PNC HCI Lecture Notes

Chapter 1: Permutations and Combinations Tutor Copy
1
Permutations and Combinations
Learning Objectives
In this chapter, we will

(a) apply the addition and multiplication principles for counting to solve counting problems;
(b) state the definitions of n Pr and n Cr , and use them to solve counting problems,
including cases involving repetition and restriction;
(c) find the number of permutations of n distinct objects arranged in a circle.
§1.1 Introduction
There are many instances in which we exercise counting to help us make decisions, for
example:
 the number of possible routes from home to school using a single mode or a combination
of different modes of transport
 the number of ways to select three recipes from a cookbook containing 12 recipes
 the number of ways to match six different coloured shirts to three different coloured pants
 the number of pairings between five different necklaces and 14 different ear rings
6 shirts…3 pants…
How many matches? 5 necklaces… 14 ear rings…
How many possible pairings?
The counting problem is one of the basic problems in combinatorics: a branch of mathematics
which seeks to determine the number of different arrangements (permutations) or selections
(combinations) in a particular situation. In this chapter, we shall learn the concepts of
permutations and combinations and apply them in solving basic counting problems.
Hwa Chong Institution 1 2012 JC2 H2 Mathematics

§1.2 Basic Counting Principles
In solving counting problems, there are two basic principles that are commonly used. They
are the Addition Principle and the Multiplication Principle.

The Addition Principle
Suppose that E1 and E2 are two events that are mutually exclusive (i.e., cannot both occur at
the same time).
If E1 can occur in m different ways, and E2 can occur in n different ways, then
either E1 or E2 can occur in (m  n) ways.

 Note
1. The Addition Principle can be extended to any finite number of mutually exclusive
events.
2. The term ‘mutually exclusive’ will be dealt with in greater detail in Chapter 2.
۞ Example 1
One can travel from Town A to Town B by road, air and sea. Suppose that there are three
ways by road, two ways by air and one way by sea from Town A to Town B. What is the
total number of ways from Town A to Town B by road, air or sea?
Solution
road
Number of ways by road  3 road
Number of ways by air  2 Town A road Town B
Number of ways by sea  1 air
air
sea
Therefore, by the Addition Principle,
Total number of ways  3  2  1  6 .
۞ Example 2
Find the number of squares contained in the following 3  3 array (where each cell is a
square).
Solution
The squares in the array can be divided into 3 types, i.e., 1  1 square, 2  2 square, and 3  3
square.
Types of square No. of squares
11 9
22 4
33 1
Therefore by the Addition Principle,
Total number of squares  9  4  1  14 .

The Multiplication Principle
Suppose that E1 and E2 are 2 events that occur in sequence, i.e., one after another.
If E1 can occur in m different ways, and E2 can occur in n different ways, then
E1 and E2 can occur in succession in (m  n) ways.
 Note
The Multiplication Principle can be extended to any finite number of events.
۞ Example 3
In how many ways can two pupils of different gender be selected from a group of four boys
and three girls?
Solution
In selecting a boy and a girl, B1
we may select a boy followed by a girl. B2 G1
G2
Number of ways to select a boy  4 B3
Number of ways to select a girl  3 G3
B4
Therefore, by the Multiplication Principle,
Total number of ways  4  3  12 .
۞ Example 4
A simple 5-character security code is made up of two different letters of the alphabet in upper
case, followed by 3 digits (which may or may not be the same). An example of such a
security code is AB022. Find the number of 5-character codes that can be formed.
Solution
We can form the 5-character codes by considering the number of possible ways for each
letter and digit in sequence:
1st letter 2nd letter 1st digit 2nd digit 3rd digit
No. of ways 26 25 10 10 10

Total number of 5-character codes  26  25 10  10  10  650000 .
§1.3 Permutations
Suppose we want to find out the number of different ways of arranging the letters A, B and C
in a row. The number of possible ways can easily be obtained by listing the letters
systematically to obtain the following arrangements:
ABC ACB BAC BCA CAB CBA
A permutation of a set of objects is an arrangement of these objects without using the objects
more than once, and where the order of the objects is important. Thus, ABC and ACB are
different permutations of A, B and C. However, AAB and AABC are not permutations of A, B
and C.

§1.4 Permutations of n Distinct Objects
We have seen that listing objects systematically is one possible method of counting the
number of permutations in a given problem. However, systematic listing becomes tedious and
impractical when the number of objects is large.
Let us consider arranging in sequence the letters A, B and C in a row:
1st letter 2nd letter 3rd letter
No. of ways 3 2 1
Total number of ways  3  2  1  6 .
In general, if n distinct objects are to be arranged in a row, then

1st object 2nd object 3rd object  (n  1) th object nth object
No. of
n n 1 n2  2 1
ways
Number of permutations (or arrangements) of n distinct objects is given by

n(n  1)(n  2)  (3)(2)(1)  n ! .

 Note
1. The symbol ‘!’ represents factorial. We read ‘n!’ as ‘n factorial’.
2. By definition, 0!  1 .
Using TI84+ to evaluate 3!:

 Key in 3.
 Press m > PRB, select 4: ! .
 Press e.
۞ Example 5
Five men and five women sign up for an online dating service. In how many ways can they
be paired-up?

