Velocity Head: Seepage Velocity: Discharge Velocity: Head Loss:

𝑃 𝑞𝐿 𝑉 1+𝑒 𝑘ℎ ∆𝐻 = ℎ𝐴 − ℎ𝐵
ℎ= + 𝑧 ;ℎ = 𝑣𝑠 = ; 𝑣𝑠 = 𝑉( ) 𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖 ; 𝑣 =
𝑌𝑤 𝑘𝐴 𝑛 𝑐 𝐿

Hydraulic Gradient: Flow or volume of water: Permeability or Coefficient of Permeability:

∆𝐻 𝑄 = 𝐴(𝑘𝑖 ) 𝑡 𝑎𝐿 ℎ
𝑘 = 2.303 𝐴𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (ℎ1 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 = 𝐴∙𝑡∙ℎ
𝑄𝐿
𝑖= 2
𝐿
Average Permeability: Average Permeability: (Vertical) Pumping Well:
(Horizontal) 𝑑ℎ 𝐻𝑁𝑓
ℎ 𝑞 = 𝑘 ( ) 2𝜋𝑟ℎ 𝒐𝒓 𝑞 = 𝑘
𝑘𝑣 = 𝑑𝑟 𝑁𝑑
𝑘1 ℎ1 + 𝑘2 ℎ2 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑖 ℎ𝑖 ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ
𝑘ℎ = + +⋯+ 𝑖
ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ⋯ + ℎ𝑖 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑖

Total Stress: Pore Pressure: Immediate settlement: (𝑺𝒊 𝒐𝒓 𝑺𝒆 )

𝜎 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 ℎ 𝜇 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ 𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐𝒔
𝑺𝒊 = ∆𝝈𝑩 [( )] 𝑰𝒑
𝑬𝒔
Effective Stress: Average Velocity:
∆𝝈 -net pressure applied.
′
𝜎 =𝜎−𝜇 𝑞 𝑩 - characteristic length of loaded area,
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑬𝒔 - modulus of elasticity of the soil.
𝑎 𝝁 - poisson's ratio.
𝑰𝒑 - influence factor which dependent upon elastic properties of base & shape at base.
Unit weight:
𝟏 𝟏 + √𝒎𝟐𝟏 + 𝟏
𝐺𝑠 ∙ 𝛾𝑤 𝑰𝒑 =
𝝅
[𝒎𝟏 𝐥𝐧
𝒎𝟏
+ 𝐥𝐧 (𝒎𝟏 + √𝒎𝟐𝟏 + 𝟏)]
𝛾=
1+𝑒 ( )
𝐺𝑠 (1 + 𝑤) ∙ 𝛾𝑤 Where 𝒎𝟏= length of the foundation divided by the width of the foundation.
𝛾=
1+𝑒
(𝐺𝑠 + 𝑒) ∙ 𝛾𝑤 Immediate settlement: (𝑺𝒊 𝒐𝒓 𝑺𝒆 )
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
1+𝑒 𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐𝒔
𝑺𝒊(𝑭𝒍𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆) = ∆𝝈(𝒂𝑩′ ) ( ) 𝑰𝒔 𝑰𝒇
Vertical Stress: (At the Corner) 𝑬𝒔
𝐵 𝐿 𝑬𝒔 = Average modulus of elasticity of soil
𝑚= 𝑛=𝑧
𝑧 𝑵𝒔 = Poisson’s ratio of soil
𝐼3 = 𝐹𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 9.7) 𝑩′ =B/2 center = B corner of foundation
Vertical Stress: (At the Center) 𝑰𝒔 = shape Factor (Table 11.3)
𝑰𝒇 = depth factor
𝐿 𝐵 𝑧 α = factor depends on location where settlement of foundation is calculated
𝑚=𝐵 𝑏= 𝑛=𝑏
2 (α = 4 center of foundation, α = 1 corner of the foundation).
𝐼4 = 𝐹𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 9.8)
Improved Relationship for Immediate Settlement:
Westergaard Equation:
∆𝝈𝑩𝒆 𝑰𝑮 𝑰𝑭 𝑰𝑬
𝑄 𝑺𝒆 = (𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐𝒔 )
𝜎𝑧 = 𝐼𝑤 ; 𝑬𝒐
𝑧2
3 Where,
1 1
2 • 𝑰𝑮=Influence factor for the variation of 𝑬𝒔 with depth = 𝒇(𝑬𝒐 , 𝒌, 𝑩𝒆 , and 𝒉 )
𝐼𝑤=1𝜋𝐼𝑤 = ∙( 𝑟 2
) • 𝑰𝑭 = foundation rigidity correction factor
𝜋 1+2( ) • 𝑰𝑬 = foundation embedment correction factor
𝑧
𝝅 𝟏 𝟏
Boussinesq Equation: 𝑰𝑭 = + 𝑰𝑬 = 𝟏 −
𝟒 𝑬𝒇 𝟐𝒕 𝟑 𝑩
𝟑.𝟓 𝐞𝐱𝐩(𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝝁𝒔 −𝟎.𝟒)( 𝒆 +𝟏.𝟔)
𝟒.𝟔+𝟏𝟎( 𝑩𝒆 )(𝑩𝒆 ) 𝑫𝒇
𝑄 𝑬𝒐 + 𝟐 𝒌
𝜎𝑧 = 𝐼𝐵 ;
𝑧2
5
𝟒𝑩𝑳
2 𝑩𝒆 = √ ; Where, 𝑩 = Width of foundation For Circular foundations,
3 1 𝝅
𝐼𝐵 = ∙( ) 𝑳 = Length of foundation 𝑩𝒆 = 𝑩 ; Where, 𝑩 = diameter of
2𝜋 𝑟 2 foundation
1 + (𝑧)

