UNIT THIRTEEN

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS

Topic 1 Finding the trigonometric ratios

In the first place we shall mention what trigonometry is all about.

Trigonometry deals with relations between sides and angles of a triangle. We shall first
consider right-angled triangles.
A

Opposite hypotenese

Q
B adjacent C

Figure 1.

1.0 Sine, Cosine and Tangent Ratios

There are three important ratios in a right angled triangle namely sine, cosine and tangent.
The ratios are defined in terms of the angles and sides of a right-angled triangle.

In a right-angled triangle, these formulae may be summarized as follows using figure 1.

We have

Sine θ = Sin θ = opposite =O

Hypotenuse H

Cosine θ = Cos θ = Adjacent =A

Hypotenuse H

Tangent θ = Tan θ = Sin θ = opposite ÷ adjacent

Cos θ hypotenuse hypotenuse
= opp x hyp
hyp adj
Therefore, Tangent θ = opposite = O
 Adjacent A

Example 1

In the triangle below AB = 3cm and AC = 5cm. Find the sine, cosine and tangent ratios
of angles

(a) A (b) C

3cm 5cm

B C

Solution.

Since ∆ABC is a right-angled triangle, we can find BC using the Pythagoras Theorem.

BC2 = AC2 – AB2

= 52 – 32
= 25 – 9
BC2 = 16
BC = √16
BC = 4cm

Then we need to identify the sides for each respective angle given to us in the question.

(a) Sin A = BC = 4
AC 5
Cos A = AB = 3
AC 5
Tan A = BC = 4
AB 3

(b) Sin C = AB = 3
AC 5
Cos C = BC = 4
AC 5
Tan C = AB = 3
BC 4
Values of sine, cosine and tangents for angles O0 to 900 can be obtained from your
calculator.

Example 2

Find the following:

(a) The sine, cosine and tangent of the following angles

(i) 400
(ii) 1.60
(iii) 410 151
(iv) 860 361

(b) The acute angle in each of the following are:

(i) Sine a0 = 0.4153

(ii) sine b0 = 0.6394
(iii) Tan x = 0.0343
(iv) Cos w = 0.0103
(v) Cos y = 0.0200

Solutions

(a) (i) Sin 400 = 0.6428

Cos 400 = 0.7660
Tan 400 = 0.8391

(ii) Sin 1.60 = 0.0279

Cos 1.60 = 0.9996
Tan 1.60 = 0.0279

(iii) Since the angle has minutes, we have to change minutes into decimals i.e.
dividing the minutes by 60, so that we have 15 = 1 = 0.25. The angle
becomes 41.250 60 4

Sin 41.250 = 0.6593 Cos 41.250 = 0.7518 Tan 41.250 = 0.8770

(b) (i) Sin a0 = 0.4153

a = sin-1 0.4153
a = 24.54

This is found on the calculator i.e. either 2nd function or shift of sin.

(ii) Sin b = 0.6394

= sin-1 0.6394
 = 39.750

(iii) Tan x = 0.0343

x = Tan-1 0.0343
x = 1.960

(iv) Cos w = 0.0103

= cos-1 0.0103
= 89.410

(v) Cos y = 0.0200

= cos-1 0.0200
Y = 88.850

Activity 1

Using your calculators find the value of each of the following:

(a) Sin 540

(b) Sin 170
(c) Sin 330 451
(d) Cos 640
(e) Cos 180
(f) Cos 230 180
(g) Tan 56.30
(h) Tan 14.530
(i) Tan 80
(j) Sin 310

Topic 2 Application of sine, cosine and tangent ratios

2.1 Two dimensional figures

Example 3

A wall is ‘h’ metres high. A ladder, leaning from the top of the wall to the ground is 23
metres long. The ladder makes an angle of elevation of 560 with the horizontal ground.
Find:

(a) The distance of the foot of the ladder from the bottom of the wall.
(b) The value of ‘h’

Solution

(a) The distance of the foot of the ladder from the bottom of the wall is the adjacent.
 Wall hm 23m

560
x

So we have been given the angle of elevation as 560 , the hypotenuse is the length of the
ladder.

θ = 560 We shall use cosine ratio

hyp = 23m cos θ = adj x = 23 cos 560
adj = x hyp x = 23 x 0.5591
cos 560 = x x = 12.86m.
23

(b) The value of ‘h’ can be found by using either sine ratio or tangent ratio.

Sin θ = opp or tan θ = opp

hyp adj
Sin 560 = h tan 560 = h__
23 12.86
h = 23 sin 560 h = 12.86 tan 560
= 23 x 0.8290 = 12.86 x 1.4826
h = 19.07m h = 19.07m

Example 4

An aircraft flies from Q to A; 350km due south, then flies to B 100Km due west of A.
Find

(a) The bearing of Q from B

(b) The distance from B to Q

Solution

A sketch
Q
We have the opposite and the adjacent sides.
Therefore, the ratio is
Tan θ = opp
350 Km adj
Tan θ = 350
100
 x Q Tan θ = 3.5
B A θ = Tan-1 3.5
100km θ = 74.050

Since θ = 74.050
Then x = 900 – 74.050
= 15.950
Therefore, the bearing of Q from B is 15.950

(b) The distance from B to Q is found by using the sine or cosine ratios.
i.e Sin θ = opp
hyp
Sin 74.05 = 350
x
x = 350_____
Sin 74.05
= 350___
0.9615
x = 364.01km

Therefore, the distance from B to Q is 364.01 Km.

Activity 2

1. Calculate the value of x in each of the following diagrams

(a) (b) 8 (c)

540
x
4 x
300 260
10
x

2. A rectangle has length 7.5cm and breadth 3.5 cm. If a diagonal is drawn, find the
size of the angle formed by the diagonal and one of the longer sides

3. One end of a rope is tied to the top of a pole which is 25m long and the rope is
pulled taut and then the other end is tied to a peg on the level ground. The angle
 of elevation which the rope makes with the ground is 470. Find the distance from
the peg to the base of the peg.

4. A ship sails 15Km due east and then 35Km due south. Find its present bearing
from its starting point.

5. In triangle XYZ besides, XY = 8.1cm, AZ = 4.6cm and <XYZ = 670. Calculate

(a) XZ (b) YZ (c) <AYZ
A 4.6
X Z

8.1

670
Y

2.2 Three dimensional figures.

Example 5

A pyramid PQRST has a square base PQRS of side 6cm. The diagonals intersect at N.
The vertex T is vertically above N and its length is 10cm. L is the mid point of PQ.
Calculate (a) length TL (b) <QTN

P S
L
N 6cm
Q R
6cm
Solution

(a) First draw separately the right-angled triangle TLN from the pyramid.

10

L N
3

TL2 = TN2 + NL2

= 102 + 32 LN is half of QR = ½ x 6 = 3
= 100 + 9
TL2 = 109_
TL = √109
TL = 10.44cm

(b) <QTN is found using the ratio tan θ from a right-angled triangle QTN.