Solution
Consider pairing the five men to each of the five women in sequence:
1st woman 2nd woman 3rd woman 4th woman 5th woman
No. of ways to
5 4 3 2 1
select a man
This is similar to arranging five distinct objects in a row.
Therefore total number of ways  5!  120 .
§1.5 Arrangements of r Objects taken from a set of n Distinct Objects
(a) Without Replacement
Suppose r objects are to be taken from a set of n distinct objects and arranged in a row. Each
object, once taken, will not be considered again. Thus, each arrangement is also a
permutation of the chosen r objects. Arranging the r objects in sequence:
1st object 2nd object 3rd object  (r  1) th object rth object
No. of
n n 1 n2  nr2 n  r 1
ways
Therefore number of permutations
 n(n  1)(n  2)  (n  r  1)
n(n  1)(n  2)  (n  r  1)( n  r )( n  r  1)  3  2 1

(n  r )(n  r  1)  3  2 1
n!

(n  r )!
Number of permutations of r objects taken from n distinct objects is given by

n!
n
Pr  n(n  1)(n  2)  (n  r  1)  .
(n  r )!
 Note
1. We use the notation n Pr to denote the number of permutations of r objects taken from n
distinct objects.
2. As discussed previously in §1.4, the number of permutations of n distinct objects is
n
Pn  n(n  1)(n  2)  3  2 1  n ! .
۞ Example 6
A man has 10 different pieces of jewellery and wishes
10 Book
to give one Joules
Arrange piece each to his three
MD
daughters as dowry. In how many ways can he do this?
Vh1 Lox 9 8
Solution
Consider each of the three daughters in sequence:
Avoid
1st daughter 2nd daughter 3rd daughter M2 IOP
No. of ways 10 9 8
Total number of ways  10  9  8  720 .
Wms 3 3
This is similar to a permutation of three objects taken from 10 distinct objects and so we may
also use the formula directly as follows:
10!
Total number of ways  10 P3   10  9  8  720 .
7!
10
Using TI84+ to evaluate P3 :
 Key in 10.
 Press m > PRB, select 2:nPr,
Press e.
 Key in 3. r
 Press e.
(b) With Replacement (or Repetition)
Suppose we want to find the number of 3-digit numbers that can be formed from the set {1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6} given that the digits may be repeated. Consider each of the digits in sequence:
hundreds tens ones
No. of possible digits 6 6 6
Therefore total number of 3-digit numbers  6  6  6  63  216 .
The number of arrangements of r objects taken from n distinct objects, with replacement
(or repetition), is given by n r .
۞ Example 7
Four cars are to be painted in one of the three colours: red, blue or green. In how many ways
can this be done?
Solution
Since the four cars can be painted in any of the three colours red, blue or green with
repetition of colours allowed,
Total number of ways  34  81 .

§1.6 Arrangements of n Objects (Not All Distinct)
In real life, we may encounter situations where some of the objects are identical.

Suppose we want to find out the number of 3-digit numbers that can be formed by the set
 1, 1, 2  . We will use ‘1a’ and ‘1b’ to differentiate the two ‘1’s first. By listing the numbers,
we have the following cases:
1a1b2 1b1a2 1b21a 1a21b 21a1b 21a1b

3!
Since ‘1a’ and ‘1b’ are essentially the same, therefore number of 3-digit numbers  3.
2!
2 ‘1’s
In a collection of n objects, if n1 are of type 1, n2 are of type 2, n3 are of type 3, … , nk

are of type k, and n  n1  n2  n3    nk , then the number of arrangements of these n
objects in a row is given by
n!
.
n1 ! n2 ! n3 ! nk !
(See Appendix for a proof for the above result.)
۞ Example 8
In how many ways can the letters of the word ‘STATISTICS’ be arranged?
Solution
The word ‘STATISTICS’ consists of the following 10 letters:
S S S T T T I I A C
10!
Therefore total number of ways   50400 .
3!3!2!
۞ Example 9
A bag contains five red and three blue tokens, all of which are identical, apart from colour.
Four tokens are taken out of the bag at random without replacement and arranged in a row. In
how many ways can this be done?
Solution
There are 4 possible cases:
Tokens No. of ways
4!
Case 1 3 blue, 1 red 4
3!
4!
2!2!
4!
3!
4!
Case 4 4 red 1
4!
Therefore total number of ways  4  6  4  1  15 .

§1.7 Circular Permutations
The permutations discussed so far involved objects arranged in a row. There are
permutations that require arranging objects in a circle. These permutations are called circular
permutations.
Consider the problem of arranging 3 distinct objects A, B, C in 3 positions in a circle.
Suppose the 3 positions are numbered (1), (2) and (3). Then the possible arrangements are
shown in Figure 1:
A C B
(1) (1) (1)
(3) (2) (3) (2) (3) (2)

C B B A A C
Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3
A B C
(1) (1) (1)
(3) (2) (3) (2) (3) (2)

