STATES OF MATTER

All matter is made up of mostly three types of particles; namely solids, liquids and
gases.Following table summarises the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids
and gases.

Following table summarises the structure of  solids , liquids and gases:
State Changes:

 Melting: It is a change from a solid to a liquid at the solid's melting point

 Boiling :It is a change of state from liquid to gas at the liquid's boiling point
 Evaporation: It is a change of state from liquid to gas at a range of
temperatures
 Condensation: It is a change of state from gas to liquid at a range of
temperatures
 Freezing: It is a change of state from liquid to gas at the liquid's freezing
poin

DENSITY

density = mass / volume or d = m / V

Determining the density:

Density is a measure of the amount of mass per unit volume. To calculate density,
we divide the total mass of a substance by its total volume (the total amount of
space it occupies).

If you write that down mathematically, it becomes

Density = mass / volume

which is shortened to
d = m / V,
where d is density in kg/m3, m is mass in kg and V is the volume in m3.
Note that density can also be measured in g/m3 or g/cm3.
To convert kg/m3 to g/m3, all you need to do is multiply by 1000. For example,
1kg/m3 is 1000g/m3, because there are 1000g in 1kg.
To convert g/m3 to g/cm3, you need to divide by 1,000,000 or 10^6
To convert kg/m3 to g/cm3, all you have to multiply by 1000 and then divide by 106.

Determining the density of a liquid:

To calculate the mass of a liquid, first, weigh the container that is going to hold the
liquid on an electric balance. Record the mass shown. Then add the liquid to the
container (fill it up to the mark if it’s a volumetric flask), and measure and record
the mass of the container + liquid.

The mass of container + liquid minus the mass of the container will give you the
mass of the liquid.

Now you need the volume of the liquid. Simply read the volume from the
graduations on the measuring cylinder, or, if it’s a volumetric flask and you’ve
filled it up to the mark, you already know its volume
Note that 1ml = 1cm3 and 1litre = 1dm3.
Now calculate the density of the liquid using d = m / V and the appropriate units.
Determining the density of a regularly shaped solid:

‘regularly shaped’ solids, ones that you can calculate the volume of using math –
like a cube or cuboid, a cylinder, a prism, a pyramid, a sphere, etc.

So the first step is calculating and recording the volume of the solid.

Then find and record its mass by weighing it on an electric balance.

Calculate its density using the formula d = m / V and the appropriate units.

 

Calculating volume with a measuring cylinder:

First, fill a measuring cylinder with water to about half its volume and record the
volume of the water in the cylinder. Then carefully drop the solid into the water,
making sure not to splash the water. Record the new volume. The initial volume
reading is the volume of the water, and the final volume reading is the volume of
the water + solid, so the difference between the two volume readings is the volume
of the solid.

PRESSURE
Pressure is a measure of the amount of force applied on a surface, per unit area of
that surface.

That means, for a fixed area, if you apply a huge amount of force, you’ll be
applying a large pressure on that area. For that same area, if you apply a smaller
force, the pressure will be smaller.

Similarly, for a fixed amount of force, if it’s spread out over a large surface area,
the force per unit area is small, so the pressure is small. However, for that same
force, if it’s concentrated on a small area, the force per unit area is larger, so the
pressure is larger.

Pressure is a measure of force per unit area. This can be written in equation form
as:

P=F/A

Where P is pressure, F is force and A is area.

The unit for pressure is N/m2 or Pa (Pascals).

The unit for force is N (Newtons).

The unit for area is m2.

Absolute Zero
 The amount of pressure that a gas exerts on its container is dependent on
the temperature of the gas

o This is because particles move with more energy as their

temperature increases

 As the temperature of the gas decreases, the pressure on the container also
decreases

 In 1848, Mathematician and Physicist, Lord Kelvin, recognised that there

must be a temperature at which the particles in a gas exert no pressure

o At this temperature they must no longer be moving, and hence not

colliding with their container

 This temperature is called absolute zero and is equal to -273 °C

  Absolute zero is defined as:

The temperature at which the molecules in a substance have zero kinetic energy 

 This means for a system at absolute zero, it is not possible to remove any
more energy from it

 Even in space, the temperature is roughly 2.7 K above absolute zero

The Kelvin Scale

 The Kelvin temperature scale begins at absolute zero

o 0 K is equal to -273 °C 

o An increase of 1 K is the same change as an increase of 1 °C

 It is not possible to have a temperature lower than 0 K

 This means a temperature in Kelvin will never be a negative value

 To convert between temperatures θ in the Celsius scale, and T in the Kelvin

scale, use the following conversion:

θ / °C = T / K − 273

T / K = θ / °C + 273

Boyle’s Law
Boyle’s Law states that for a gas at a constant temperature, pressure × volume is
also constant. So, increasing pressure means that volume will decrease providing
that the temperature remains constant.

What happens if we change the temperature of a fixed volume of gas?

 When the temperature is increased, the gas particles move faster and the
collisions become harder and more frequent. This means that the pressure
also increases.

 When the temperature is decreased, the gas particles move more slowly and
the collisions are less hard and less frequent. This means that the pressure
also decreases.
Eventually at absolute zero, which is -273°C, the molecules stop moving and the
gas does not exert any pressure at all. This temperature is known as absolute zero.

The average kinetic energy of the particles in a gas is directly proportional to

the Kelvin temperature of the gas.