Tan <QTN = QN
10 10

Q N

QN is ½ of QS. Since QN = ½ QS
QS2 = QR2 + RS2 = ½ x 8.485
= 62 + 62 = 4.2425cm
= 36 + 36 = 4.243 (3d.p)
QS2 = 72 Therefore, QN = 4.243cm
QS = √72
QS = 8.485cm

We now replace in

Tan <QTN = QN
10
Tan <QTN = 4.243
10
Tan <QTN = 0.4243
<QTN = Tan-1 0.4243
<QTN = 22.990

Activity 3

1. D

490

A B
12

Three points ABC are on horizontal ground as shown in the diagram above. D is
vertically above B. If <BDC = 490, BC = 12cm and AB = 16cm. Calculate

(a) BD (b) DA (c) <BDA (d) <BAC

PABCD is a pyramid standing on a horizontal base ABCD. ABCD is a square with sides
of length 6cm. E is the mid-point of AD. PE is the vertical and PE = 6cm. Calculate

(a) PA (b) PB (c) <APE (d) <EPB

3.
A 20 B

21
33
D

C
A vertical pole BC is supported by 2 cables BD and BA as shown in the diagram above.
BC = 33cm, BD = 21 cm and AB = 20cm. Calculate

(a) <BCA (b) <BCD (c) DC (d) AC

Summary

In your study you looked at the 3 trigonometric ratios, which were sine, cosine and
tangent.

That is

Sine θ = Sin θ = opposite = Opp

hypotenuse Hyp

Cosine θ = Cos θ = Adjacent = Adj

hypotenuse Hyp

Tangent θ = Tan = opposite = Opp

adjacent Adj

If we are to find an angle, we first use any of the trigometric ratios and then find its
inverse.

i.e. Cos θ = x
θ = cos-1 x

I hope you enjoyed your study and you are ready for the next unit.
 UNIT FOURTEEN

STATISTICS

Topic 1 Data presentation

(a) Pie Chart

A pie chart shows how various parts are related to a whole. On a pie chart, we can either
show angles and the data being analysed or we can shade the regions on the pie chart and
explain the shadings in a separate key.

Example

In a class of 50 pupils 20 eat pork, 5 eat beef, 10 eat chicken and 15 eat fish. Represent
this information on a pie chart.

First we are going to calculate the angle each relish will occupy as follows:

Pork 20/50 x 3600 = 1440

Beef 5/50 x 3600 = 360
Chicken 10/50 x 3600 = 720
Fish 15/50 x 3600 = 1080

The total angels for a pie chart is 3600.

So now we are going to use a protractor and measure these angles and fill in correctly.

This is a pie chart showing sectors with

Numbers of pupils.

Beef Pork If you are asked to find the number angles

(5 pupils) (20 pupils) representing Pork.
20 x 3600 = 1440
50
Chicken Fish
(10 pupils) (15 pupils)
 If you are given the total number of pupils
And you are asked to find numbers in one
Sector e.g. pupils eating beef.
Pork 36 + 50 = 5
Beef 360 1440 360
So 5 pupils eat beef.
720 1080
Chicken
Fish

Example

The pie chart below shows different classrooms in a certain school. The total number of
pupils in class is 240.

(a) What fraction of pupils were in 105

Ans. 900 = ¼
101 3600
102
0 0
63 102 (b) How many are in 103
105 Ans. 3600 – (630 + 1020 + 900 + 270)
= 780 is the angle in 103
270
103
104

To find the number 78 x 240

360
= 52 pupils are in 103.

(b) Bar Graph

In a bar graph we shall be comparing frequency. Using the same example on the
pie chart we can draw a bar graph.
 Bar Graph

25
Number of Pupils

20

15

10

0
Pork Beef Chicken Fish
Types of Relish

Pork – 20 pupils
Beef – 5 pupils
Chicken – 10 pupils
Fish – 15 pupils

Example

A woman decides to spend her income of K32,000 as follows:

Rice – 16,000 Other – 6,000

Rent – 2,400 Draw a bar chart for the above information
Zesco bills – 800
Transport – 5,600
 18000
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Rice Rent Zesco Bills Transport Other

(c) Line Graph

In a line graph, you use a line to show information. A very good example of a
line graph is the under five clinic card.

Let us draw a line graph for the data below.

The following table show the number of pupils in each class.

Class 121 122 123 124 125

No. of pupils 20 18 15 20 16

You plot the points and then join them with straight line then you have formed or
draw a line graph.

25

20

15
Line 2
10

0
12 12 12 12 12

Example

From the table below draw a line graph. The table shows the number of pupils who
failed in grade 9 in each year.
 Year 1970 1971 1972 1973
Number of 2 8 4 10
pupils

12
Number of pupils

10
8
6
4
2
0
1970 1971 1972 1973
Years

Activity 1

(1) Draw a bar graph from the information of number of letters per word.

Number of letters 2 3 4 5 6 7
per word
Frequence 15 8 12 8 2 3

How many words had less than 5 letters.

(2) The diagram below shows a survey of types of shoes won from a school of 150
pupils.

Slippers Sandals

Tuckies Other

Boots Canavas Tropicals

(a) If the angle for canavas is 240, how many pupils wear canavas.
(b) If 45 pupils wear sandals, find the angle of the sector for sandals.
 (c) If there are 25 pupils who wear slippers, 30 wear boots and the angle
sector for tuckies is 480. If the number of pupils who wear tropicals
and those for others are equal, how many pupils wear tropicals and
others all together.

3. Draw a line graph for the information given below.

Temperature
at 12 hours 15 10 15 20 25 15 5
Days Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

(d) Frequency Table

We can also present data in tabular form using what is known as frequency table. We
have two column’s or rows in a frequency table. One is for measure under consideration
and the other for the number of times the measure occurs. We call the number times a
measure occurs as the frequency.

We are going to look at two types of data; the grouped data and ungrouped data.

Ungrouped data

Let us look at the data below which represent lengths of 40 sticks.

5 6 5 3 8 9 6 4 3 6
4 7 4 3 6 4 7 4 4 5
7 8 5 5 4 6 5 6 7 5
5 5 7 5 3 3 4 7 9 4

Lengths of sticks Frequency

3 5
4 9
5 10
6 6
7 6
8 2
9 2
Total = 40

This table means there are 5 threes on the data, 9 fours, 10 fives, 6 sixes and so on.

Example

The following marks were recorded in an English test, marked out of 10.
4 7 3 6 6 7 2 0 1 8
0 8 4 4 5 3 9 4 6 5
3 1 5 4 3 7 8 8 2 0

Draw a frequency table.

Sometimes a frequency table will have three columns, the third one being of tallies. It
helps in getting the frequency of each number.

Answer.

Marks Tallies Frequency

0 III 3
1 II 2
2 II 2
3 IIII 4
4 IIII 5
5 III 3
6 III 3
7 III 3
8 IIII 4
9 I 1

Total = 30

(e) Grouped data

Some data is usually widely spread and so it becomes necessary to group it into class
intervals. The class interval should be the same for a given set of data.

Example

The data below represent speed in Km/h for 20 drivers.