B C C A A B
Figure 1.4 Figure 1.5 Figure 1.6
Figure 1
Observe that when the positions (1), (2) and (3) are disregarded, Figures 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3 are
essentially the same arrangement. This is because B is always on the left of A, and C is
always on the right of A. Likewise, Figures 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6 are essentially the same
arrangement.
3!
Hence, number of ways   2 .
3
In general, we say that two circular permutations of the same objects are identical if any one
of them can be obtained by a rotation of the other.
Alternatively, in arranging n distinct objects in a circle, we can think of it as fixing one object
at a particular place in a circle to facilitate the arrangement of the rest. For instance, in
arranging 3 distinct objects A, B, C in 3 positions around a circle, we fix A, and arrange B
and C. A A
Thus number of permutations  (3  1)!  2!  2 .
C B B C
The number of permutations of n distinct objects in a circle is given by

n!
 (n  1)! .
n

۞ Example 10
Two boys and four girls are to be seated at a round table.
(a) In how many ways can this be done if
(i) there are no restrictions?
(ii) the seats are numbered?
(b) The two boys must sit next to each other. In how many ways can this be done if the seats
are
(i) not numbered?
(ii) numbered?
Solution
6!
(a) (i) Number of ways   120 .
6
(ii) Since the seats are numbered, there are 6 different (1)
possible arrangements for each of the 120 ways (6) (2)
from (i).
(5) (3)
Therefore by Multiplication Principle, (4)
Total number of ways  120  6  720 .
B
(b) (i) Using the method of ‘Grouping’.
Since the two boys must sit next to each other, we B G
will ‘group’ the two boys as one unit.
Total number of units  5 .
5! G G
Number of ways   2!  48 .
5 G
(ii) Since the seats are numbered, there are 6 different possible positions for each of the
48 ways from (i).
Therefore number of ways  48  6  288 .
§1.8 Combinations
Consider the previous example of finding out the number of ways of arranging the letters A,
B and C in a straight line. We know that in arranging the letters, the order of selection is
important. Thus, the ways of arranging the letters are:
ABC ACB BAC BCA CAB CBA
and the number of arrangements is 6.
However, if we are not arranging the letters, the order of selection is not important. Then
there is only one way to select the three letters A, B and C, i.e. simply {A , B , C}.
A combination from a set of objects is a selection of a number of these objects in which the
order of selecting the objects in the set is not important. A combination of r objects from a set
S of n objects is equivalent to a subset of S containing r elements.

§1.9 Combinations of r Objects taken from a set of n Distinct Objects
Suppose we want to find the number of combinations in selecting r objects from a set of n
distinct objects.
Number of combinations (or selection) of r objects taken from n distinct objects, is given
by
n n!
n
Cr     .
 r  r !(n  r )!
We will illustrate the above result in greater detail in §1.10.
 Note
n n
1. We use the notation Cr or   , read as ‘n choose r’, to denote the number of
r
combinations (or selections) of r objects taken from n distinct objects.
n n!  n  n! n!
2. Since    , and    , we have
 r  r !(n  r )!  n  r  (n  r )!(n  (n  r ))! (n  r )!r !
n  n 
  .
r  nr
We may also interpret this result as: the number of ways of selecting r objects from n
distinct objects is the same as the number of ways of choosing the remaining
(n  r ) objects from n distinct objects.
۞ Example 11
There are 13 female and 7 male students in a class.
(a) A 4-member committee is to be selected. In how many ways can the committee be
selected if
(i) there is no restriction to the selection?
(ii) there must be at least two female students in the committee?
(b) In how many ways can the 20 students be divided into two groups of
(i) 8 and 12 students each?
(ii) 10 students each?
Solution
(a)(i) Since there is no restriction to the selection,
 20  20! 20 19 18 17
Required number of ways       4845 .
 4  4! 16! 4  3  2 1

Using TI84+ to evaluate 20C4 :

 Key in 20.
 Press m > PRB, select 3:nCr,
Press e.
 Key in 4.
 Press e.
(a)(ii) Method 1: Consider cases

Committee Number of ways
13  7 
Case 1 2 females, 2 males     1638
 2  2 
13  7 
Case 2 3 females, 1 male     2002
 3  1 
13 
Case 3 All 4 females    715
4
13  7  13  7  13 
 Required number of ways           
 2  2   3  1   4 
 1638  2002  715  4355 .
Method 2: Using the method of ‘Complementation’.

Consider a committee with at most 1 female student:
Committee Number of ways
7
Case 1 no female, all 4 males    35
 4
13  7 
Case 2 1 female, 3 males     455
 1  3 
 Required number of ways  number of ways with no restriction – number of ways

with at most 1 female student
 20   7  13   7  
             4845  490  4355 .
 4   4   1   3  

(b)(i) There are 20 students. If we choose 8 students to form a group, the remaining 12
students would automatically form the 2nd group. Hence we only need to find the
number of ways to choose 8 students.
 20 
 Required number of ways     125970 .
8
 20   20 
Note that since       125970 , we can also choose to form a group of 12
 12   8 
students instead.
 20 
(b)(ii) Number of ways to choose a group of 10 students     184756 .
 10 
nd
The remaining 10 students will form the 2 group automatically.
However, with 2 groups of the same size, there will be double-counting using the
above method. For example, selection 1 has students S1 , S2 , ..., S10 placed in the 1st
group and students S11 , S12 , ..., S20 placed in the 2nd group. This is the same as
selection 2 where students S11 , S12 , ..., S20 are placed in the 1st group, and students
S1 , S2 , ..., S10 automatically placed in the 2nd group.
1st Group 2nd Group
Selection 1 S1 , S2 , ..., S10 S11 , S12 , ..., S20
Selection 2 S11 , S12 , ..., S20 S1 , S2 , ..., S10
Therefore, number of ways in which the 20 students can be divided into two groups of
 20 
 
