applied
sciences
Article
Influence of Soil Particle Size on the Engineering Properties
and Microstructure of a Red Clay
Yongwei Wang 1 , Kunyao Li 1 , Jiaming Li 2 and Shibin Tang 2, *






Citation: Wang, Y.; Li, K.; Li, J.; Tang,
S. Influence of Soil Particle Size on the
Engineering Properties and
Microstructure of a Red Clay. Appl.
Sci. 2021, 11, 10887. https://doi.org/
10.3390/app112210887
Academic Editor: Chin Leo
Received: 21 September 2021
Accepted: 16 November 2021
Published: 18 November 2021
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4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10887. https://doi.org/10.3390/app112210887
1 Research and Development Center of Transport Industry of Intelligent Manufacturing Technologies of
Transport Infrastructure, CCCC Second Harbor Engineering Company Ltd., Wuhan 430000, China;
wangyongwei@ccccltd.cn (Y.W.); likunyao@ccccltd.cn (K.L.)
2 State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian University of Technology,
Dalian 116024, China; jiaming_li@mail.dlut.edu.cn
* Correspondence: Tang_Shibin@dlut.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-411-84708694
Abstract: Particle size exerts a significant influence on the mechanical behavior of soil. However,
insufficient research has been carried out on red clay formations, which are widespread in some
Chinese provinces. Here, using unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests, wetting–drying (WD)
tests, and low-temperature nitrogen adsorption tests, we examined the relationship between the
particle size and a number of mechanical and microstructural characteristics of a red clay outcropping
at a construction site in China. Our results suggest that, depending on the surface area, porosity,
particle size, and dry density, the failure mechanism in UCS tests will be different. That is, as the
particle size increases, the failure mode of soil changes from split failure into shear failure. In addition,
as the dry density increases, the UCS of the soil sample is significantly improved, and its total porosity
and fractal dimension decrease. We also evaluated a dependence on particle size and the number of
WD cycles on the distribution and size of cracks in WD tests. We conclude by suggesting that particle
size, dry density, and WD behavior should all be taken into account in roadbed designs in red clay
formations.
Keywords: red clay; particle size effect; specific surface area; pore; engineering characteristic
1. Introduction
Red clay is a shared, but problematic soil characterized by a high liquid limit (LL)
and plasticity index (PI) and usually presents a high natural moisture content (NMC).
It is generally distributed in the hot and humid regions of South China [1–3]. With the
development of the economy, an increasing number of railways and roads pass through
this particular soil area. However, if red clay is widely used in roadbeds as filler, it will
inevitably lead to road cracks, uneven road surface settlement, and other engineering
problems, which will further cause damages to the roads. Therefore, specialized treatments
are required for red clay to be exploited in embankments.
Soil mass is a complex particle system, and the grain composition and size of particles
play an essential role in their internal deformation characteristics [4]. Accordingly, it is
necessary to consider the impact of the particle size on the roadbed when processing red
clay. Furthermore, soil particles with different scales have different modes of action [5,6],
resulting in various binding modes between particles. From a microscopic perspective,
divergent clay minerals, arrangements, and distribution relationships affect the specific
surface area (SSA), micropores, single-grain structure, and cemented structure of soil parti-
cles, where van der Waals’ force is the main force between particles. From a macroscopic
perspective, cracks, layers, and large pores directly impact the deformation and mechanical
properties of the soil, where the external load is the main force. Under the imposition of
external forces, the soil mass begins to break down and deform from the microstructure.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10887 2 of 17

Then, the particles contact and stagger and eventually become dislocated and discrete,
damaging the macroscopic structure.
Regarding the study on the impact of particle size effect on soil mass, Cho [7] et al.
showed that the size and shape of soil particles reflect their formation history, and the
macroscale behavior of the soil is, in turn, the result of particle-level interactions influenced
by particle shape. The increase in particle irregularity leads to a decrease in stiffness but an
increase in sensitivity to stress states. The macroscale behavior of soils explained in micro-
scopic terms is reviewed by Santamarina et al. [8]. The primary distinction between fine
and coarse particulate materials was emphasized. Thornton [9] investigated the quasi-static
shear deformation of granular media and examined the evolution of internal variables
associated with micromechanical processes occurring at the particle scale by numerical
simulations. The results illustrate the effect of inter-particle friction on macroscopic me-
chanical and micromechanical behavior. Wang et al. [10] studied the effect of particle size
distribution on the shear strength of the accumulated soil by direct shear and triaxial tests,
and found that the shear angle increased with the increase of median particle size and
gravel content. Qi et al. [11] explored the effect of particle size on the thermal desorption of
PCBs from contaminated soil and found that fine soil particles have higher removal and
destruction efficiency than coarse ones. Chang et al. [12] built a mathematical model based
on the concept of a dominant particle network to predict the minimum porosity of granular
soil with arbitrary particle size distribution. Cubrinovski and Ishihara [13] studied the
effects of fineness, grain-size composition, and particle shape on porosity, giving a set of
empirical correlations, as well as characterized the importance of grain-size distribution
and the presence of interstices in laboratory-produced composite soils or mixtures con-
taining pulverized sands. Fuggle et al. [14] studied the effect of particle size on the void
ratio of loosely packed binary particle mixtures and argued that the relative content of
fine particles in the mixture significantly changes the void structure of the material and
affects the material properties. Experimental and numerical simulation results manifest
how the pore ratio varies nonlinearly when the binary mixture contains other fine particles,
and a series of experimental results for the particle size ratio is presented. Islam et al. [15]
reported that the angle of internal friction and the maximum horizontal shear stress of
uniform sands increase with increasing particle size, and the larger the gradation, the
higher the shear strength. Furthermore, a theoretical method correlating particle size to
the macroscopic response has also been proposed. Cheraghi et al. [16] studied the effect
of particle size on hysteretic sediment transport. By assessing rainfall patterns, flow rates
and sand content data were measured for seven particle size classes. It was found that
the hysteresis rate varied with the particle size, decreasing when particles were more
prominent than 50 µm. Rasti et al. [17] conducted an experimental study on the shear
strength characteristics of sandy soils with different particle sizes. They found that sandy
soils with larger particle sizes have larger friction angles than smaller ones, determining a
direct relationship between soil friction angle and soil particle characteristics. Aberg [18],
Bobei et al. [19], and Peters and Berney [20] also reported that the particle size distribution
of granular soils has a significant effect on their mechanical properties.
The above research mainly studied the impact of particle size on soil mass, but few
were concerned about the impact of red clay with different particle sizes on engineering
characteristics. Therefore, this paper aims to determine how the engineering characteristics
of red clay will change by varying particle sizes. The red clay in Guilin is chosen as the
research material, and the selected particle sizes are 0.25 mm, 0.5 mm, 2 mm, and 5 mm.
Multiple tests are conducted on red clay samples with different particles and dry densities,
including unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests, wetting–drying (WD) tests, and
low-temperature nitrogen adsorption tests, to explore the impact of particle size on the
engineering properties and microstructure of red clay.
Appl. Sci.
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2021, 11,
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2. Materials
2. Materials and
and Methods
Methods
2.1. Research Materials
2.1.1. Exploration of Physical Properties of
of Sample
Sample Site
Site
The red clay was taken from a construction construction site in in Yanshan
Yanshan Town, Guilin City, City, located
located
in the east wing of the Yanshan Yanshan anticline
anticline andand the
the western
western end
end ofof the
the Ertang
Ertang syncline.
syncline. TheThe
distribution
distribution stratumstratum isis aa light
light gray
gray thick
thick layered
layered massive
massive limestone
limestone fromfrom thethe Devonian
Devonian
Donggangling
Donggangling Formation Formation (D (D2d ), where
2d), where the the regional
regional structure
structure isis relatively
relatively stable.
stable. TheThe local
local
average temperature is 18.9 °C; the average rainfall is 1949.5
average temperature is 18.9 ℃; the average rainfall is 1949.5 mm; the average relative mm; the average relative
humidity
humidity is is between
between 73 73 and
and 79%;
79%; the the average
average sunshine
sunshine hours
hours is is 1670
1670 h;
h; the
the rainfall
rainfall isis
abundant;
abundant; the surface water system is relatively developed; and the water level of
the surface water system is relatively developed; and the water level of the
the
nearby
nearby river river is
is 152.60
152.60 m,
m, asas measured
measured during during the
the survey.
survey.
According
According to to the
the results
results of of on-site
on-site drilling,
drilling, in
in situ
situ testing,
testing, and
and laboratory
laboratory soilsoil testing,
testing,
the foundation soil (rock) in the site is mainly composed of cultivated soil (Q pd ), red clay
the foundation soil (rock) in the site is mainly composed of cultivated soil (Q4 ), red clay 4 pd
(Q el and limestone (D ). The soil used in this test is red clay (Q el ) with a pH from
(Q33el),), and limestone (D2d2d ). The soil used in this test is red clay (Q3el) 3with a pH from 6.80
6.80 to 6.92. The specific physical
to 6.92. The specific physical and mechanical and mechanical parameters
parameters of theofsoil
thearesoil are displayed
displayed in Tablein
Table
1. 1.