25 28 31 28 40 30 38 43 51 45
57 42 51 54 47 33 46 45 26 34

Such data is easy to analyse when grouped into fives. The classes will be as follows:

Start with the smallest number

25 to 29
30 to 34
35 to 39
40 to 44
45 to 49
50 to 54
55 to 59

Marks Tallies Frequency

25 – 29 IIII 4
30 – 34 IIII 4
35 – 39 I 1
40 – 44 III 3
45 – 49 IIII 4
50 – 54 III 3
55 – 59 I 1
Total = 20

Activity 2

1. Draw a frequency table from the data give below which present test result from a
chemistry exam

3 4 2 6 7 5 7 6 7 1
2 1 0 3 5 4 8 9 3 0

2. The following marks were obtained from a mathematics test. Use this data and
construct a frequency table using a class interval of 5 beginning with 30 – 34.

73 60 65 72 40 71 47 80 90 78
32 90 44 47 50 41 46 33 44 71
40 42 51 82 40 76 60 30 61 83
44 57 83 39 60 64 49 39 91 92

(f) Histogram

A histogram is similar to a bar graph in some ways, one of them being that both are made
of bars. The following are the difference:

- In a histogram there are no spaces

- The width of a histogram may not be uniform and when this is the case that
width of the rectangular bar is not uniform, the vertical axis is called the
frequency density.
- The areas of the bars of a histogram give the frequency.

Example 1

Construct a histogram from the table below with equal width.

Marks 1 – 10 11 – 20 21 – 30 31 – 40 41 – 50 51 – 60 61 – 70 71 – 80
Frequency 4 10 14 14 20 24 16 8

This is a histogram with regular class intervals (class interval of 10).

Example 2

Draw a histogram from the table below with un equal width.

Mark 1 – 30 31 – 40 41 – 50 51 – 60 61 – 80
Frequency 12 14 18 22 8

The bar A has class interval 30 and B has class interval 20 while the rest have 10 each.
1cm = 1 class interval of 10, 30 for A which covers 3cm giving us 3 tens which is 30.
To get the number of pupils who got from 1- 30 you find the area of bar A, it will be 3 x
4 = 12 pupils. The height of this bar is 4 and its width 3. 1cm = 1 unit so 3cm = 3 units.
The same for B. The width is 2 and so its height should be 14 to give 2 x 14 = 28 pupils
who scored between 61 – 80 marks.

(g) Frequency Polygon

The mid points of the tops of the bars of a histogram can be joined with straight lines
form a Frequency Polygon.

Example

If we take the first example under the Histogram.

Marks 1 – 10 11 – 20 21 – 30 31 – 40 51 – 60 61 - 70 71 – 80
Frequency 4 10 14 14 20 24 8

Without the histogram it would look like this.

Topic 2 Measures of Central Tendency

A measure of central tendency is simply a representative measure for a type or set of

data. We refer to it as average. We have three kinds of averages which are the mean,
mode and median. We shall look at them under two headings, mainly the grouped data
and ungrouped data.

(a) Ungrouped data

Mean – To get the mean of ungrouped data, just add all the data and divide by the total
number of the same data.

Example

Find the mean in {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

Mean = 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10
5
= 30
5
= 6

Mode – This is the most frequent measure.

Example

Write down the mode for the following set of numbers 11, 4, 2, 4, 7, 7, 8, 7. 7 is the
mode because it is appearing more times than any number.

Median – This is the middle measure when the data given is arranged in order either
ascending or descending.

Example

Find the median from the following set of data,

(a) {2, 7, 3, 4, 6}

Answer

First arrange the numbers in order

2, 3, 4, 6, 7
Is the median

(b) 1, 7, 3, 4, 6, 2
 Answer

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Median
First you add 3 + 4 and divide by 2 = 3 + 4 = 7 = 3½ is the median
2 2

(b) Grouped data

We shall consider an example of pupils from a grade 12 class. If the total number of
pupils is 160 and the following table gives the results of their geography mock exams.

Marks 1–5 6 – 10 11 – 15 16 - 20
Frequency 16 46 70 28

To find the mean we have to draw a frequency table as follows:

Mark Frequency (f) Mid Value (x) F(x)

1–5 16 3 54
6 – 10 46 8 368
11 – 15 70 13 910
16 – 20 28 18 504
Totals ∑f = 160 ∑f(x) 1836

∑ => symbol for summation or sigma

Mid value => mid value of each class interval

F(x) => product of frequency (f) and mid value x

_
The mean is denoted by x
So x = ∑f(x) => 1836 = 11.47
∑f 160

Example

Calculate the mean mark from the frequency table below.

Marks 1–5 6 – 10 11 – 15 16 - 20
Frequency 10 41 72 83
Mark Frequency f Mid value x f/x
1–5 10 3 30
6 – 10 41 8 328
11 – 15 72 13 936
16 – 20 83 18 1491
206 2788
_
X = ∑f(x) => 2788 = 13.53
∑f 206

Activity 3

1. Draw a histogram from the table below using 1cm to 2 units

Mark 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency 2 0 3 9 12 7 1 8 6 12

2. Using the table in question 1 draw a frequency table.

3. The table below shows the results of a mathematics examination.

Marks 1–4 5–8 9 – 12 13 – 16 17 – 20

Frequency 4 10 28 15 3

(a) How many students wrote the examination?

(b) How many has 12 and less than 12 marks.

(c) Draw a histogram for the table below which has been derived from the main
table.

Marks 1–8 9 – 16 17 – 20
Frequency 14 43 3

Activity 4

1. From the following set of numbers find

(i) mean (ii) mode (iii) median

(a) 11, 7, 4, 3, 6, 2
(b) 20, 21, 10, 12

2. If the mean of 10, 8, 7, 12, y, 4, 10 and 6 is 8, find y

3. From the table below answer the question that follow.

Mark Frequency
35 – 39 3
40 – 44 2
45 – 49 5
50 – 54 0
55 – 59 3
60 – 64 10
65 – 69 4
70 – 74 1
75 – 79 2
80 – 84 4
85 – 89 1

(a) Find the mean mark

(b) Find the modal class
(c) How many pupils passed if the pass mark was 60%
(d) How many pupils sat for the examination

Summary

In this unit you looked at various ways of presenting data. Some of which, the pie chart,
bar graph, the line graph and the frequency table. We also looked at the histogram and
the frequency polygon. We hope you enjoyed the unit and you are ready for the next
unit.
 UNIT FIFTEEN

SEQUENCES

Topic 1 Sequence

Suppose a man travels at a speed of 60Km/h, then this means that the man will cover a
distance of 60Km in 1 hour, 120 Km in 2 hours, 180Km in 3 hours and so on.

From the above statement, we can form a list of the distance covered every hour, as
shown below:-

60, 120, 180, ….

This list is known as a sequence.

A sequence is a list of numbers arranged in a definite order. The numbers in a sequence

are called terms.

Sequences can either be finite or infinite.

An example of a finite sequence is 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 while an example of an infinite sequence

is 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, …..

Example 1

Write down the next two terms in each of the following sequences

(a) 3, 6, 9, …..
(b) 5, 9, 13, …..

Solution

(a) Each term in this sequence is calculated by adding 3 to the preceding term.

Therefore, the next two terms are (9 + 3) = 12 and (12 + 3) = 15

(b) Each term in this sequence is calculated by adding 4 to the preceding term.
Therefore the next two terms are (13 + 4) = 17 and (17 + 4) = 21

1.1 The nth term of a sequence

Let us consider the association between the time taken and the distance covered
by a man walking at a constant speed of 4Km/h.
 Time in hours 1 2 3 4 ….
Distance in Km 4 8 12 16 …..