10
10 students each     92378 .
2!
§1.10 Relationship between nCr and n Pr
What is the relationship between a combination (or selection) and a permutation (or
arrangement)?
Let us revisit Example 12(a)(i). If the 4-member committee comprises a chairperson, a
secretary, a treasurer and a committee member, in how many ways can this committee be
selected?
If we consider 20 people, taken four at a time, without replacement, then the number of ways
the committee can be selected  20 P4  116280 .
We can also approach the problem by first selecting four students from the class, then
assigning the position of the chairperson, secretary, treasurer and member to the four selected
students.
Number of ways to select four students out of 20  20C4  4845 .
From the four selected students, the number of ways to elect the chairperson, secretary,
treasurer and member  4! .
Therefore total number of ways  20C4  4!  116280 .
Hence, we can see that 20
P4  20C4  4!  116280 .

In general, we have
n
Pr n!
n
Pr  nCr  r ! or n
Cr   .
r ! r !(n  r )!
§1.11 More Examples
۞ Example 12
A pop artiste has five different posters of herself. In how many ways can she give away at
least one of her posters?
Porte O O O Edp Edp
Solution
Method 1:
G
Yep Gdp Gdp 25
There are two ways the artiste can do to each poster: either give away or keep the poster.
Since there are five posters, therefore the total number of ways  2  2  2  2  2  25  32 .
However these 32 ways include one way in which the artiste does not give away any of her
five posters.
Hence the total number of ways she can give away her posters  32  1  31 .
Method 2:
The artiste can give away either 1, or 2, or 3, or 4, or all 5 of her posters. 10 Keep
00 00
Keep Keepkeep
5  5  5  5   5
Therefore total number of ways                 31 .
Kep
1  2   3  4   5
۞ Example 13
Ed's c y'T'veChose to sie 5
Three boys and two girls in a class committee are to be arranged in a row in a photo-shoot.
(i) What is the number of ways to arrange them with no restriction?
(ii) What is the number of ways to arrange them so that the two girls are next to each other?
(iii) What is the number of ways to arrange them so that the two girls are not next to each
other?
Solution
(i) Number of ways  5!  120 .
(ii) Using the method of ‘Grouping’.
Since the two girls are next to each other, we will ‘group’ the two girls as one unit.
G1 G2 B1 B2 B3
1 unit 3 units
Total number of units  1  3  4 .
Hence, number of permutations of these four units  4! .
Number of ways the two girls can arrange themselves  2! .
 Required number of ways  4!2!  48 .
(iii) Method 1: Using the method of ‘Complementation’.

From (i), number of ways of arrangement with no restriction  120 .
From (ii), number of ways in which the 2 girls are next to each other  48 .
Notice that (ii) and (iii) are complementary events.
Therefore required number of ways  120  48  72 .

Method 2: Using the method of ‘Slotting’.

Since the two girls are not next to each other, we will use the boys as ‘separators’ and
‘slot’ the girls in between the boys.
1 2 3 4
B1 B2 B3
Note that there are four possible slots to place the two girls.
 4
Hence number of ways to place the two girls =   .
 2
Number of ways to arrange the two girls among themselves = 2! .
Also, number of ways to arrange the three boys among themselves  3! .
 4
 Required number of ways =   × 2! × 3! = 72 .
 2
۞ Example 14
In how many ways can the letters of the word ‘INSTITUTION’ be arranged such that
(i) the first letter is ‘I’ and the last letter is ‘N’?
(ii) all the vowels are next to each other?
(iii) no two vowels are next to each other?
Solution
(i) Since ‘I’ and ‘N’ are fixed, we just need to consider the remaining nine letters between
them.
I N
Of the nine remaining letters, we have
N S O U I I T T T
9!
 Required number of ways   30240 .
2!3!

Since all the vowels are next to each other, we will ‘group’ all the vowels as one unit.
I I I O U S N N T T T
1 unit 6 units
Of these seven units, there are two ‘N’s and three ‘T’s.
7!
Hence, number of permutations of these seven units  .
2!3!
5!
Number of ways to arrange the vowels among themselves  .
3!
7! 5!
 Required number of ways    8400 .
2!3! 3!

(iii) Using the method of ‘Slotting’.

Since no two vowels are to be next to each other, we will use the six consonants as
‘separators’ and ‘slot’ the vowels in between the consonants.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S N N T T T
Note that there are seven possible slots to place the five vowels.
7
Hence number of ways to place the vowels    .
5
5!
Number of ways to arrange the vowels among themselves  .
3!
6!
Number of ways to arrange the consonants among themselves  .
2!3!
 7  6! 5!
 Required number of ways       25200 .
 5  2!3! 3!

