess of most metabolic uses
ii. A favourable temperature
iii. Proper enzyme system for cell wall thickening, secondary product accumulation (eg.
alkaloids and starches) and protoplasm hardening may occur which result in changes in
anatomy and morphology.
Growth Analysis :
• The analysis of yield influencing factors and plant development as net photosynthate
accumulation integrated over time is known as growth analysis.
• Growth analysis can be made at individual plant level or plant communities.
• The analyses made at individual plant level are RGR, AGR, NAR, LAR, SLA, SLW and
allometry (shoot/root ratio).
• The analyses made at plant community level are LAI, LAD, CGR and DMA.
• The technique of growth analysis is advantageous to crop scientist as it helps to find out the
relationship between photosynthetic production and rate of increase in dry matter.
• Methods of growth studies provide better understanding of growth processes and
limitations of the crop yield.
PARAMETERS OF GROWTH:
1) Leaf Area (LA)
It is the surface area of leaf, which aids in photosynthesis.
Total leaf area per plant is often a useful measurement in bio-productivity studies.
• Area can be measured by graphic methods, weight method, by using Leaf Area Meter and
by measuring length and breadth of the leaf.
A) Weight method
LA = X /A * B
Where, X = known area of leaves
A = dry weight of known area of leaf
B = dry weight of unknown area of all leaves
The leaf area of standard leaves, usually 3rd leaf from the top is measured and dried.
B) Linear measurement method
LA = LBK (cm2 or m2 )
Where, L=maximum length, B=maximum breadth, K=constant (can be worked out by
regression analysis) K value may not be the same for different varieties in the same species.
2) Leaf Area Index (LAI)

Watson (1947) proposed the term leaf area index which is the ratio of the leaf area of a plant
to the ground area occupied by the plant.
Leaf area index = Total leaf area of the plant /Ground area occupied by the plant (spacing)
3) Leaf Area Ratio (LAR)
The term leaf area ratio was suggested by Redford (1967).
It is defined as the ratio of area of the leaf to the total plant biomass per plant. It is expressed
in terms of cm2g -1 .
LAR = Leaf area per plant/Total plant dry weight
In broad sense, LAR represents the ratio of photosynthesizing to respiratory material within
the plant.
4) Leaf Area Duration (LAD)
• It is ability of the plant to maintain the green leaves per unit area of the land over a period of
time.
• It reflects the vitality of leaves and an opportunity for assimilation.
• It also measures the persistence of the assimilating surface.
• This factor was suggested by Power et al. (1967) and expressed in days.
LAD = L1+L2 x (t2 – t1)
Where, L1 is Leaf area index at first stage ,L2 is Leaf area index at second stage, t2 –t1 –
Time interval between the two consequent stages and expressed in days.
5) Specific Leaf Area (SLA)
It is the ratio of assimilating area to its dry weight. Following formula was proposed by Kvet
et al. (1971) to arrive SLA and expressed as cm2 g -1 .
SLA = Leaf Area/ Leaf dry weight
6) Specific Leaf Weight (SLW)
• Using the leaf dry weight and leaf area, SLW is calculated.
• It is the ratio of leaf dry weight to its area of assimilating surface.
•The formula was suggested by Pearce et al. (1968) and expressed as mg cm-2.
SLW = Leaf weight/Leaf area
8) Net Assimilation Rate (NAR)
It is the rate of increase of leaf by dry weight per unit area of leaf per unit time. Williams
(1946) employed the formula and expressed as mg cm-2 day -1
NAR = Loge L2 – Loge L1/ L2-L1 * W2 – W1 / t2-t1 Where, Log e L2 = Natural log of leaf
area at stage 2. Log e L1 = Natural log of leaf area at stage 1.
L2 & L1 = Leaf area at stage 2 & 1 respectively

W2 & W1 = Dry weight of the whole plant at stage 2 & 1 respectively

t2-t1 = Time interval between the two stages
NAR is expressed as mg cm-2 day -1
9) Relative Growth Rate (RGR)
• It is the rate of increase of dry weight per unit weight already present per unit time.
• Williams (1946) suggested the formula.
RGR = Loge W2 – loge W1 / t2 – t1
Where W2 & W1 = Whole plant dry weight at t2 & t1 respectively and expressed as g g-1
day-1
10) Crop Growth Rate (CGR)
CGR is a simple and important aid of agriculture productivity. It is the rate of increase of dry
weight per unit land area per unit time. Watson (1958) suggested the following formula to
arrive Crop Growth Rate
CGR = LAI X NAR
Where, W2 and W1 are total plant dry weight at time t2 and t1 and P is plant population per
unit area.
CGR is also the product of leaf area index and net assimilation rate.
CGR increases as LAI increases to an optimum because of greater light interception. CGR is
expressed as mg m-2 day -1 .
12) Harvest Index (HI): It reflects the proportion of assimilate distribution between
economic yield and total biomass yield (Donald and Hamblin, 1976).
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