From this series it can be seen that there is a definite relationship between the list
of natural numbers representing time and the list of numbers representing distance
namely 4 x 1 = 4, 4 x 2 = 8, 4 x 3 = 12 and so on. It can be assumed that if the
man walked up to the nth hour, then the distance he would cover would be 4 x n =
4n. This gives the formula for calculating the nth term in this particular sequence.

The nth term of a sequence is usually expressed as a function of n, where n is a

natural number.

Thus an = 4n, meaning when n = 1, a1 = 4 x 1 = 4

When n = 2, a2 = 4 x 2 = 8
When n = 3, a3 = 4 x 3 = 12

Example 2

Find the formula for the nth term of the following sequence.

(a) 1, 3, 5, 7, ….
(b) 1, 8, 27, 64, ….

Solution

(a) If we look at the sequence in (a) each term is obtained by multiplying the
number of its position by 2 and subtracting 1 from the product. That is,

1st term => (1 x 2) – 1 = 1

2nd term => (2 x 2) – 1 = 3
3rd term => (3 x 2) – 1 = 5
4th term => (4 x 2) – 1 = 7

Therefore, an = 2n - 1

(b) Each term in the sequence is obtained by cubing the number of its position. That
is

1st term => 13 = 1

2nd term => 23 = 8
3rd term => 33 = 27
4th term => 43 = 64

Therefore an = n3.
Refer back to example 2(a)
1, 3, 5, 7, …..

You notice that the difference of each term is 2 i.e.

1, 3, 5, 7, …..
2 2 2 difference

Since there is a common difference, then the nth term will be in the form.

an + b where n is the natural number and a & b are constants.

The first term is 1 i.e. n = 1

Therefore a(1) + b = 1
a + b = 1 ……….. eqn (i)

The second term is 3 i.e. n = 2

Therefore a(2) + b = 3
2a + b = 3 ……… eqn (ii)

We can then solve the two equations simultaneously.

a+b=1
-(2a + b = 3)
-a = -2
Therefore, a = 2

Replacing ‘a’ with 2 in any of the two equation we have 2 + b = 1 => b = -1

Then replacing in an + b, the nth term will be 2n – 1

Example 3

Find the 1st and 12th terms of the sequence whose nth term is given by the formula

an = n__
n+3

Solution

1st term => when n = 1, a1 = 1

1+3
a1 = ¼
12th term => when n = 12, a12 = 12_
12 + 3
= 12
15
 = 4
5

Activity 1

(1) Find the next two terms of each of the following sequences:
(a) 1, 4, 7, 10, …..
(b) 100, 50, 25, ….
(c) 1000, 100, 10, ….
(d) 1000, 900, 810, ….

(2) Find the 1st and 6th terms of each of the following sequences whose nth term is
given by the formula. In each case n N.

(a) an = 3n
(b) an = n
2n
(c) an = 2n + 2
(d) an = n3 – 4
(e) an = n(n – 1)
2

(3) Find formula for the nth term of each of the following sequences

(a) 2, 4, 6, 8, …..
(b) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 …..
(c) 1, 1/3, 1/5, 1/7, 1/9, ….
(d) 1, 1/4, 1/9, 1/16, …..

(4) Find a formula for the nth term of each of the following sequences:

(a) 1, -1, 1, -1, …

(b) -2, 2, -2, 2, ….
(c) -1, 3, -5, 7, -9, ….

(5) (a) Find the first four terms of the sequence whose nth term is given by the
following formulae

(i) an = 3n – 3
(ii) an = n__
n+1

(b) Find the 150th term of the sequence in (a).

Summary
Review what you were studying.

- A sequence is a list of numbers arranged in a definite order.

- The numbers in the sequences are called terms.
- To find the nth term of the sequence, first identify the common difference, then
use the formula an + b where n is the nth term i.e. 1st term, 2nd term, e.t.c.

Then solve for the constants a and b simultaneously.

Hope you enjoyed your study and managed to do the activities correctly. If so move to
the next unit.
 UNIT SIXTEEN

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF INEQUALITIE

Topic 1 Linear inequations in one and two variables

A. In one variable

We can represent the solutions of inequations on a number line or in set builder notation.

Examples

1. Solve the following inequations where X Є R and illustrate the answer

a) in set builder notation

b) on number line

Solution

a) 3x + 2 < 11

Ans. 3x < 11 – 2
3x < 9
3 3
X<3

In set builder notation On a number line

{x: x < 3, X Є R} I I I I I I I
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
On a number line the ring should not be shaded if the number is not part of a solution e.g.
x < 3, the set starts from
{2, 1, 0 -1, -2, …} hence
I I I I
0 1 2 3

If it was x ≤ 3 the ring should be shaded to show that its part of the solution set:

{3, 2, 1, 0 -1, -2, …} I I I I I

-1 0 1 2 3

b) 7x – 7 ≥ 4x + 11 In set builder notation {x: x ≥ 6, X Є R}

7x – 4x ≥ 11 + 7
3x ≥ 18 on a number line I I I I I I
3 3 0 2 4 6 8 10
x≥6
c) 5x ≤ 9 – x In set builder notation {x: x ≤ 4 X Є R}
4
4 5x ≤ 9 x 4 – (X x 4)
4 On a number line I I I I
5x ≤ 36 – 4x -2 0 2 4
5x + 4x ≤ 36
9x ≤ 36
9 9
x≤4

Activity 1

Find solutions to the following inequations and show the solution

(i) in set builder notation

(ii) on a number line

Where x and y are from the set (R) real numbers.

(a) x – 4 > -2x + 4

(b) y + 4 ≤4y – 7
(c) 6½ < y + 2½
(d) 1x ≥ 1 + ¼x
7

B. In two variables

Examples

Show the solution of the following on the graph where x, y Є R.

(i) 2x + y > 4 (ii) 3x – 2y – 6 ≥ 0

Solutions

(i) Firstly use a table of values like the following:

2x + y > 4 Chose any values of x like -2 to 2 and solve for y

X -2 -1 0 1 2 4
Y 8 6 4 2 0 0

When x = -2 2x + y = 4 is used to determine the boundary of the region, and it is

2(-2) + y = 4 the one you use to find the values in the table.
y=4+4
y=8
x = -1
2(-1) + y = 4
y=4+2 6
y=6
5
x=0
2(0) + y = 4 4
y=4
3 2x + y ≥ 4
x=1 This is the region which
2(1) + y = 4 2 satisfies this inequality.
y=4–2
y=2 1

x=2 I I 0 I I I I
2(2) + y = 4 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
y=4

Then you draw the x o y plane and plot the points. The points will be a straight line. If
the symbol used is single, like > or <, use dotted lines, if its double like ≥, ≤ use solid as
in the diagram.

The solid means points on the line are part of the solution while dotted line means points
on the line are not part of the solution.