 Note
It is incorrect to solve (iii) by subtracting the number of ways where all the vowels are next to
each other, from the number of ways to arrange the 11 letters without restriction. This
incorrect method is often mistaken as the method of ‘Complementation’. The number of ways
obtained in this way are more than 25200, as it include cases where some but not all of the
five vowels are next to each other.
۞ Example 15
In how many ways can 4-digit integers greater than 5000 be formed using only the digits 0, 1,
3, 5, 7 and 8, if
(i) no digit may be repeated?
(ii) the digits can be repeated?
(iii) no repetition of the digits is allowed and the integers formed must be even?
Solution
(i) Possible 4-digit integers
Thousands Hundreds Tens Ones
Number of ways 3 5 4 3
This digit can be 5 digits left after one digit (5, 7 or 8) is used in the
5, 7 or 8. thousands place.
 Required number of 4-digit integers  3  5  4  3  180 .
(ii) Possible 4-digit integers

Number of 4-digit integers that can be formed  3  63  648 .

However, the integer 5000 is included in this calculation.
 Required number of 4-digit integers  648  1  647 .

(iii) For an integer to be even, its last digit can only be ‘0’ or ‘8’.
Case 1: The last digit is ‘0’.
Possible 4-digit integers
4 digits left after ‘0’ is fixed at the ones place, and ‘0’ must be
one of ‘5’, ‘7’ or ‘8’ is used at the thousands place. fixed here.
Hence number of ways  3  4  3  1  36 .
Case 2: The last digit is ‘8’.

Possible 4-digit integers
This digit can only be ‘5’ or ‘7’. ‘8’ must be fixed here.
Hence number of ways  2  4  3  1  24 .

 Required number of integers  36  24  60 .
۞ Example 16
At a wedding dinner, four single men, three single women and a married couple with a child
are seated at a round table. Find the number of ways of arranging these 10 guests if
(i) there is no restriction,
(ii) the child is seated between the married couple,
(iii) the child is seated between two women,
(iv) the child is seated between two women, with the seats numbered from 1 to 10.
If the 10 guests are seated at a rectangular table as shown
instead of a round table, find the number of ways of Table
arranging these 10 guests with no restrictions.
Solution
10!
(i) Number of ways   362880 .
10
C
Mc Wc
Consider the child seated between the couple as one unit. M1 W1
M2 W2
8!
Hence, number of circular permutations of these eight units  .
8 M3 W3
M4
Number of ways to arrange the couple among themselves  2! .
8!
 Required number of ways   2!  10080 .
8

(iii) Using the method of ‘Grouping’.

C
Choose two women to form one unit with the child so W1 W2
that the child is between them.
M1 W3
 4
The number of ways is   .
 2
M2 W4
The number of ways to arrange the two women in the
unit with the child  2! . M3 M5
M4
Next, arrange the unit with the remaining two women
and five men around the table.
8!
The number of ways  .
8
 4  8!
 Required number of ways      2!  60480 .
 2 8
(iv) Required number of ways  60480  10  604800 .
The number of identical arrangements in a rectangular table is no longer the same as in a

circular permutation. For example, the following arrangements are not identical:
1 2 3 4 10 1 2 3
10 Table 5 9 Table 4
9 8 7 6 8 7 6 5
We notice that the following arrangements are identical, contributing to double-counting:

1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9
10 Table 5 5 Table 10
9 8 7 6 4 3 2 1
10!
 Required number of ways   1814400 .
2

Summary
Basic Counting Principles

Addition Principle Multiplication Principle
Consider mutually exclusive cases Consider consecutive operations one after
another
Arrangement: Order is important

Types of arrangement Formulae
Permutation of n distinct objects n!
Permutation of r objects taken from n distinct objects, without n!
n
Pr 
replacement (n  r )!
Arrangement of r objects taken from n distinct objects, with

nr
replacement
n!
Arrangement of n objects, not all distinct
n1 ! n2 ! n3 !  nk !
n!
Permutation of n distinct objects in a circle  (n  1)!
n
Combination (or Selection): Order is not important

Type of combination Formula
n n!
n distinct objects, taken r at a time
n
Cr    
 r  r !(n  r )!
Relationship between n Pr and nCr : n

Pr  nCr  r !
Useful techniques/methods for solving counting problems:

 Take note of restrictions or constraints
 Consider objects in sequence
 Method of ‘Complementation’
 Method of ‘Grouping’
 Method of ‘Slotting’


Appendix
In a collection of n objects, if n1 are of type 1, n2 are of type 2, n3 are of type 3, … , nk

are of type k, and n  n1  n2  n3    nk , then the number of arrangements of these n
objects in a row is given by
n!
.
n1 ! n2 ! n3 !  nk !
Proof:
The n1 objects of type 1 can be placed in n1 positions among the available n positions.
n
This can be done in   ways.
 n1 
We are left with (n  n1 ) positions.
The n2 objects of type 2 can then be placed in n2 positions among the remaining (n  n1 )
 n  n1 
positions in   ways.
 n2 
Likewise, the n3 objects of type 3 can be placed in n3 positions among the remaining
 n  n1  n2 
(n  n1  n2 ) positions in   ways.
 n3 
Continuing in this way, we see that the nk objects of type k can be placed in
 n  n1  n2  ...  nk 1 
  ways.
 nk 
By the multiplication principle, the total number of permutations is
 n   n  n1   n  n1  n2   n  n1  n2  ...  nk 1 
      
 n1   n2   n3   nk 
n! (n  n1 )! (n  n1  n2 )! (n  n1  n2  ...  nk 1 )!
   
n1 !(n  n1 )! n2 !(n  n1  n2 )! n3 !(n  n1  n2  n3 )! nk !0!
n!

n1 ! n2 ! n3 !  nk !