Table 1. Basic physical and mechanical properties.

Table 1. Basic physical and mechanical properties.
Specific Free Swelling Plastic Liquid Plasticity Optimum Maximum Dry
Unit Weight Specific
Gravity
Free swelling
Ratio
Plastic
Limit
Liquid
Limit
Plasticity
Index
Optimum
Moisture Content
Maximum Dry
Unit Weight
Unit Weight
Gravity Ratio Limit Limit Index Moisture Content Unit Weight
18.1 kN/m3 2.76 21% 31.9% 55.8% 23.9 30.78% 1.575 g·cm−−33
18.1 kN/m3 2.76 21% 31.9% 55.8% 23.9 30.78% 1.575 g·cm

2.1.2.
2.1.2. Material
Material Composition
Composition of of Soil
Soil Samples
Samples
An
An S-4800 Field Emission Electron Microscope
S-4800 Field Emission Electron Microscope (JEM-2100F)
(JEM-2100F) jointly
jointly produced
produced by by the
the
Japanese
Japanese High-tech Company and the British Oxford Company was used to analyze the
High-tech Company and the British Oxford Company was used to analyze the
energy
energy spectrum
spectrum ofof the
the soil
soil sample.
sample. TheThe energy
energy spectrum
spectrum result
result of
of the
the red
red clay
clay is
is exhibited
exhibited
in
in Figure
Figure 1,
1, and
and the
the content
content of
of each
each element
element is
is shown
shown inin Table
Table2.2.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. The energy spectrum
spectrum of
of red
red clay.
clay.

Table 2. Chemical composition of red clay.

Table 2. Chemical composition of red clay.
Element
Element MgK AIK
MgK AIK SiK SiK KKKK TiK
TiK FeK
FeK O
O Total
Total
Weight (%)
Weight (%) 0.90 19.54
0.90 19.54 22.34
22.34 1.32
1.32 1.36
1.36 7.72
7.72 46.81
46.81 100.00
100.00

The 0 PertPRO X-ray

The XX′PertPRO X-ray diffractometer
diffractometer produced
produced by PANalytical
by PANalytical B.V. in the B.V. in the
Netherlands
Netherlands
was was usedthe
used to examine to mineral
examine composition
the mineral composition of the soil
of the soil sample. Thesample. The X-ray
X-ray diffraction
diffraction
pattern pattern
is shown inisFigure
shown2,inandFigure 2, and the
the mineral mineral composition
composition is shown inisTable
shown in Table 3.
3. Following
Following
Figure 2 and Figure
Table 23,and Table 3, the
the minerals minerals
in the red clayinsamples
the red can
claybe samples canasbequartz,
identified identified as
laurel,
quartz, laurel, (2:1
montmorillonite montmorillonite
layered silicate),(2:1 layeredclinochlorite
kaolinite, silicate), kaolinite, clinochlorite
(2:1 phyllosilicate), (2:1
and illite.
In addition, the color
phyllosilicate), of theIn
and illite. soil sample also
addition, the determines
color of thethe existence
soil sampleofalso hematite; however,
determines the
its contentof
existence inhematite;
some samples is possibly
however, lowerin
its content than thesamples
some XRD limit is of detection,
possibly so the
lower thanXRDthe
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10887 4 of 17
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17

peak is not apparent (approximately 35 2theta). The semi-quantitative method chosen for
XRD limit of detection, so the XRD peak is not apparent (approximately 35 2theta). The
minerals was the Rietveld method [21].
semi-quantitative method chosen for minerals was the Rietveld method [21].

1
1 - Quartz
2 - Montmorillonite
3 - Laumontite
4 - Kaolinite
5 - Clinochlore
Intensity (a.u)

6 - Illite

1
2 3
5 4 1 1 1
1
6 5 3 63 2 3 43 2 64 1 1 1 21 1
2 6 53 1 4 2 111

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
2Theta (degree)

Figure 2. X-ray
Figure 2. X-ray diffraction
diffraction spectrum.
spectrum.

Table 3. Mineral composition of red clay.

Table 3. Mineral composition of red clay.
Mineral Semi-Quantitative
Semi- Interplanar
Interplanar Angle
Angle 2 2RelativeRelative
Strength I
Characteristic Peak
Mineral Composition (%)
Composition Characteristic Peak Spacing d (Å) Theta (◦ ) Strength I (%)
Quantitative (%) Spacing d (Å) Theta (°) (%)
The first characteristic peak 3.33 26.74 100
The first characteristic
Quartz 38.00 The second characteristic peak 3.334.23 26.7420.97 100
21.9
peak peak
The third characteristic 1.81 50.23 9.9
The secondpeak
The first characteristic 9.42 9.38 100
Quartz 38.00 The second characteristic peak 4.233.5 20.9725.44 21.9
47.7
Laumontite 13.20 characteristic peak
The third characteristic
The third peak
characteristic 4.15 21.39 43.8
The first characteristic peak 1.8114.7 50.2319.75 9.9100
1.10
peak
The second characteristic peak 4.93 35.06 60
Montmorillonite
The first
The third characteristic
characteristic peak 4.43 62.09 80
9.42 9.38 100
peak peak
The first characteristic 7.15 12.37 100
Kaolinite 4.20 The second characteristic
The second peak 3.57 24.9 80
Laumontite 13.20 The third characteristic peak 3.52.34 25.4438.51 47.740
characteristic peak
The first characteristic peak 14.38 6.23 86.5
Clinochlore 23.10 The secondthird
The characteristic
characteristic peak 4.157.1 21.3912.38 43.8100
peak peak
The third characteristic 4.75 18.67 59.6
The first
The characteristic peak
first characteristic 9.9 8.9 61
Illite 20.30 The second characteristic peak 14.74.45 19.7519.9 100 100
peak
The third characteristic peak 3.5 25.38 60.3
The second
Montmorillonite 1.10 4.93 35.06 60
characteristic peak
2.2. Testing Methods
The third characteristic
The retrieved soil samples 4.43 62.09 80
peak were air-dried, crushed, and then passed through sieves
with particle sizes
Theoffirst
0.25characteristic
mm, 0.5 mm, 2 mm, and 5 mm, respectively. The initial moisture
content was measured using 7.15 12.37 100
peaka drying oven, and the quantity of distilled water required to
reach the optimal moisture content of red clay at 37.78% was calculated using Formula (1).
The second
Kaolinite 4.20
In addition, 3.57 were evenly
the distilled water and the soil sample 24.9 mixed, and the80 mixture
characteristic peak
was sealed for 24 h after completion.
The third characteristic
2.34 38.51 40
peak m0
mw = × 0.01(w1 − w0 ) (1)
1 + 0.01w0
The first characteristic
14.38 6.23 86.5
peak
Clinochlore 23.10
The second
7.1 12.38 100
characteristic peak
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10887 5 of 17