(ii) 3x – 2y – 6 ≥ 0

Solution

X -2 -1 0 1 2
Y 6 -4½ -3 -½ 0

when x = -1 or x=1

3(-1) – 2y – 6 = 0 3(1) – 2y – 6 = 0
-3 – 6 = 2y 3 – 2y – 6 = 0
2y = -9 3 – 6 = 2y
y = -4½ -3 = 2y
2 2
y = -1½
Then plot the points

-2 -1 0 1 2 3

-1

-2 3x – 2y – 6 ≥ 0 This is the region which satisfies

this inequality. `
-3

-4

(c) Systems of inequations

Show the solutions of the following systems of inequations by shading where, x, y Є R

the region represents the solution set.

x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 x+y<3
y - axis
x=0
The region where you
have all three shadings
is the region 12.

x+y=3

3
y=0 x -axis
Activity 2

Show the solutions of each of the following systems of inequations by shading where
x, y Є R

(1) x > 0 y ≥ 1 2x + y ≤ 4
(2) x > -3 y < 4 2x + 3y ≤ 12
(3) x > 0 y ≤ -x – 1 y ≥ 4 (x – 5)
2 5
(4) y ≥ -5x – 5, y ≤ -5 (x + 3) y ≤ 2x + 4
6

Topic 2 Forming Linear inequations and systems of linear inequations from

given situations

In the earlier sections we were shading the wanted region but in this section we shade the
unwanted so that the wanted region remains clear.

Mathematical models

A mathematical model is a system of inequations which are formed from the conditions
in a problem. Let us look at examples.

Examples

(1) Bwalya has been given K10,000 to spend. He needs to buy two types of drinks, A
and B. Type A cost K1,000 per packet and type B cost K1,300 per packet. He
intends to buy not more than three packets of type A and at least one of type B.

Let the number of packets of type A be x and the number of packets of type B be
y. Write down inequations arising from the given information.
Answer

X is cost for type A and y is cost for type B.

X packets at K1,000 each => K1,000x

Y packets at k1,300 each => K1,300y

So we can say Bwalya spends K1,000x + K1,300y

But he has only K10,000 so his expenditure can only be

1000x + 1300y ≤ 10,000
10x + 13y ≤ 100 …………. Inequation (1)

He intends to buy
(i) A quantity of type A drink which gives us x ≥ 1
So x ≥ 1 is ……………… Inequation (2)

(ii) Not more than 3 packets of type A

X ≤ 3 is ………………… Inequation (3)

(iii) Atleast one packet of type B

Y ≥ 1 is ………………… Inequation (4)

The four inequations represent the information given in the problem. We can also
summarise them as follows:

10x + 13x ≤ 100 These are inequations which form mathematical models which can
1<x≤3 be solved. x ≥ 1 and x ≤ 3 are combined to get 1 < x ≤ 3.
y≥1

(2) A farmer who wishes to grow crops x and y has kept on area of up to 70km of
land for this purpose. He has 240 man days of labour available to work the land
and he can spend up to K1800. The requirements for the crop are as follows:

Km x y
Minimum number of hectors
To be shown 10 20
Man day per km 2 4
Cash cost per Km in Kwacha 30 20

If x and y represent the number of kilometers to be used for the crops x and y
respectively, write down in their simplest form the inequalities which x and y must
satisfy.

(1) x + y ≤ 70 => kilometers to be covered or that can be farmed

2x + 4y ≤ 240 x≥0
30x + 20y ≤ 1800 y≥0

Activity 3

1. Formulate inequations to satisfy the condition in the problems below.

a) Chuba has K4000 to spend on two types of bread. Brown bread cost K200
each and white bread cost K300 each. He intends to have not more than 6
white bread. He also wants to have at least 10 brown bread in all. Let x be
the number of brown bread and y be the number of white bread.
b) One type of cake requires 100g of flour and 8g of fat, another type requires
50g flour and 10g fat. Mary wishes to make as many cakes as possible of
each type given that 3.5Kg of flour and 0.85Kg of fat are available. Let x be
 the number of cakes of the type with less fat and y the number of cakes of
type with more fat.
c) A bus has seats for 120 passengers. First class passengers can take 40kg
baggage each and second class passengers can take 20kg each. 820 Kg of
baggage can be carriage altogether. Let x be the number of first class
passengers and y be number of second class passengers

Topic 3 Linear programming

Examples

1. A school had 14 beds for planting two kinds of crops, carrots and rape. Carrots
can be planted 20 in a bed of carrot and rape 40 in a bed. The school wants to
plant 300 crops and at least 2 times more beds of carrots than lettuce.

a) Find the maximum number of beds planted with crops

b) Find the maximum number of crops planted and beds used for each type.
c) The school estimated that an average each carrot brings in a profit of K200
and each rape brings in a profit of 100. Find the maximum income.

Answer

We shall make x be the number of beds of carrots and y the number of beds of rape. So
now let us write down inequation to represent the information in the question, for the
number of beds for the school has 14 beds.

x + y ≤ 14

The school can plant 20 beds of carrots and 40 beds of rape. The total number of crops
available is 300.

20x + 40y ≤ 300

X + 2y ≤ 30

The school wants to plant atleast 2 times as many beds of carrots than rape so we shall
have; 2x ≥ y.
 14

12

10

8 B

6 C

2
A
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
D

To answer question (a), we consider points on the edges of the region.

Maximum number of beds planted is x + y so the point C(8, 6) will give us 8 + 6 = 14 as
the maximum number of beds. You can test all the points A, B, C and D and pick C(8, 6)
which gives you the maximum.

(b) The expression of number of crops planted is 20x + 40y =

From C (8, 6)
= 20(8) + 40(6)
= 160 + 240
= 400 which is the maximum number of crops that can be planted.
(c) For the total income we use 20x + 40y
= 20 x 8 x 200 + 40 x 6 x 100
= 32000 + 24000
= K46000 which is the maximum income.

(2) Lombe has K10,000 to use. She needs to buy 2 types of fruits P and Q. Type P
cost K1000 and Type Q cost K2000. She intends to buy not more than 4 pockets
of type P and at least 2 packets of type Q. Let x be the number of packets of type
B and y the number of packets of type Q.

Lombe wants to buy as many fruits as possible. How many of each type should
she buy.

Solution

Firstly we have the total cost:

1000x + 2000y ≤ 10000

x + y ≤ 10

Then x ≤ 4 y≥2
x ≥ 0 because its not more than 4 so its possible not to buy any of type P.

We can not have y ≥ 0 because she has to buy at least 2 of type Q.

So we have x + y ≤ 10, 0 ≤ x ≤ 4 and y ≥ 2.

y
x=0
14

12
x=4
10
B
8

6 C

A 2 D y=2
x
2 4 6 8 10 12
x+y=0
ABCD is the region showing the solution set, so we have (0, 2) (0, 10) (4, 2) (4, 6).
X coordinate = type P, y coordinate = type Q

So (0, 10) and (4, 6) will give us the maximum number of fruits to buy which is 10.
So its either she buys 0 of type P and 10 of type Q or 4 of type P and 6 of type Q.
In such question you do not pick points with fractions because you can not buy half a
fruit or in some cases half a packet.

In linear programming, we have a linear function ax + by which we maximize or

minimize and we call it the objective function. Usually the maximum and minimum
value of the objective function occurs as the vertex of the feasible region. In some cases
the points near the vertex may give the practical solution.