 Tutorial 1
1. Find the number of 3-letter code-words that can be made from the letters of the
following words:
(a) PEARS
(b) APPLE
(c) RASPBERRY
(d) BANANA
2. Find the number of arrangements of all nine letters of the word SELECTION in which
(a) the two letters E are next to each other,
(b) the two letters E are not next to each other,
(c) the vowels are not next to each other.
3. [PJC/BT07/P2/Q7]
(a) Peter attempts to break a four-digit code, which is made up of numbers 1, 2,.., 9.
Given that the digits may be repeated, in how many ways can the code be formed if
(i) the last digit of the code is a ‘3’,
(ii) the code is an odd-number greater than 6000,
(b) The number 1086624 can be expressed in prime factors as 25  32  73 111 .
Excluding 1 and 1086624, how many positive integers are factors of 1086624?
4. [SAJC06/P2/Q2]
The following diagram shows 9 distinct points chosen from the sides of a triangle.
(i) How many line segments are there joining any two points on different sides?
(ii) How many triangles can be formed from these points?
5. In how many ways can a committee of 3 men and 3 women be chosen from a group of 7
men and 6 women?
The oldest of the 7 men is A and the oldest of the 6 women is B. It is decided that the
committee can include at most one of A and B. In how many ways can the committee
now be chosen?
6. Find the number of ways in which 10 people can be divided into

(a) two groups consisting of 7 and 3 people,
(b) three groups consisting of 4, 3 and 2 people with 1 person rejected,
(c) 5 groups consisting of 2 people in each group.

7. [HCI/2007/II/5]
Three single men, two single women and two families take their places at a round table.
Each of the two families consists of two parents and one child.
Find the number of possible seating arrangements if
(i) members of the same family are seated together and the two single women are
separated,
(ii) the seats are numbered and each child sits between their parents.
8. [N99/P1/18]
(a) Eight people go to the theatre and sit in a particular group of eight reserved seats in
the front row. Three of the eight belong to one family and sit together.
(i) If the other five people do not mind where they sit, find the number of possible
seating arrangements for all eight people.
(ii) If the other five people do not mind where they sit, except that two of them
refuse to sit together, find the number of possible seating arrangements for all
eight people.
(b) The salad bar at a restaurant has 6 separate bowls containing lettuce, tomatoes,
cucumber, radishes, spring onions and beetroot respectively. John decides to visit
the salad bar and make a selection. At each bowl, he can choose to take some of the
contents or not.
(i) Assuming that John takes some of the contents from at least one bowl, find
how many different selections he can make.
(ii) John decides he is going to have 4 salad items, and one of them will be
tomatoes. How many different selections can he make?
9. [N2004/II/4]
A rectangular shed, with a door at each end, contains ten fixed concrete bases marked A,
B, C, …, J, five on each side (see diagram). Ten canisters, each containing a different
chemical, are placed with one canister on each base. In how many different ways can the
canisters be placed on the bases?
A B C D E
Door Door
F G H I J
Find the number of ways in which the canisters can be placed

(i) if 2 particular canisters must not be placed on any of the 4 bases A, E, F and J next
to a door,
(ii) if 2 particular canisters must not be placed next to each other on the same side of
the shed.

10. [N2007/P2/9 (modified)]

A group of 12 people consists of 6 married couples.
(a) The group stands in a line. Find
(i) the number of different possible orders.
(ii) the number of different possible orders in which each man stands next to his
wife.
(b) The group stands in a circle. Find
(i) the number of different possible arrangements.
(ii) the number of different possible arrangements if men and women alternate.
(iii) the number of different possible arrangements if each man stands next to his
wife and men and women alternate.
(c) The group sits at a triangular table, which is equilateral, with 4 persons at each side
of the table as shown:
Table
(i) Find the number of different possible arrangements.

(ii) Find the number of different possible arrangements if each man sits next to his
wife, with both husband and wife on the same side of the table.
Answers:
1. (a) 60 (b) 33 (c) 229 (d) 19

2. (a) 40320 (b) 141120 (c) 21600
3. (a)(i) 729 (ii)1620 (b) 142
4. (i) 26 (ii) 79
5. 700; 550
6. (a) 120 (b) 12600 (c) 945
7. (i) 17280 (ii) 31680
8. (a)(i) 4320 (ii) 2880
(b)(i) 63 (ii) 10
9. 3628800; (i) 1209600, (ii) 2983680
10. (a)(i) 479001600 (ii) 46080
(b)(i) 39916800 (ii) 86400 (iii) 240
(c)(i) 159667200 (ii) 15360

PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS: SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE
1 2008 AJC Prelim/II/6

(a) A party of 12 people is to travel in 3 cars, with 4 people in each car. Each car is
driven by its owner. How many ways can the party be divided if 2 of the remaining
9 people refuse to travel in the same car. [The arrangement of people within each
car is not relevant.]
(b) In how many ways can 4 copies of a book be distributed among 10 people, if each
person can get any number of books?
2 2010 NYJC Prelim/II/8
Four soccer players, three tennis players, two badminton players and one swimmer sit at
a round table with 10 seats. Find the number of possible seating arrangements
(a) if the two badminton players sit together,
(b) if the two badminton players sit directly opposite each other,
(c) if the two badminton players sit together and none of the four soccer players sit
next to either of the two badminton players,
(d) if the two people sitting beside the swimmer are from different sports.
3 2008 DHS Prelim/II/7