where mw represents the amount of water required (g), m0 represents the quality of air-dried
soil samples (g), w0 represents the moisture content of air-dried soil (%), and w1 represents
the moisture content required for sample preparation (%).
Three soil samples with different particle sizes were selected, and their masses were
163.21 g, 175.77 g, and 188.32 g, respectively. The three samples were compacted in
six layers, obtaining cylindrical samples with dry densities of 1.3 g/cm3 , 1.4 g/cm3 , and
1.5 g/cm3 . Finally, an UCS test was carried out using an unconfined compression apparatus.
Next, three soil samples with different particle sizes with 102.01 g, 109.86 g, and 117.70 g
were selected. We compressed soil samples of different masses into a 20 mm ring knife to
obtain samples with dry densities of 1.3 g/cm3 , 1.4 g/cm3 , and 1.5 g/cm3 , respectively. WD
cycles were performed after saturation: the sample was placed in a constant temperature
box at 40 ◦ C for 12 h for drying cycles and then immersed in water with a saturator for
12 h for wetting cycles. A high-speed scanner was used to take pictures in each cycle until
the test was completed, repeating the cycle 12 times. The SSA and pore distribution of red
clay with different particle sizes were measured via a low-temperature nitrogen adsorption
test, using the TriStar II 3020 automatic three-station SSA and porosity analyzer from Mike
Instruments Inc. (Norcross, GA, USA). The analysis of pore size showed that the range was
3.5 angstroms to 5000 angstroms, the pressure range was 0 to 1000 mmHg, the SSA could
be as low as 0.01 m2 /g, the time required to measure specific the surface area was 20 min,
the repeatability was better than 1%, the analysis bath was at −195.850 ◦ C, and the balance
time was 10 s. The experiment process is as follows. A certain amount of red clay was put
into the sample tube to be degassed and then weighed. Finally, the red clay was placed on
the analysis station for sample analysis and calculation.

3. Results and Analysis

3.1. Analysis of Specific Surface Area and Pore
3.1.1. Specific Surface Area
The features of the SSA of the soil are closely related to the macroscopic physical
and mechanical properties of the soil. According to the law of adsorption of a gas on
the surface of soil particles, the sum of the internal surface area and the external surface
area of soil particle lattice per unit mass that the adsorbate molecules can reach is the SSA
of the soil particles. The BET adsorption isotherm equation of the multilayer adsorption
theory and the Langmuir adsorption isotherm equation is provided in Equations (2) and
(3), respectively [22,23].

P/P0 C−1 1
= × P/P0 + (2)
V (1 − p/p0 ) Vm C Vm C

where V represents the gas adsorption capacity, Vm represents the monolayer saturated
adsorption capacity, P represents the adsorbate’s pressure, P0 represents the saturated
vapor pressure of adsorbate, and C represents the constant.

Vs b·P
θ= = (3)
Vml 1+b·P

where b represents the adsorption equilibrium constant, P represents the gas pressure,
θ represents the surface area coverage of solid surface occupied by adsorbed gas, V s
represents the volume of adsorbed gas per gram of solid, and Vml represents the volume of
adsorbed gas per gram of solid covered by a monolayer.
The low-temperature nitrogen adsorption test (LT-NAT) measurement process is
divided into two stages: adsorption and desorption. Take red clay with a particle size
of 0.25 mm as an example. The adsorption amount of red clay during increasing and
decreasing the relative pressure is illustrated in Figure 3. It is apparent that when the
relative pressure is slight, the adsorption isotherm and the desorption isotherm coincide
with each other. When the relative pressure is more extensive than 0.8 P/P0 , the desorption
 gas, V represents the volume of adsorbed gas per gram of solid, and Vml represents
the volume of adsorbed gas per gram of solid covered by a monolayer.
The low-temperature nitrogen adsorption test (LT-NAT) measurement process is
divided into two stages: adsorption and desorption. Take red clay with a particle size of
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10887
0.25 mm as an example. The adsorption amount of red clay during increasing6 of and
17
decreasing the relative pressure is illustrated in Figure 3. It is apparent that when the
relative pressure is slight, the adsorption isotherm and the desorption isotherm coincide
with each other. When the relative pressure is more extensive than 0.8 P/P0, the desorption
isotherm
isotherm is above the adsorption
adsorption isotherm,
isotherm, indicating
indicating that
that red
red clay
clay has
has a larger
larger adsorption
adsorption
capacity during desorption than adsorption.adsorption. The adsorption isotherms of red clay clay with
with
different particle sizes are provided in Figure 4. These adsorption isotherms
different particle sizes are provided in Figure 4. These adsorption isotherms show a show a similar
upward trend with
similar upward the with
trend increase
the in relativeinpressure,
increase relative and the curve
pressure, and is concave,
the curve isindicating
concave,
weak interaction. In addition, the adsorption isotherm can be
indicating weak interaction. In addition, the adsorption isotherm can be divideddivided into twointo stages:
two
(1) Slow(1)linear
stages: Slowgrowth stage (when
linear growth the relative
stage(when pressure
the relative P/P0 P/P
pressure is between
0 is between 0 and 0.6, the
0 and 0.6,
adsorption
the adsorption isotherms
isotherms of red clay
of red with
clay different
with differentparticle
particlediameters
diameterscoincide
coincidewith with each
each
other). (2) Rapid
other). (2) Rapid non-linear
non-lineargrowth
growthstage(when
stage (whenthe therelative
relative pressure
pressure P/PP/P is between
0 is0 between 0.6
0.6
and 1.0, there is a slight difference between the adsorption isotherms of red clay
and 1.0, there is a slight difference between the adsorption isotherms of red clay with
with
different
different particle sizes, and the adsorption quantity of red clay with a particle sizesize
particle sizes, and the adsorption quantity of red clay with a particle of
of 0.5
0.5 mm is significantly lower than that with other particle sizes under
mm is significantly lower than that with other particle sizes under the same relative the same relative
pressure).
pressure). Table
Table 44 describes
describes thethe SSA
SSA of
of red
red clay
clay with
with different
different particle
particle sizes,
sizes, asas calculated
calculated
by Equations (2) and
by Equations (2) and (3). (3).

100
Adsorption amount (cm3/g STP)

Adsorption isotherm
80 Desorption isotherm

60

40

20

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW Relative pressure (P/Po) 7 of 17

Figure 3. Adsorption–desorption isotherm of red

red clay
clay (0.25
(0.25 mm).
mm).

100
0.25 mm
Adsorption amount (cm3/g STP)

0.50 mm
80 2.00 mm
5.00 mm
60

40

20

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Relative pressure (P/Po)

Figure 4. Adsorption
Figure 4. Adsorption isotherms
isotherms of
of red
red clay
clay with
with different
different particle
particle sizes.
sizes.