For example, if 2x + y is the object function or sometimes we call the search line. We
test the vertices of the region.

For example

You pick the coordinates of the shaded points and test or replace in the object function,
the one that gives you the greatest value will be the solution to the question.

Activity 4

1. A train has seats for 120 passengers. Let x be the number of first class passengers
and y the number of second class passengers. First class passengers can take up
to 30 kg of baggage each and second class passengers can take up to 10 kg each.
If the first class fares are K1500 and second class fares are K750 each:

a) Find the number of passengers for each class that would maximize the
income;
b) State the maximum income

2. The Chobro Furniture Company makes beds and chairs. The table below shows
the resources used and profits for each product. Profits made are K4400 in a bed
 and K3300 in a chair. The owner wishes to maximize the total profit on the
products.

Resource Requirements Amount available

Per bed Per chair
Wood 30 20 300
Labour 5 10 110
Profit per bed and 4400 3300
chair

The table shows the wood and labour requirements in the manufacturing of beds and
chairs. It also shows the profit per bed and chair. The owner wishes to maximize the
total profit. Let x be the number of beds and y the number of chairs made. Find the
number of beds and chairs which should be made to maximize the profit from the
products of furniture.

Summary

In this unit you looked at linear inequations in one variable and also in two variables.
Then you also looked at formulating mathematical models for given situations. Then
finally you looked at linear programming where you were showing regions on the xoy
plane. You were shading the unwanted regions so that wanted regions remain clean.
This is a very interesting and challenging unit, I hope you have mastered drawing the
graphs in this unit.
 UNIT SEVENTEEN

VECTORS IN TWO DIMENSIONS

Topic 1 Route Vectors

Vectors can be defined as quantities which have both directions. Examples of such are
velocity, acceleration or force.

1.0 Route Vectors

W E

C D

B
E

A
Mainland
Figure 1.

The map in fig 1. shows an island, part of a lake and part of the mainland.

The move from A to C, written as AC can be described as “1 unit square east and 4 unit
square north, or as the vector (¼). The numbers 1 and 4 are called the components of the
vector AC. The move from B to C (i.e. BC), can be described as 1 unit squares East and
2 unit squares North, or as vector with components of (½). Describe the moves from A to
E, C to D, D to E, A to E is 4 units East and 1 unit North, C to D is 3 units East and 0
units, D to E is 0 units and 3 units south.

AE = 4 CD = 3 and DE = 0
1 0 -3

DE has 0, -3 refers to south (which is downwards).

-3
1.1 Addition and subtraction of vectors

If we consider fig. 1 the move from B to C followed by the move from C to D may be
written as BC + CD. In component form this is represented as BC + CD =

1 + 3
2 0

The direct move from B to D is BD = 4

2

Example 1

Given that AB = 3 and DE = 7 , find AB – DE

2 -3
Solution

AB – DE = 3 - 7
2 -3

= -4
5

Activity 1

Use the figure below to answer questions 1 – 4

F
A
E B G

D C
H

1. Using the figure above, record the following as vectors in component form:

a) from A to B
b) from B to C
c) from C to D
d) from D to E
e) from E to F
f) from F to G
g) from G to H
h) from A to F
i) from H to B
j) from D to A
2. Write the following in component form:

a) AC
b) DG
c) HB
d) EA
e) DE
f) CA
g) DB
h) HD
i) AH
j) FG

3. Find the sum in component form for the following:

a) AB + BC
b) DE + EF
c) GH + HB
d) CD + DA

4. Given that AB = 3 , CD = 0 , EF = -4 and GH = 5 , find

4 3 6 -1

a) AB - EF
b) GH – CD
c) EF – GH
d) GH – AB – CD
e) CD + EF

5. Write down a single vector equivalent of each of the following:

a) AB + BC
b) MN + NO + OP
c) XZ + ZK + KC
d) KM + ML + LO

6. Complete the following so that the statements are always true.

a) ML + ___ = MK
b) CD + DE + ___ = CA
c) PQ + QR + ___ = PS
Topic 2 Directed Line Segments

O
A

Figure 2

Figure 2 shows points O and A. The move from O to A may be written as the vector OA.
In component from OA = 4 and AO = -4 we can also differentiate OA from AO as
-1 1
illustrated below.

O
A

(A)

O
A

(B)
Figure 3

Fig. 3(a) shows the vector OA while fig. 3(b) shows the vector AO.

Since the line from O to A has both a definite starting point and definite end points and
moves in a specific direction, OA is referred to as a line segment.

Note that a directed line segment represents a vector where OA = AO but OA = -AO. If
OA = 3 Then AO = -OA
-4 AO = - 3
-4
2.1 Notation

Vectors can also be represented as a

a
-a
O
Figure 4

Fig. 4 shows the vector OA = a and the vector –a

2.2 The Magnitude of a Vector

The length of a directed line segment represents the magnitude of the vector.

The length of a line can be found using the Pythagoras Theorem.

The magnitude of a vector OA is written as OA or if a vector is a has its magnitude

written as a.

Let us consider the distance between A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) as shown below:

B(x2,y2)

C
A (x1,y1)

Figure 5.

Applying the Pythagoras Theorem to triangle ABC, we find that:

AB2 = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)

AB = √(x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
That is
___________________
AB =√(x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2

Example
 6cm

a 12cm

Solution
_______
a = √122 + 62
= √144 + 36
= √180__
= √9 x 20
= 3√20

Example

Given that AB = 12 , A is the point (-6, 4), a = OA and b = OB, find

-9

(a) AB (b) a (c) b

Solution
_________
(a) AB = √122 + (-9) 2
= √144 + 81
= √225
AB = 15

(b) A(-6, 4) => OA = a = -6

4
_________
a = √(-6) 2 + 42
= √36 + 16
= √52___
= √4 x 13
a = 2√13

AB = AO + OB
= -OA + OB
12 = -6 + OB
9 4
OB = 12 + -6
-9 4
OB = 12 – 6
-9 + 4
OB = 6
-5 ________
Since OB = b, then b = √62 + (-5) 2
= √36 + 25
= √61

2.3 Equal vector

a d

A b
c e
b
f

Figure 6

Figure 6 shows the directed line segments or vector a, b, c, d, e, f and b. Each vector in
component form is 2 and therefore all the seven vectors are equal.
3

We can say that vectors are called equal vectors when their corresponding components
are equal.

Directed line segments are equal when they have the same direction and magnitude.

Activity 2

1. Find the magnitude of the following vectors:

(a) AB = 3
6
(b) CD = -4
5
(c) EF = 9
5
(d) GH = 0
0
(e) HI = 3
-8

2. Find the magnitude of a vector that starts and ends at the following points
respectively.
 (a) A(-3, 5), B(2, -1)
(b) C(2, 3), D(-4, 5)
(c) E(-4, 3), F(4, -7)
(d) G(-4, -3), H(-9, 6)

2.4 Scalar Multiples

a 2a

-3a
-a
-1/3a

Figure 7

Figure 7 shows the vector a and its multiples, 2a, -a, -3a, and -1/3a.