Find the number of different arrangements of the nine letters in the word
‘YESTERDAY’ if the arrangements are such that
(i) both the letters ‘Y’ are together,
(ii) both the letters ‘Y’ are together and both the letters ‘E’ are separated.
4 2008 HCI Prelim/II/7

A student committee comprising of 8 people is to be selected from a group of 10 boys
and 4 girls. In how many ways can this be done if the committee comprises of at least 3
boys and 3 girls?
After a round of interview was conducted by the selection team, the student committee
of 5 boys and 3 girls was finally formed. The student committee holds regular meetings
in a discussion room where they are seated at a round table with 8 seats.
Find the number of ways they can be seated if
(ii) no two girls are to sit next to each other.
At a particular meeting, two boys in the committee are absent. Find the number of ways
the other members of the committee can be seated if the meeting is still held in the same
discussion room with the same round table with 8 seats.
5 2008 MI Prelim/II/7
(a) A particular social gathering consists of 40 people. Each person makes a
handshake with every other person in the gathering. Find the total number of
handshakes made.
(b) Another gathering consists of 5 pairs of married couples. The entire group stands
in a line, with each man standing next to his wife. Find the number of different
possible arrangements in which this can be done.

6 2008 MJC Prelim/II/6

(a) Find the number of ways in which 11 people can be divided into 3 groups of 3
people and a group of 2 people.
(b) 3 men, 3 women and 4 children are to be seated at a round table. In how many
ways can a particular woman be seated between a man and a child?
7 2008 NJC Prelim/II/8

In Khings International College, the Principal leads a team of 2 Deans and 10 Heads of
department. They are categorized in the Junior and Senior Schools as shown below:
Junior School Senior School

Deans 1 1
Heads of Department 4 6
During a photo taking session, find the number of ways the photographer can arrange
all of them if
(i) a single row is to be formed such that the Principal stands in the middle of the row.
(ii) two rows are to be formed such that each consists of all the staff from the same
school, with each Dean standing at the leftmost position of the respective rows and
the Principal standing at the rightmost position in the first row.
After the photo taking session, all the 13 staff are to proceed to the conference room for
a meeting. Find the number of ways they can be seated at the round table if
(iii) the Principal and the 2 Deans sit together all the staff from the same school sit
together.
8 2010 AJC Prelim/II/6
Mary Lim has 7 cousins. In how many ways can she invite some or all of them to her
birthday party?
At her birthday party, Mary sets up a round table of 8 seats with a different welcome
gift at each seat. If all her cousins turn up for the party and given that 4 of them are
from the Lee family, 2 are from the Yeo family and 1 is from the Tan family, find the
number of ways they can be seated with Mary for a meal at the table if family members
of the same surname are seated together but members of the Lee and Yeo families are
not adjacent to each other.
After the meal, Mary and her cousins start to play a game. The game requires a
formation of 2 facilitators and 2 teams of 3 members each. Find the number of possible
formations if not all the members in each team have the same surname.
9 2008 SAJC Prelim/II/5

A group of 8 friends sit together in a circle. Alice, Betty and Candy are three members
of the group of friends.
(i) If Alice refuses to sit beside Betty unless Candy sits on the other side of Alice as
well, how many possible seating arrangements can there be?
(ii) 2 latecomers then come to join the group, and they have to sit apart from each
other. How many possible seating arrangements can there be, bearing in mind the
condition from (i)?

10 2010 HCI Prelim/II/8
A boy intends to arrange a set of coloured square tiles flat on the floor as shown below
with each row being labelled.
First row
Second row
Third row
Fourth row
There are four identical blue tiles, three identical yellow tiles, two identical green tiles
and one red tile.
Find the number of ways to arrange the tiles if
(i) there are no restrictions,
(ii) exactly one yellow tile and exactly two blue tiles are in the same row,
(iii) there are less than 3 yellow tiles in the fourth row .
All the ten tiles are now placed in a row. Find the number of ways he can arrange the
tiles such that all the blue tiles are separated.
11 2008 RJC Prelim/II/6

A group of 12 students consisting of 6 girls and 6 boys are to be seated at tables A, B
and C, each with 4 chairs numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown below.
1 1 1
2 A 4 2 B 4 2 C 4
3 3 3
Find the number of ways this can be done if

(ii) there are 2 girls and 2 boys at each table,
(iii) there are 2 girls and 2 boys at each table and students of the same gender are seated
opposite each other.
12 2008 PJC Prelim/II/8

Two families are invited to have a focus group discussion with three male and three
female teachers in a school. Each family consists of one student and both his parents.
The group takes their places at a round conference table.
Find the number of possible arrangements if
(i) each student must be seated between his parents and the three female teachers must
not be seated together,
(ii) the seats are numbered and the three male teachers must sit together.