As shown
Table 4. Thein Table
SSA 4, clay
of red the with
SSA different
of the red clay obtained
particle sizes. by the Langmuir adsorption
isotherm equation is about 2.5 times that of the BET adsorption isotherm equation. The
sum of the internalInternal
and externalExternal BJHisAdsorption
surface areas the BET surface area,BJHandDesorption
the external
Langmuir
Grain Size BET Surface surface area accountsSurface Surface Cumulative Surface Cumulative
for 93–95% of the total surface area. Additionally, the BJH adsorptionSurface
Surface Area
(mm) Area (m²/g) cumulative surfaceArea area of theAreapores between 1.7 Areanm and 300 nm is smaller Area than the
(m²/g)
desorption cumulative (m²/g)surface(m²/g)
area. With the increase
(m²/g) in soil particle size,(m²/g)
the SSA does
0.25 45.6956 not appear
116.2331 to decrease;
2.8895instead, SSA
42.8061(2.0) > SSA > SSA
46.950 (5.0)
(0.25) > SSA . The main reason
(0.5) 48.4585
0.50 42.7188 for this is
109.0909 that the mass
2.0696 of red clay
40.6492 sample approximately
44.268 between 0.5 g and 0.7 g is
45.6784
2.00 45.8130 117.7344 2.9162 42.8968 47.143 48.8844
5.00 44.7118 113.1781 2.9628 41.7489 45.700 47.5564

As shown in Table 4, the SSA of the red clay obtained by the Langmuir adsorption
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10887 7 of 17

too small, and the area at the lattice level cannot reflect the influence of soil particle size
on the structure of the sample, let alone the particle size effect of the soil on SSA. The
difference in the SSA of soil samples with different particle sizes is mainly due to the
mineral composition of the selected test soil samples. The differentiation in the SSA of the
soil samples with different particle sizes is mainly due to the different mineral compositions
of the selected test soil samples.

Table 4. The SSA of red clay with different particle sizes.

BJH Adsorption BJH Desorption

Langmuir Internal External
Grain Size BET Surface Cumulative Cumulative
Surface Area Surface Area Surface Area
(mm) Area (m2 /g) Surface Area Surface Area
(m2 /g) (m2 /g) (m2 /g)
(m2 /g) (m2 /g)
0.25 45.6956 116.2331 2.8895 42.8061 46.950 48.4585
0.50 42.7188 109.0909 2.0696 40.6492 44.268 45.6784
2.00 45.8130 117.7344 2.9162 42.8968 47.143 48.8844
5.00 44.7118 113.1781 2.9628 41.7489 45.700 47.5564

3.1.2. Porosity
The pore size distribution principle is based on the capillary condensation phe-
nomenon and the volume equivalent exchange rule [24]. The amount of liquid nitrogen
permeated in the red clay particles is equal to the volume of the pores. Based on the Kelvin
equation, the relationship between the partial pressure of adsorbate and the pore size of
capillary condensation is described in Equation (4). The cumulative pore volume curves
of BJH adsorption and desorption are given in Figures 5 and 6, respectively, and the pore
volume of red clay with different particle sizes is shown in Table 5.

0.414
Rk = − (4)
log( P/P0 )

According to the size of the pore radius, the pores on the solid surface can be divided
into three categories: (1) micropores with a radius less than 2 nm; (2) mesopores with
a radius between 2 and 50 nm; and (3) macropores with a radius greater than 50 nm.
According to Figures 5 and 6, it is evident that the BJH adsorption and desorption cu-
mulative pore volume of the red clay gradually decreases with the increase in the pore
size, implying that the pores of the red clay are primarily tiny (main mesopores with the
pore size ranging from 1.7 to 15 nm). Moreover, the pore volume ranges from 0.008 to
0.08 cm3 /g, and the minimum pore volume during desorption is 0.072–0.08 cm3 /g, while
that during adsorption is 0.061–0.066 cm3 /g. The red clay with the smallest particle size
of 0.25 mm shows a more remarkable relative change than the others by comparing the
desorption and adsorption processes. The pore volume is the largest during the adsorption
process, and the volume of small pore size equals the pore volume of the red clay, with a
particle size of 2 mm; however, during the desorption process, the pore volume of the red
clay with a particle size of 0.25 mm was significantly reduced compared with clays with
different particle sizes.
According to Table 5, the internal pore volume of soil particles is the smallest when
the particle size is 0.5 mm, with the internal pore volume of other particle sizes remaining
proportional to the particle size. The BJH adsorption and desorption cumulative volumes
change little with the particle size, and the cumulative volume of desorption is larger than
the cumulative volume of adsorption. The average pore sizes of BJH adsorption and BJH
desorption are equal to 4 times the pore volume within the SSA, which might generate
significant errors when the soil mass is unevenly distributed.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10887 8 of 17
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

0.07

0.06
0.25mm
0.05
0.50mm

/g)
(cm33/g)
2.00mm

volume (cm
5.00mm
0.04
Pore volume
0.03
Pore

0.02

0.01

0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Aperture (nm)

Figure 5.
Figure 5. BJH
BJH adsorption
adsorption cumulative
cumulative pore
pore volume.
volume.

0.08

0.07 0.25mm
0.50mm
0.06 2.00mm
/g)
(cm33/g)

5.00mm
volume (cm

0.05
Pore volume

0.04
Pore

0.03

0.02

0.01
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Aperture (nm)

Figure 6.
Figure 6. BJH
BJH desorption
desorption cumulative
cumulative pore
pore volume.
volume.