A Scalar number K is being multiplied to vector a to give us Ka which is a scalar multiple

of a. This means that K is any value with an exception of O. Ka will be parallel to a.

Take note that

2a = 2 a
3 3
/2a = /2 a and
-3a = -3 a

In component form:-
3
a = 3 2a = 2 3 = 6 /2a = 3/2 3 = 9
/2 and so on.
-1 -1 -2 -1 -½

Example

Given that a = -4 , b = 2 ,c = 5 ,d= -1 and e = -3 .

-8 4 10 -2 3
Find:

a) h such that h b = c
b) k such that k d = a
c) l such that l a = c
d) m such that m b = e

Solution
______ ______ __ _
2 2
b= 2 => b = √2 + 4 = √4 + 16 = √20 = 2√5
 4 _______ _______ ___ __
2 2
c = 5 => c = √5 + 10 = √25 + 100 = √125 = 5√5
10

But we have hb = c
Therefore, h b = c
2h√5 = 5√5 => 2h√5 = 5√5
h = 5√5_ 2√5 2√5
2√5
Therefore, h = 5
2

So 5h = c
2
__________ _____ __
(b) d = -1 => d = √(-1) 2 + (-2) 2 = √1 + 4 = √5
-2 ___________ ______ __ __
2 2
a = -4 => a = √(-4) + (-8) = √16 + 64 = √80 = 4√5
-8

But we have kd = a
Therefore, kd = a _
√5K = 4√5
√5K = 4√5
√5 √5 Therefore, K = 4 So 4d = a

K = √5
√5

(c) Using the results in (a) and (b) we can see that I a I = 4√5, I c I = 5√5
But la = c
4I√5 = 5√5
4√5L = 5√5
4√5 4√5
L=5
4
But a and c are in opposite directions. Therefore, -5 a = c
4

(d) Since b and c are not parallel, then there is no value of m such that mb = e.

Example

(a) Express the vector 16a + 4b as a scalar multiple of the vector 4a + b.

(b) Express the vector 3q – 5r as a scalar multiple of the vector 30r – 18q
(c) Express the vector 4b + 8c as a scalar multiple of the vector 8b – 4c.
Solutions

(a) 16a + 4b = k(4a + b)

= 4ka + b
So 16a = 4ka
16 = 4k
K = 16
4
K=4
4b = kb
Therefore k = 4

Therefore 16a + 4b = 4(4a + b).

(b) 3q – 5r = K(30r – 18q)

= 30kr – 18kq
So 3 = -18k -5 = 30k
K = 3_ k = -5
-18 30
K = -1 k = -1
6 6

Therefore 3q – 5r = -1 (30r – 18q)

6

(c) 4b + 8c = K(8b – 4c)

= 8Kb – 4Kc
4 = 8k 8 = -4K

K=½ K= 8
-4
K = -2

Since the two values of K are different, the vector 4b + 8c can not be expressed as a
scalar multiple of the vector 8b – 4c.

2.5 Addition and Subtraction of directed line segments.

In order to combine two vector a and b together we must draw the two vectors “nose-to-
tail” as follows:

a b
(a) (b) (c)
a a+b

b
Figure 8
In figure 8 we see the addition of a and b in (c).
If we are to subtract we shall have the following, i.e. a + (-b) = a – b

a–b a

Example

a b

Given the vectors a and b shown above, draw the vectors:

(a) a+b
(b) a–b
(c) ½a + 2b
(d) 2a – 3b
Solution

(a) (b) b
a b a–b a – b = a + (-b)

a+b a

½a
(c) 2b (d) -3b

½a + 2b 2a – 3b

2a

2a – 3b = 2a + (-3b)

Activity 3

On the above grid, draw the following

(a) -a (b) 2a (c) ½a (d) -¾ a (e) -3a

2.

c
The diagram above shows vectors b and c.

(a) Draw the vectors b and c, nose to tail and draw the vector b + c.
(b) Write down the single vector b + c in component form.
(c) Draw the vectors c and b “nose to tail” and draw the vector d + c.
(d) Write down the single vector d + c in component form

The diagram above shows the vectors a and b. Copy the diagram and draw on it the
vectors PQ, PR, PS, PT and PU such that

(a) PQ = 2a + b
(b) PR = ½ b + a
(c) PS = 3a – ½ b
(d) PT = a – b
(e) PU = -a + 3b
2

4. For each given pairs of vectors, where possible express the second vector as a
scalar multiple of the first.

(a) 2 6 (b) -2 2 (c) 0 0 (d) -4 12

1 , 3 -4 , 4 1 , 1 -3 , 9

(e) 0 0
1 , -5

5. For each of the following pairs of vectors, express where possible the second
sector as a scalar multiple of the first.

(a) a + 2b (b) 4c + 3d (c) 5x + 6y (d) 2p – 3q

3a + 6b 8 c + 2d x+6y 2p – 8q
3 5
(e) 8r – s, 3 r – 12s
2
Topic 3 Position Vectors

The figure shows directed line segments all representing different vectors.
x
The same vectors can be expressed in component form y . Let us take a look at the
vector OA, it is -2 in component form. We note that the origin is the starting point of
the vector OA. 2

Therefore, vector a is called the position vector of A.

3
A point B with coordinates (3, -1) will have position vector b = OB = -1 implies that the
coordinates of C is = (-3, 2).

Example

Write down the position vectors of the following points

(a) A (7, 4) (b) B (-2, 0) (c) C (-1, -2)

Solution

(a) OA = 7
4
(b) OB = -2
0
(c) OC = -1
-2

Example

Write down the co-ordinates of the points D, E and F given that the following position
are vectors:

(a) OD = 4 (b) OE = -4 (c) OF = 0

1 -2 3
Solution

(a) OD = 4 => D(4, 1) (b) OE = -4 => E(-4, -2)

1 -2
(c) OF = 0 => F(0, 3)
3

Example

The coordinates of A are (-3, 5), and the coordinates of B are (-1, -2). Find the vector
AB.

Solution

AB = AO + OB
But AO = -OA = - -3 = 3
5 -5
So OB = -1
-2

Therefore, AB = 3 + -1
-5 -2
= 2
-7

Example

Find the coordinates of C given that CD = -4 and D is the point (-2, 3)

-5
Solution

CD = CO + OD But OD = -2
-4 = CO + -2 3
-5 3
CO = -4 - -2
-5 3
CO = -4 + 2
-5 - 3
CO = -2
-8
But OC = -CO
= - -2
-8
= 2
8
C = (2, 8)
3.1 Free Vectors

A free vector is a vector which is not drawn starting at the origin.

Activity 4

1. Write down the position vector of each of the following points E, F, G, H, J and K
shown in the diagram.

I E G
H

O F
K
J

2. Given the following position vectors OA = -3 OB = 13 OC = -3 and OD = 4

4 6 -6 6
(a) Write down the co-ordinates of the points A, B, C and D.
(b) Find the magnitude of each of the vectors.

3. The co-ordinates of a point Q are (6, -3) and QS = -5 . Find OS.

9

Topic 4 Vector Geometry

Vectors can be used to investigate or to prove the properties of a set of points, a set of
line or geometrical states. Two formulae are particularly useful in this regard namely:

(a) a = b => a = b and a is parallel to b.