Compression Index (𝐶𝐶 ): Coefficient of Compressibility (𝒂𝒗 ): Coefficient of Volume Compressibility

(𝒎𝒗 ):
𝐶𝐶 = 0.009 (𝐿𝐿 − 10) ∆𝑒
𝑎𝑣 = ∆𝑒 1
∆𝜎 ′ 𝑚𝑣 = ∙
Swelling index (Cs): (1 + 𝑒0 ) ∆𝜎 ′
𝑒1 − 𝑒2
𝑒1 − 𝑒2 𝑎𝑣 = ′ • ∆𝑒 = Change in void ratio
𝐶𝑆 = 𝜎 2 − 𝜎 ′0
𝜎′ • 𝑒0 = Initial void ratio
log 10 𝜎 ′2 • ∆𝜎 ′ = Increase in effective stress
1
 Normally Consolidated Clays Over consolidated Clays Over consolidated Clays
CASE 1: OCR = 1.0 CASE 2: OCR > 1.0 and 𝝈′𝟎 + ∆ 𝝈′ < CASE 2: OCR > 1.0 and 𝝈′𝟎 + ∆ 𝝈′ > 𝝈𝒄
𝐶 𝐻 𝜎 ′ 0 + ∆ 𝜎′ 𝝈𝒄 𝐶𝐻 𝜎′ 𝐶 𝐻 𝜎′ 0 + ∆ 𝜎′
𝑠𝑐 = 1+𝑐 𝑒 log( ) 𝑠𝑐 = 1+𝑠 𝑒 log(𝜎′ 𝑐 ) + 1+𝑐 𝑒 log( )
0 𝜎′ 0 𝐶𝑠 𝐻 𝜎′ 0 + ∆ 𝜎′ 0 0 0 𝜎′ 𝑐
𝑠𝑐 = 1+ 𝑒 log( )
0 𝜎′ 0

Correlation for Swell Index Secondary Compression Index Secondary Consolidation Settlement:
(𝑪𝒔 ): (Ca): 𝑡2
1 1
𝑆𝑠 = 𝐶′𝑎 𝐻 log( )
• 𝐶𝑠 ≅ 5 𝑡𝑜 10 𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑎 = log 𝑡
∆𝑒
=
∆𝑒 𝑡1
𝑡
2 −log 𝑡1 log 2
𝐿𝐿 (%) 𝑡1
• 𝐶𝑠 = 0.0463 [ ] 𝐺𝑠 • 𝐶𝑎 = Secondary compression Index
100 𝐶𝑎
• 𝐶𝑠 ≈ 370
𝑃𝐼 𝐶′𝑎 = 1+𝑒 • ∆𝑒 = Change in void ratio
𝑝
• 𝑒𝑝 = Void ratio at the end of primary
consolidation

Void Ratio – Pressure Plots • Initial void ratio: • Over consolidation ratio:
𝑉𝑣 𝐻𝑣 𝐴 𝐻𝑣 𝜎′ 𝑐
• Height of solids: 𝑒0 = = = ; 𝑶𝑪𝑹 =
𝑉𝑠 𝐻𝑠 𝐴 𝐻𝑠
𝑊𝑠 𝑀𝑠 𝜎′
𝐻𝑠 = = ; o 𝐻 = initial height of the o 𝜎 ′ 𝑐 = preconsolidation
𝐴𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 𝐴𝐺𝑠 𝜌𝑤
specimen pressure of a specimen
o 𝑊𝑠 = dry weight of the specimen
o 𝑀𝑠 = dry mass of the specimen o 𝜎 ′ = present effective
vertical pressure
o 𝐴 = area of the specimen
o 𝐺𝑠 = specific gravity of soil solids
o 𝛾𝑤 = unit weight of water
o 𝜌𝑤 = unit weight of water
• Initial height of voids:
𝐻𝑣 = 𝐻 − 𝐻𝑠 ;
o 𝐻 = initial height of the specimen