Table5.5.The
Table Thepore
porevolume
volumeof
ofred
redclay
claywith
withdifferent
differentparticle
particlesizes.
sizes.
Grain Micropore BJH
BJHAdsorption
Adsorption BJH Desorption
BJH Desorption BJH Adsorption Average BJH Desorption Average
Grain
Size Micropore
Volume Cumulative Volume Cumulative Volume BJHPore
Adsorption Average BJHPore
Width (4 V/A) Desorption Average
Width (4 V/A)
3 /g) Cumulative Cumulative
(mm)
Size (cm
Volume (cm3 /g) (cm3 /g) (nm)
Pore Width (4 V/A) (nm)
Pore Width (4 V/A)
Volume Volume
(mm)
0.25 (cm³/g)
0.001210 0.065612 0.075129 (nm)
5.5900 (nm)
6.2015
0.50 0.000810
(cm³/g)
0.061253
(cm³/g)
0.072472 5.5348 6.3463
0.25
2.00 0.001210
0.001235 0.065612
0.065473 0.075129
0.079685 5.5900
5.5552 6.2015
6.5203
0.50
5.00 0.000810
0.001255 0.061253
0.062868 0.072472
0.077363 5.5348
5.5028 6.3463
6.5070
2.00 0.001235 0.065473 0.079685 5.5552 6.5203
5.00 0.001255 0.062868
3.2. Results of UCS Test0.077363 5.5028 6.5070
Take the red clay with a dry density of 1.4 g/cm3 as an example. The failure pattern of
According
the soil samples to thethe
after sizeUCS
of the
testpore radius, the
is provided pores on
in Figure 7. the
Thesolid surface
failure can of
patterns bered
divided
clay
into three categories: (1) micropores with a radius less than 2 nm;
samples with different particle sizes appear as split and shear failure after the UCS (2) mesopores with
test.a
radius between 2 and 50 nm; and (3) macropores with a radius greater
It is worth noting that when the particle size is 0.5 mm, although the soil sample shows than 50 nm.
According
apparent to Figures
shear 5 andare
failure, there 6, also
it isevident
evidentcracks
that on
thethe
BJH adsorption
surface andsample
of the soil desorption
and
split failure on the other side. Furthermore, when the particle size is betweenin0.25
cumulative pore volume of the red clay gradually decreases with the increase the pore
and
2size,
mm,implying thatof
the bottom thethe
pores of the
sample redfirst,
fails clayand
are primarily
the damaged tiny surface
(main mesopores
expands fromwiththethe
pore size ranging from 1.7 to 15 nm). Moreover, the pore volume ranges
bottom upwards as the pressure increases until the sample is destroyed. The main reason from 0.008 to 0.08
cmthat
is
3/g, and the minimum pore volume during desorption is 0.072–0.08 cm3/g, while that
the top of the unconfined compression instrument is fixed, and the pressure is
during onto
loaded adsorption
the soilissample
0.061–0.066
whencm the3/g. The red clay with the smallest particle size of 0.25
bottom rises. When the soil particles are small, the
mm shows
internal a more
structure of theremarkable
soil sample is relative change
dense, and than are
the pores thetiny.
others
As thebyloading
comparing the
pressure
desorption and adsorption processes. The pore volume is the largest during the
 test. It is worth noting that when the particle size is 0.5 mm, although the soil sample
shows apparent shear failure, there are also evident cracks on the surface of the soil
sample and split failure on the other side. Furthermore, when the particle size is between
0.25 and 2 mm, the bottom of the sample fails first, and the damaged surface expands from
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10887 the bottom upwards as the pressure increases until the sample is destroyed. The main 9 of 17
reason is that the top of the unconfined compression instrument is fixed, and the pressure
is loaded onto the soil sample when the bottom rises. When the soil particles are small,
the internal structure of the soil sample is dense, and the pores are tiny. As the loading
increases,
pressure relative
increases, slippage
relative between
slippage soil particles
between is arduous,
soil particles causingcausing
is arduous, the soil the
sample
soil to
split to
sample or split
undergo shear failure
or undergo shearfrom thefrom
failure bottom
the first. When
bottom first.the particle
When the size is 5 mm,
particle size isas5the
mm, pressure increases,increases,
as the pressure no fracturenocracks appear
fracture at the
cracks upperatand
appear the lower
upperends
and of the soil
lower endssample;
of
the soil sample; on the contrary, shear bands are generated in the middle, resulting inThe
on the contrary, shear bands are generated in the middle, resulting in shear failure.
main
shear reason
failure. Theismain
that when
reasonthe soil when
is that particles
the are
soilsignificant,
particles arethere are many
significant, pores
there between
are many
them,
pores whichthem,
between causeswhich
relative slippage.
causes relativeAs slippage.
the loading Aspressure
the loading grows, the pores
pressure gradually
grows, the
connect
pores from connect
gradually point to from
line and then
point to to theand
line surface,
then forming a shearforming
to the surface, zone and causing
a shear shear
zone
failure in the soil sample.
and causing shear failure in the soil sample.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 7. Failure
Figure pattern
7. Failure of soil
pattern sample:
of soil (a) 0.25
sample: mm;
(a) 0.25 (b) (b)
mm; 0.5 0.5
mm; (c) 2(c)mm;
mm; (d) (d)
2 mm; 5 mm.
5 mm.

As shown
As shown in Figure
in Figure 8, the
8, the UCS UCS tests
tests of red
of red clayclay under
under different
different drydry density
density conditions
conditions
havehave obtained
obtained stress–strain
stress–strain curves
curves of different
of different particle
particle diameters,
diameters, which
which all reveal
all reveal strain-
strain-
softening
softening withwith evident
evident peak peak strength,
strength, andand
thethepeakpeak point
point is on
is on thethe left.
left. As As axial
axial strain
strain
increases on the left side of the peak point, the axial stress increases rapidly.
increases on the left side of the peak point, the axial stress increases rapidly. The soil10mass The soil mass
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 17
is undergoing compaction, and the internal pores are gradually reduced. To the right sideside
is undergoing compaction, and the internal pores are gradually reduced. To the right
of the
of the peak
peak point,
point, thethe axial
axial stress
stress rapidly
rapidly drops
drops and and then
then slowly
slowly decreases.
decreases. Comparing
Comparing
these with the curves of the red clay of different dry densities, as the dry
these with the curves of the red clay of different dry densities, as the dry density increases, density increases,
the the
peak point gradually moves to the right along the horizontal axis, indicating
peak point gradually moves to the right along the horizontal axis, indicating that that the the
soilsoil
mass hashas
mass a more
a moreextraordinary
extraordinary ability
abilitytotowithstand
withstanddeformation
deformation before
before failure with
with the
the increase
increase in
in dry
dry density.
density.

180
120 0.25mm 250 0.25mm
160
0.25mm
0.50mm 0.50mm 0.50mm
100 2.00mm 140 2.00mm 2.00mm
200
5.00mm 5.00mm 5.00mm
Axial stress (kPa)
Axial stress (kPa)

Axial stress (kPa)

120
80
100 150

60
80
100
40 60

40
50
20
20

0 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Axial strain (%) (a) Axial strain (%) (b) Axial strain (%) (c)

Stress–strain curve 3 ; (b) 1.4 g/cm3 ; (c) 1.5 g/cm3 .

Figure
Figure 8. 8.
Stress–strain curve of of
redred clay:
clay: (a)(a)
1.31.3 g/cm
g/cm 3; (b) 1.4 g/cm3; (c) 1.5 g/cm3.

Furthermore, by comparing the angle formed by the peak point and the curve on
Furthermore, by comparing the angle formed by the peak point and the curve on
both sides, it is easy to see that the greater the dry density, the greater the angle; this also
both sides, it is easy to see that the greater the dry density, the greater the angle; this also
indicates that the ability of the soil to withstand deformation before failure enhances with
indicates that the ability of the soil to withstand deformation before failure enhances with
the increase in dry density. In addition, by comparing the residual strength values of
the increase in dry density. In addition, by comparing the residual strength values of
damaged soil samples with the exact particle sizes but different dry densities (when the
damaged soil samples with the exact particle sizes but different dry densities (when the
axial strain is 20%), a similar result is obtained that the dry density is proportional to the
axial strain is 20%), a similar result is obtained that the dry density is proportional to the
residual strength. The residual strength of the soil sample with a particle size of 5 mm
residual strength.
is smaller thanThe
the residual
residual strength
strength ofof the
the soil
soil sample
sample with
with aa particle
particle size
size of
of 51.25–2
mm ismm.
smaller than the residual strength of the soil sample with a particle size of 1.25–2 mm. The
failure patterns displayed in Figure 7 show that after the shear failure, the friction force
generated by the relative movement of the soil sample along the shear zone is smaller than
the resistance of the soil mass after split failure when the soil particle is large. In addition,
except for the one corresponding to 0.25 mm, the other curves at the dry density of 1.3
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10887 10 of 17