(b) ha = kb => either a is parallel to b or h = 0 and k = 0.

Example

Show that the points A (-2, -12), B (2, 2) and C (8, 23) are collinear (they lie on the same
straight lines.
Solution

A(-2, -12) => OA = -2

-12
B(2, 2) => OB = 2
2

C(8, 23) => OC = 8

23

Therefore, AB = AO + OB
= -OA + OB = - -2 + 2
-12 2
= 2 + 2
12 2
= 4
14
=2 2
7

So BC = BO + OC
= -OB + OC
= - 2 + 8
2 23
= -2 + 8
-2 23
= 6
21
=3 2
7

Since AB = 2 2 BC = 3 2 and B is common to AC and BC then A, B and C must

7 7
be collinear points.

Example

Given that P is the point (-9, 14), PQ = 5 and R is the point (-4, 8), show that Q and R
are coincident (the same) points. -6

Solution

P(-9, 14) => OP = -9

14

Therefore OQ = OP + PQ
= -9 + 5
14 -6
 = -4
8

So Q is the point (-4, 8) and Q and R are coincident points.

Example

Show that the points P(-1, 3), Q(4, 5), R(6, 0) and S(1, -2) are vertices of a square.

Solution

P(-1, 3) => OP = -1
3
Q(4, 5) => OQ = 4
5
R(6, 0) => OR = 6
0
S(1, -2) => OS = 1
-2

To show that PQRS is a square we need to show that:

(i) A pair of adjacent side are equal (e.g. PQ = QR )

(ii) The diagonals are equal i.e. PR = QS

So

(i) PQ = PO + OQ
= -OP + OQ
= - -1 + 4
3 5
= 1 + 4
-3 5
= 5
2 __
PQ = √29

So QR = QO + OR
= -OQ + OR
=- 4 + 6
5 0
= -4 + 6
-5 0
= 2
-5 Therefore, QR = √29
So PQ = QR

(ii) PR = PO + OR
= -OP + OR
= - -1 + 6
3 0

= 1 + 6
-3 0
= 7 __
-3 Therefore, PR = √58

QS = QO + OS
= -OQ + OS
= - 4 + 1
5 -2
= -4 + 1
-5 -2
= -3 __
-7 Therefore, QS = √58

And so PR = QS . Hence, P, Q, R and S are vertices of a square.

Example

A and B are points (-2, 5) and (3, 9) respectively. Find the co-ordinates of E, the mid-
pint of A and B.

Solution

A(-2, 5) => OA = -2 and B(3, 9) => OB = 3

5 9

AB = AO + OB = -OA + OB
= - -2 + 3
5 9
= 2 + 3
-5 9
= 5
4

AE = ½ AB = ½ 5 = 2½
4 2
But OE = OA + AE
= -2 + 2½
5 2
= ½
7
Therefore, E is the point (½, 7)

Example

In the diagram, OP = 3a, OQ = 6b and QS = 5a – b. T is the point of intersection of PQ

and OS and is such that PT : TQ = 1 : 2.
S 5a - b
Q

r 6b

P
3a O

(a) Express the following in terms of a and b

(i) PS
(ii) PQ
(iii) PT
(iv) OT
(v) OS

(b) Find the numerical value of OT

OS

Solution

(a) (i) PS = PO + OQ + QS
= -OP + OQ + QS
= -3a + 6b + (5a – b)
= -3a + 6b + 5a – b
= -3a + 5a + 6b – b
= 2a + 5b

(ii) PQ = PO + OQ
= -OP + OQ
= -3a + 6b
= -3(a + 2b)

(iii) PT = 1/3PQ Since PT : TQ = 1 : 2

= 1/3(-3a + 6b) = -a + 2b

(iv) OT = OP + OT
= 3a + (-a + 2b) OT as in (iii)
= 3a – a + 2b
 = 2a + 2b
= (a + b)

(v) OS = OP + PS
= 3a + 2a + 5b
= 5a + 5b
= 5(a + b)

Or OS = OQ + QS
= 6b + 5a – b
= 5a + 6b – b
= 5a + 5b
= 5(a + b)

(b) OT = 2a + 2b
OS 5a + 5b
Therefore, OT = 2
OS 5

Activity 5

1. Given that P is the point (4, 9), Q is the points (1, 4) and QR = 3 shows that P
and R are coincident points. 5

2. Show that the points A(5, 5), B(1, 7) and C(-7, 11) are collinear.

3. Show that the points W(-1, 4), X(3, 8), Y(5, 3) and Z(1, -1) are vertices of a
parallelogram.

Find the co-ordinates of A, the intersection of the diagonals of the parallelogram.

4. A

a R

O B
b S

In the diagram OA = a, OB = b, the point R is such that AR : RB = 1 : 3 and S is such

that OS : SB = 2 : 3 OR and AS intersect at X.

(a) Express in terms of a and b

(i) OS
(ii) AS
(iii) AB
 (iv) AR
(v) OR

(b) Given that AX = hAS, express AX in terms of h, a and b and hence show that OX
= (1 – h)a + 2hb
5

(c) Given further that OX = KOR, express OX in terms of K, a and b.

(d) Find the values of h and k

(e) Express in terms of a and b,

(i) OX (ii) XS (iii) Find OX:OR

(f) In the diagram, OXY is a triangle OA = AY, XE = EY, OF = 2/3OE, OX = x and

OY = y.

E x

Y A y O

(a) Express the following vectors in terms of x and y

(i) XY
(ii) XE
(iii) OE
(iv) XF

(b) Express XA in terms of x and y.

(c) Deduce the relationship between X, F and A
(d) Find the value of XF
XA

5. B a C

F
A D
E
ABCD is a parallelogram in which AB = p and BC = q. The point E on AD is
such that AE = ¼ AD.
 (a) Express in terms of p and/or q.
(i) AC
(ii) AE
(iii) BE

(b) AE and BE intersect at F. Given that BF = KBE express in terms of p, q

and k
(c) Hence show that AF = (1 – K)p + ¼ kq.
(d) Given also that AF = hAC, express AF in terms of p, q and h.
(e) Using the two expressions of AF, find the values of h and k.
(f) Find the ratio AF : FC

Summary

1. A vector is a set of directed line segments with the same direction and the same
magnitude.
2. To add the vectors p and q in directed line segment form, arrange the vectors
nose-to-tail. The direction of the result of p + q is opposite to p and q.
3. To subtract q from p in directed line segment form, transform the problem from p
– q to p + (-q) and proceed as in (2) above.
4. Vectors p and b in directed line segment form are equal when IpI = IqI and the
direction of p is the same as that of q.
5. Vectors a = x1 and b = x2 are equal when x1 = x2 and y1 = y2
y1 y2
6. A vector OA is a position vector if its components are the same as the co-
ordinates of A. in directed line segment form, a vector is a position vector if its
“tail” is at a fixed point of reference, normally the origin.
7. For a vector p, kp is its scalar multiple.
8. For a vector A = x IaI =√x2 + y2
y
9. p = q => IpI = IqI and p is parallel to q.
10. hp = kq => either p is parallel to q or h = 0 and k = 0.
11. hp + kq = mp + nq => h = m and k = n.