13 2008 TJC Prelim/II/5

Farmers Alex, Ben and Charlie are discussing their plans for a piece of land which is
divided into 9 plots as numbered in the diagram below.
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
(i) Farmer Alex wishes to plant wheat in 2 even-numbered plots and corn in 3 odd-
numbered plots. How many ways are there for him to do so?
(ii) A cluster is a set of 4 adjacent plots which form a square. For example, plots 1, 2, 4
and 5 form a cluster. Farmer Ben wishes to plant 4 different types of fruits in a
cluster, each in a different plot. How many ways are there for him to do so?
(iii) Farmer Charlie wishes to select 4 non-adjacent plots in which to plant 4 different
types of vegetables, each in a different plot. For example, plots 1 and 2 are
adjacent, but plots 1 and 5 are not. How many ways are there for him to do so?
14 2010 RI Prelim/II/5
(a) Find the number of three-letter code-words that can be formed from the letters of
the word WHYOGEE.
(b) A country is invited to send a delegation of six youths selected from six badminton
players, six tennis players and five football players to participate in the opening
ceremony of the Singapore 2010 Youth Olympic Games. No youth plays more than
one game. The delegation is to consist of at least one, and not more than three
players selected from each sport.
(i) Find the number of ways in which the delegation can be selected.
During the ceremony, the youths from the delegation are to be seated in six out of
ten chairs which are arranged in a row.
(ii) Find the number of ways this can be done if no two empty chairs are adjacent.
Answers:
1. (a) 1260 (b) 715
2. (a) 80640 (b) 40320 (c) 17280 (d) 262080
3. (i) 20160 (ii) 15120
4. 1218; 5040; 1440; 2520
5. 780, 3840
6. (a) 15400 (b) 120960
7. (i) 479001600 (ii) 34560 (iii) 21772800 (iv) 1209600
8. 127; 768; 240
9 (i) 3840 (ii) 212160
10 (i) 12600 (ii) 4806 (iii) 12180 ; 2100
11 479001600; 111974400 ; 4147200
12 (i) 5760 (ii) 26127360
13 (i) 60, (ii) 96, (iii) 144
14 (a) 135 (b)(i) 9450 (ii) 25200

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Chapter 1: Permutations and Combinations Tutor Copy

In this chapter, we will

Hwa Chong Institution 1 2012 JC2 H2 Mathematics

Hwa Chong Institution 2 2012 JC2 H2 Mathematics

Therefore, by the Multiplication Principle,

Hwa Chong Institution 3 2012 JC2 H2 Mathematics

In general, if n distinct objects are to be arranged in a row, then

Number of permutations (or arrangements) of n distinct objects is given by

Using TI84+ to evaluate 3!:

Hwa Chong Institution 4 2012 JC2 H2 Mathematics

Number of permutations of r objects taken from n distinct objects is given by

Hwa Chong Institution 6 2012 JC2 H2 Mathematics

1a1b2 1b1a2 1b21a 1a21b 21a1b 21a1b

In a collection of n objects, if n1 are of type 1, n2 are of type 2, n3 are of type 3, … , nk

(See Appendix for a proof for the above result.)

Hwa Chong Institution 7 2012 JC2 H2 Mathematics

(3) (2) (3) (2) (3) (2)

(3) (2) (3) (2) (3) (2)

Thus number of permutations  (3  1)!  2!  2 .

The number of permutations of n distinct objects in a circle is given by

Hwa Chong Institution 8 2012 JC2 H2 Mathematics

Hwa Chong Institution 9 2012 JC2 H2 Mathematics

We will illustrate the above result in greater detail in §1.10.

Hwa Chong Institution 10 2012 JC2 H2 Mathematics

Using TI84+ to evaluate 20C4 :

(a)(ii) Method 1: Consider cases

Method 2: Using the method of ‘Complementation’.

 Required number of ways  number of ways with no restriction – number of ways

Hwa Chong Institution 11 2012 JC2 H2 Mathematics

§1.10 Relationship between nCr and n Pr

Hwa Chong Institution 12 2012 JC2 H2 Mathematics

(iii) Method 1: Using the method of ‘Complementation’.

Hwa Chong Institution 13 2012 JC2 H2 Mathematics

Method 2: Using the method of ‘Slotting’.

(ii) Using the method of ‘Grouping’.

Hwa Chong Institution 14 2012 JC2 H2 Mathematics

(iii) Using the method of ‘Slotting’.

(ii) Possible 4-digit integers

Number of 4-digit integers that can be formed  3  63  648 .

Hwa Chong Institution 15 2012 JC2 H2 Mathematics

Hence number of ways  3  4  3  1  36 .

Case 2: The last digit is ‘8’.

Hence number of ways  2  4  3  1  24 .

Hwa Chong Institution 16 2012 JC2 H2 Mathematics

(iii) Using the method of ‘Grouping’.

(iv) Required number of ways  60480  10  604800 .

The number of identical arrangements in a rectangular table is no longer the same as in a

We notice that the following arrangements are identical, contributing to double-counting:

Hwa Chong Institution 17 2012 JC2 H2 Mathematics

Basic Counting Principles

Arrangement: Order is important

Arrangement of r objects taken from n distinct objects, with

Combination (or Selection): Order is not important

Relationship between n Pr and nCr : n

Useful techniques/methods for solving counting problems:

Hwa Chong Institution 18 2012 JC2 H2 Mathematics

In a collection of n objects, if n1 are of type 1, n2 are of type 2, n3 are of type 3, … , nk