The failure patterns displayed in Figure 7 show that after the shear failure, the friction
force generated by the relative movement of the soil sample along the shear zone is smaller
than the resistance of the soil mass after split failure when the soil particle is large. In
addition, except for the one corresponding to 0.25 mm, the other curves at the dry density
of 1.3 g/cm3 follow the same rule, whereby the smaller the particle size, the greater the
residual strength, which shows that the interaction force between the small particles is
intensive.
By defining the axial stress corresponding to the peak point of the stress–strain curve
as the UCS of red clay, the curve of the relationship between the dry density and UCS of
red clay with different particle sizes can be derived (Figure 9). The relationship between
the particle size and the UCS of red clay at various dry densities is shown in Figure 10.
According to these two figures, the greater the dry density, the greater the UCS of the red
clay under different particle size conditions. Furthermore, as soil’s particle size increases,
the red clay’s UCS first decreases and then increases under different dry density conditions.
In Figure 9, at the same dry density, the UCS is most prominent at a particle size of 0.25 mm,
smallest at a particle size of 2.0 mm, and closest at particle sizes of 0.5 mm, and 5 mm.
The average UCS is 87.46 kPa for different particle sizes at a dry density of 1.3 g/cm3 ,
increasing by 64.17% and 140.59% for dry densities of 1.4 g/cm3 and 1.5 g/cm3 , respectively.
In Figure 10, the average UCS for different dry densities is 107.22 kPa at a particle size of
2.0 mm, increasing by 68.53%, 40.03%, and 40.42% at particle sizes of 0.25 mm, 0.5 mm,
and 5.0 mm, respectively. The UCS is mainly related to the failure mode of the soil mass.
Videlicet, when the soil particle size is smaller than 2.0 mm, the soil mass undergoes split
failure. The larger the particle size, the smaller the UCS of the red clay. However, when
the particle size of the soil is relatively large, the soil undergoes shear failure, and the UCS
is mainly related to the friction between the particles, enhancing the strength of the soil.
Hence, with the growth in particle size, the failure pattern of the soil mass changes11from
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 17
split failure to shear failure.

250
0.25 mm
Unconfined compressive strength (kPa)

0.50 mm
2.00 mm
200 5.00 mm
Average value

150

100

50

1.30 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50

Dry density (g/cm3)

Figure 9.
Figure The fitting
9. The fitting curve
curve of
of dry
dry density
density and
and UCS
UCS at
at different
different particle sizes.

300
1.3 g/cm3
Unconfined compressive strength (kPa)

1.4 g/cm3
250 1.5 g/cm3
Average value

200

150

100

50
 Unconf
Unconfi
50
50

1.30 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50

1.30 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10887 Dry density (g/cm3) 11 of 17
Dry density (g/cm3)
Figure 9. The fitting curve of dry density and UCS at different particle sizes.
Figure 9. The fitting curve of dry density and UCS at different particle sizes.
300
300 1.3 g/cm3
1.3 g/cm33

(kPa)
1.4 g/cm

strength(kPa)
1.4 g/cm33
250 1.5 g/cm
250 1.5 g/cm3
Average value

compressivestrength
Average value
200
200

Unconfinedcompressive
150
150

100
Unconfined

100

50
50

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5size 3.0
Particle (mm) 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Particle size (mm)
Figure10.
Figure 10. The
The fitting
fittingcurve
curveof
ofparticle
particlesize
sizeand
andUCS
UCSat
atdifferent
differentdry
drydensities.
densities.

3.3.
3.3. Results
Results of
of Macro
Macro Cracks
Cracks
3.3. Results of Macro Cracks
3.3.1.
3.3.1. The
The Influence
Influence of ofWD
WDCycles
Cyclesononthe
theCrack
CrackofofRed
RedClay
Claywith
withDifferent
DifferentParticle
ParticleSizes
Sizes
3.3.1. The Influence of WD Cycles on the Crack of Red Clay with Different Particle Sizes
Red
Red clay
clay samples with different
samples with different particle
particlesizes
sizesand
anddry
drydensities
densitieswere
were subjected
subjected to to
12
12 WD Red claytests,
cycle samples with different particle
andthree-dimensional
three-dimensional sizes
crack and drywas
extraction densities were subjected
performed on aa ring to 12
WD cycle tests, and crack extraction was performed on ring knife
knife
WD
samplecycle each.
tests, andfracture
three-dimensionalprocess
crack extraction was performed on a ring knife
sampleof of each. The
The fractureextraction
extraction processof ofthe
thetwelfth
twelfthcycle
cycleof
ofthe
thesoil
soilsample
samplewith
with
sample
aadry of each.
density of The
1.3 fracture
g/cm 3 extraction
and particle process
size of of
0.25the
mmtwelfth
is cycle of
illustrated the
in soil
Figure sample
11. with
dry density of 1.3 g/cm3 and particle size of 0.25 mm is illustrated in Figure 11.
3
a dry density of 1.3 g/cm and particle size of 0.25 mm is illustrated in Figure 11.

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW (a) (b) (c) 12 of 17
(a) (b) (c)
Figure11.
11. Fracture
Fractureextraction
extractionprocess:
process:(a)
(a)original
originalimage;
image;(b)
(b)crack
crack filling;(c)
(c) crackextraction.
extraction.
Figure
Figure 11. Fracture extraction process: (a) original image; (b) crack filling;
filling; (c) crack
crack extraction.
The
The three-dimensional
three-dimensional cracks
cracks and
and pores
pores in
in the
the soil
soil sample
sample are
are filled and extracted,
filled and extracted,
shown in Figure 11a–c, indicating that the method is feasible. The crack changes
shown in Figure 11a–c, indicating that the method is feasible. The crack changes of red ofclay
red
clay samples with different particle sizes and a dry density of 1.3
3 g/cm 3 after 1, 4, 8, and
samples with different particle sizes and a dry density of 1.3 g/cm after 1, 4, 8, and 12 WD
12 WDare
cycles cycles are displayed
displayed in Figures
in Figures 12–15. 12–15.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure
Figure 12. Cracks in
12. Cracks in soil
soil sample
sample after
after 11 WD
WD cycle;
cycle; (a)
(a) 0.25
0.25 mm;
mm; (b)
(b) 0.50
0.50 mm;
mm; (c)
(c) 2.00
2.00 mm;
mm; (d)
(d) 5.00
5.00 mm.
mm.
 (a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 12. Cracks(a)
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10887
(b)(a) 0.25 mm; (b) 0.50 mm; (c)(c)
in soil sample after 1 WD cycle; 2.00 mm; (d) 5.00 mm. (d)
12 of 17
Figure 12. Cracks in soil sample after 1 WD cycle; (a) 0.25 mm; (b) 0.50 mm; (c) 2.00 mm; (d) 5.00 mm.
Figure 12. Cracks in soil sample after 1 WD cycle; (a) 0.25 mm; (b) 0.50 mm; (c) 2.00 mm; (d) 5.00 mm.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 13. Cracks(a) (b)(a) 0.25 mm; (b) 0.50 mm; (c)(c)
in soil sample after 4 WD cycles: 2.00 mm; (d) 5.00 mm. (d)
Figure 13. Cracks in soil sample after 4 WD cycles: (a) 0.25 mm; (b) 0.50 mm; (c) 2.00 mm; (d) 5.00 mm.
Figure 13. Cracks
Figure 13. Cracks in
in soil
soil sample
sample after
after 44 WD
WD cycles:
cycles: (a)
(a) 0.25
0.25 mm;
mm; (b)
(b) 0.50
0.50 mm;
mm; (c)
(c) 2.00
2.00 mm;
mm; (d)
(d) 5.00
5.00 mm.
mm.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 14. Cracks(a) (b)(a) 0.25 mm; (b) 0.50 mm; (c)(c)
in soil sample after 8 WD cycles: 2.00 mm; (d) 5.00 mm. (d)
Figure 14. Cracks
Figure 14. Cracks in
in soil
soil sample
sample after
after 88 WD
WD cycles:
cycles: (a)
(a) 0.25
0.25 mm;
mm; (b)
(b) 0.50
0.50 mm;
mm; (c)
(c) 2.00
2.00 mm;
mm; (d)
(d) 5.00
5.00 mm.
mm.
Figure 14. Cracks in soil sample after 8 WD cycles: (a) 0.25 mm; (b) 0.50 mm; (c) 2.00 mm; (d) 5.00 mm.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 15. Cracks (a)
in soil sample after 12 WD cycles:
(b) (a) 0.25 mm; (b) 0.50 mm; (c)(c)
2.00 mm; (d) 5.00 mm. (d)
Figure 15. Cracks in soil sample after 12 WD cycles: (a) 0.25 mm; (b) 0.50 mm; (c) 2.00 mm; (d) 5.00 mm.
Figure 15. Cracks in soil sample after 12 WD cycles: (a) 0.25 mm; (b) 0.50 mm; (c) 2.00 mm; (d) 5.00 mm.
Figure 15. Cracks in soilAfter one
sample WD
after 12cycle, it is found
WD cycles: that
(a) 0.25 mm;the(b)
red clay
0.50 soil(c)sample
mm; with
2.00 mm; (d)different
5.00 mm.particle sizes
is mainly composed of tiny independent pores, and the larger the particle size, the greater
the number of pores in the sample. The soil sample with a particle size of 0.25 mm generated
evident cracks after four WD cycles (Figure 13). The particle size was 0.50–5.00 mm, with
mainly independent pores. The changes between 0.50 mm and 2.00 mm were small. When
the particle size was 5.00 mm, large pores increased, and the number of connected pores in
local areas increased. Figure 14 demonstrates that after eight WD cycles, the local cracks
of the soil sample with a particle size of 0.25 mm become connected, with a long crack
appearing that almost penetrates itself. In the red clay with a particle size of 0.50 mm,
small cracks appeared. There was still tiny independent pores and obvious water-loss and
shrinkage cracks in the boundary of the soil sample with a size of 2.00 mm. In samples with
a particle size of 5.00 mm, pierced cracks also appeared. There were many independent
pores, and the soil sample boundary also displayed shrinkage cracks due to water loss.
Figure 15 shows that during the 12th WD cycle, the cracks in the soil sample with a particle
size of 0.25 mm were developed intensely; meanwhile, there were almost no independent
pores remaining. There were evident pierced cracks at 0.50 mm, and the cracks were
wider than 0.25 mm. The range in size of cracks’ boundaries increased when the particle
size was 2.00 mm, and the number of tiny pores inside the soil sample decreased. When
the size was 5.00 mm, the primary cracks became broader and more branched, and the
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10887 13 of 17

independent pores also showed a decreasing tendency. The comparison results infer that
as the number of wet and dry cycles increases, cracks on the red clay sample become more
pronounced and the first crack appeared when the particle size was 0.25 mm. When the
particle size reaches 2.00 mm, the occurrence of boundary cracks is mainly due to water
loss and shrinkage. When the particle size reaches 5.00 mm, the most significant number of
cracks appears.
The pores and cracks were quantified, as were the fractal dimension and total porosity
of each soil sample, as shown in Table 6. With the same number of WD cycles, the red clay’s
total porosity and fractal dimension increased with the growth in particle size, consistent
with the results shown in Figure 15. With the same particle size, as the number of wet
and dry cycles increased, the total porosity increased first and then decreased. In addition,
the pores with the highest value in the fourth cycle were mainly independent; then, when
the number of cycles increased, the soil sample manifested cracks, but the reason for the
decrease in total porosity was the reduction in independent pores. Regarding the fractal
dimension, when the particle size was between 2 mm and 5 mm, the fractal dimension
gradually decreased as the number of WD cycles increased. When the particle size was
between 0.25 mm and 0.50 mm, the fractal dimension fluctuated. As the number of wet and
dry cycles increases, the fractal dimension indicated a law of increasing-decreasing-finally
increasing.

Table 6. Total porosity and fractal dimension of red clay.

0.25 mm 0.50 mm 2.00 mm 5.00 mm

Number of Total Total Total Total
Cycles Fractal Fractal Fractal Fractal
Porosity Porosity Porosity Porosity
Dimension Dimension Dimension Dimension
(%) (%) (%) (%)
1 0.0025 0.8581 0.0129 1.3100 0.0500 1.4948 0.0645 1.4998
4 0.0875 1.3309 0.0982 1.3298 0.1586 1.3769 0.2035 1.5228
8 0.0745 1.2504 0.1085 1.1558 0.1312 1.3415 0.1419 1.4295
12 0.0907 1.3299 0.0909 1.2988 0.1283 1.2991 0.1260 1.3699

3.3.2. The Impact of Dry Density on the Cracks of Red Clay with Different Particle Sizes
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW The development of pores and cracks in red clay soil with the dry density values
14 ofof
17
1.3 g/cm3 , 1.4 g/cm3 , and 1.5 g/cm3 after 12 WD cycles are displayed in Figures 16–18.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure16.
Figure 16.The
Thedry
drydensity
densityof
of1.3 g/cm33: (a)
1.3g/cm (a) 0.25
0.25 mm; (b) 0.50 mm; (c) 2.00 mm; (d) 5.00 mm.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 17. The dry density of 1.4 g/cm3: (a) 0.25 mm; (b) 0.50 mm; (c) 2.00 mm; (d) 5.00 mm.
 (a) (b) (c) (d)
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10887 (a) (b) (c) (d)14 of 17
Figure 16. The dry density of 1.3 g/cm3: (a) 0.25 mm; (b) 0.50 mm; (c) 2.00 mm; (d) 5.00 mm.
Figure 16. The dry density of 1.3 g/cm3: (a) 0.25 mm; (b) 0.50 mm; (c) 2.00 mm; (d) 5.00 mm.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 17. The dry density of 1.4 g/cm33: (a) 0.25 mm; (b) 0.50 mm; (c) 2.00 mm; (d) 5.00 mm.
Figure 17.The
Figure17. Thedry
drydensity
densityof
of1.4
1.4g/cm
g/cm3:: (a)
(a) 0.25
0.25 mm;
mm; (b)
(b) 0.50
0.50 mm;
mm; (c)
(c) 2.00
2.00 mm;
mm; (d)
(d) 5.00
5.00 mm.
mm.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 18. The dry density of 1.5 g/cm33 : (a) 0.25 mm; (b) 0.50 mm; (c) 2.00 mm; (d) 5.00 mm.
Figure 18. The dry density of 1.5 g/cm : (a) 0.25 mm; (b) 0.50 mm; (c) 2.00 mm; (d) 5.00 mm.
Figure 18. The dry density of 1.5 g/cm3: (a) 0.25 mm; (b) 0.50 mm; (c) 2.00 mm; (d) 5.00 mm.
It can be seen from Figures 16–18 that after 12 WD cycles, the soil samples with particle
It can be seen from Figures 16–18 that after 12 WD 3cycles, the soil samples with
sizes Itofcan
0.25be mm and 0.50 mm and 16–18
a dry density of 1.3
123 g/cm mainlythe presented cracks.with
As
particle sizes ofseen
0.25from
mm and Figures
0.50 mm and thata after
dry density WD of cycles,
1.3 g/cm3 soil samples
mainly presented
the dry density increased to 1.4 g/cm3 and 1.5 g/cm , the number of cracks significantly
particle
cracks. As sizes theofdry0.25density
mm and 0.50 mmtoand
increased 1.4 ag/cm
dry 3density
and 1.5ofg/cm 1.3 3g/cm mainly presented
, the3 number of cracks
declined. The soil sample with a particle size of 2.00 mm mainly presented cracks and
cracks. As
significantly the dry
declined.density
The increased
soil sample to 1.4
with g/cm
a 3 and
particle 1.5
size g/cm
of 2.003, the
mm number
mainly of cracks
presented
independent pores caused by water loss and shrinkage, and the number of pores and cracks
significantly
cracks and declined. The
independent soil sample by with a particle sizeshrinkage,
of 2.00 mmand mainly presented
reduced with the increaseporesin drycaused
density. The water
soil loss
sample and with a diameter ofthe number
5.00 mm was of
cracksand
pores andcracks
independent
reduced pores
with caused
the by water
increase in dry loss andThe
density. shrinkage,
soil sampleandwith
the number
a diameterof
mainly composed of cracks, pores, and edge cracks. When the dry density increased to
pores
of 5.00 and
mm cracks
was reduced
mainly with
composed the increase in dry density. The soil sample with a diameter
1.4 g/cm 3 , the cracks in the middle ofof cracks,
the soil pores,
sampleand edge cracks.
decreased, and theWhen the dry density
independent pores
of 5.00 mmtowas
increased 1.4 mainly
g/cm 3, composed
the cracks ofincracks,
the pores,3of
middle and theedge
soilcracks.
sample When the dryand
decreased, density
the
decreased when the dry density reached 1.5 g/cm . With the same dry density, the larger
increased
independent to 1.4
poresg/cm 3, the cracks in the middle of the soil sample3 decreased, and the
decreased when the dry density reached 1.5 g/cm . With the same dry
the particle size of the red clay, the greater the number of independent 3pores, but the cracks
independent
density, poresthedecreased when ofthe
thedry density reached 1.5 g/cm . With of the same dry
in the soilthe larger
sample with particle size particle
the smallest red
sizeclay, the
of 0.25 greater
mm werethethenumber independent
most developed. After
density,
pores, the
but thelarger the
cracks inparticle
the soilsize of
sample the red
with clay,
the the
smallest greater the
particle number
size of of
0.25 independent
mm were the
quantification, the dry density and total porosity curves were determined (Figure
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19), as17
15 of
pores,
most the but the
developed. cracks in the soil sample with the smallest particle size of 0.25 mm were the
were curves ofAfter quantification,
dry density and fractal thedimension
dry density and 20).
(Figure total porosity curves were
most developed.
determined (Figure After
19), quantification,
as were the curves the dry
of drydensity
density andandtotal porosity
fractal curves
dimension were
(Figure
determined
20).0.14
(Figure 19), as were the curves of dry density and fractal dimension (Figure
20). 0.25 mm
0.50 mm
0.12
2.00 mm
5.00 mm
Average value
Total porosity (%)

0.10

0.08

0.06

0.04
1.30 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50
Dry density (g/cm3)

Figure19.
Figure 19.The
Thefitting
fittingcurve
curveof
ofdry
drydensity
densityand
andtotal
totalporosity.
porosity.

1.38

1.36 0.25 mm
0.50 mm
1.34
 0.06

0.04
1.30 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10887 Dry density (g/cm3) 15 of 17

Figure 19. The fitting curve of dry density and total porosity.

1.38

1.36 0.25 mm
0.50 mm
1.34 2.00 mm
5.00 mm

Fractal dimension
1.32
Average value
1.30

1.28

1.26

1.24

1.22

1.20
1.30 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50
Dry density (g/cm3)

Figure 20. The fitting curve of dry density and fractal dimension.

The dry density displays curves with the total porosity and and fractal
fractal dimension,
dimension, as
shown in in Figures
Figures19 19andand20.20.InInother words,
other words,thethe
greater the the
greater drydry
density, the smaller
density, the total
the smaller the
porosity
total and fractal
porosity dimension
and fractal of the red
dimension clayred
of the soilclay
sample.
soil In FigureIn
sample. 19,Figure
for a dry
19,density
for a dryof
1.3 g/cmof 3 , the average totalaverage
porositytotal
of different
density 1.3 g/cm3, the porosityparticle sizes is particle
of different 0.11%. Compared with
sizes is 0.11%.
this, when the drythis,
density is 1.4 3 and 1.5 g/cm3 , the
Compared with when the g/cm
dry density is 1.4 g/cm3 andaverage total 3porosity
1.5 g/cm is reduced
, the average total
by 36.36% and 45.45%, respectively, with a difference of 14.29%.
porosity is reduced by 36.36% and 45.45%, respectively, with a difference of 14.29%. In Figure 20, for a dry
In
density20,of for
1.3 ag/cm 3 , the average fractal dimension of different particle sizes is 1.324. In
Figure dry density of 1.3 g/cm3, the average fractal dimension of different particle
contrast, for the 3 and 1.5 g/cm3 , the average fractal dimensions
sizes is 1.324. Indry densities
contrast, forofthe1.4dry
g/cm densities of 1.4 g/cm3 and 1.5 g/cm3, the average
are reduced
fractal by 5.21%
dimensions areand 8.16%, by
reduced respectively,
5.21% andwith a difference
8.16%, of 3.11%.
respectively, withThe main reason
a difference of
is that the higher the dry density, the denser the soil sample, the smaller
3.11%. The main reason is that the higher the dry density, the denser the soil sample, the the internal pores,
and the the
smaller larger the force
internal pores, between
and the the soil particles.
larger the force As a result,
between thethe
soilWD cycle and
particles. As aparticle
result,
sizes have little effect. In addition, at different dry densities, the total porosity
the WD cycle and particle sizes have little effect. In addition, at different dry densities, and fractal
the
dimension
total porosity of soil
andsamples also vary with
fractal dimension particle
of soil samples size.
also vary with particle size.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In this paper, red clay from Guilin of various particle sizes and dry densities were
In this paper, red clay from Guilin of various particle sizes and dry densities were
subjected to low-temperature nitrogen adsorption tests, UCS tests, and WD cycle crack
subjected
quantitativeto tests
low-temperature nitrogen
to study the effects adsorption
of particle size tests,
on theUCS tests, and
engineering WD cycle
properties crack
and the
quantitative tests to study the effects of
microstructure. The results are as follows: particle size on the engineering properties and the
microstructure. The results are as follows:
(1) The SSA obtained by the Langmuir adsorption isotherm equation via the low-
temperature nitrogen adsorption test is about 2.5 times that given by the BET adsorption
isotherm equation. The external surface area of the red clay accounts for 93–95% of the
total surface area. The pore size ranges from 1.7 to 15 nm, and the pores are mainly tiny.
In addition, the low-temperature nitrogen adsorption test determines the internal and
external surface areas of the soil particles lattice, which cannot reflect the relationship
between the particle size of the red clay and the SSA.
(2) The failure modes of red clay soil samples of different particle sizes are a split
failure and shear failure when subjected to unconfined compression tests. When the particle
size is 0.25–2 mm, the soil sample surface expands from the bottom upwards, and when
the size is 5 mm, cracks present from the middle of the soil sample, appearing as a shear
failure. The stress–strain curves are all strain-softening.
(3) Through the WD cycle crack quantitative test, we found that cracks occur in all the
red clay soil samples after a certain number of cycles, and the soil samples with a particle
size of 0.25 mm are the most likely to have cracks. After quantification, we found that red
clay’s total porosity and fractal dimension increase with the increase in particle size, and
the total porosity will reach the maximum in the fourth cycle. The higher the dry density,
the smaller the total porosity and fractal dimension of red clay.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10887 16 of 17

(4) In real construction projects, the impact of particle size and dry density on the
strength of red clay should be considered, as well as the impact of extreme weather, such
as the rainfall and high temperatures in Guilin, on the cracks of red clay.

Author Contributions: Y.W. and K.L. wrote the manuscript; J.L. conducted experiments and analyzed
the data; S.T. provided suggestions for the research method and revised the article completely. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This project was financially supported by the National Key Research and Develop-
ment Project (2017YFC1503102) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant
Nos. 51874065 and U1903112).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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