ACTIVITIES

vOL. _ -XII
BIOLOGY

cOMPREHENSIVE

36

PRECAUTIONS
1. Only pollinated carpels shouid be selected for the experiment
Teasing should be done gently. so that the pollen tubes are not p tured.
2
3. Excess of glycerine/water should be removed by blotting paper

EXPERIMENT 3

OBJECTIVE T.S. of testis and

in mouse (mammal) iie.,
gamete development
y a n d identify the stages of
T.S. of ovary through permanent slide.

REQUIREMENTS
Permanent slides of T.S. of testis and T.S. of ovary, microscope.

PROCEDURE
low power and then under high
IX the permanent slide under the microscope. First observe it under the
power.

OBSERVATIONS
T.S. of Testis
The mouse (mammal) testis is covered by a thick fibrous tissue called tunica albuginea.
1.
2. The testis consists of numerous seminiferous tubules embedded in the interstitial tissue.
3. Various types of germinal cells are present from outside towards lumen in the following sequence.
Spermatogonia Spermatocytes Spermatids Spermatozoa Sperms.
4. Between the germinal cells, pyramid shaped cells ealled sertoli cells are present.
5. A large number of spermatozoa with their heads embedded in sertoli cells are present in the lumen of
seminiferous tubule.
6. The interstitial tissue also contain leydigs cells, which produce male sex hormone testosterone.

Visceral
peritoneum
Tunica
albuginea
Blood vessel Spermatozoa
Seminiferous Spermatid
oV
tubule

Secondary
Sertoli cell spermatocyte
Primary
Connective- spermatocyte
tissue
Germinal epithelium Sertoli cell
Spermatogonia
Spermatocytes Spermatogonium
Spermatids
Spermatozoa
Interstitial
cells
B
Fig. 3.1. A. A Part of transverse section of testis of mouse (mammal)
B. Sectional view of a part of seminiferous tubule (enlarged)
 37

EXPERIMENTS FOR SPOTTING

a thick layer of
T.S. Ovary followed by
epithelium
solid structure bounded by germinal
1 use mammal) ovary is a
fibrous tissue, the tunica albuginia.
medulla. of
stages
The ovary consists of outer cortex and inner Graafian follicles
at various
2 bodies called ovarian or
3. contains many rounded o r oval
ne medulla
development. and smooth muscles.
n e r v e s fibres
some
The medulla also contains blood vessels, cells.
surrounded by many layers of follicle
5. Each follicle contains a large ovum
and mature follicles. Graafian
6. The cortex contains young empty
luteum, formed in an

contain large mass of yellow cells termed corpus

. The cortex may also a

follicle after the release of its ovum.

Egg nest Primary foilicle

Cortex
Secondary follicle

Blood Tertiary follicle

vessel

Visceral peritoneum
Mesovarium

Graafian follicle

Corpus
albicans '

Corpus luteum

Ruptured follicle
Medulla

Fig. 3.2. A section of a mouse (mammal) ovary.

PRECAUTIONS
1. First observe the slide under low power and then under the high
power of the microscope.
2. Use fine adjustment of the microscope for
focussing the slide under high power.

EXPERIMENT 4.1
OBJECTIVE

To study meiosis in onion bud cells through permanent slide.

REQUIREMENTS
Permanent slide of different stages of meiosis in onion bud cells,
microscope
38 ACTIVITIES VOL.
COMPREHENSIVE BIOLOGY
-XI!

PROCEDURE
1. Fix the
permanent slide under the microscope.
2. st observe the slide under the low
power and then under high power of the microscope
OBSERVATIONS
Under the high power of microscope. following stages of meiosis are distinctiy observea
A. Meiosis I
1.
Prophase I. It is of long duration and has five sub stages
:
(a) Leptotene
( Chromatin fibres condense and form thick thread like structures called chromosomes.
(u) Nuclear envelops and nucleolus are
distinct.

Leptotene Zygotene Pachytene

Diplotene Diakinesis
Metaphase-

Anaphase- Telophase Prophase-Il

4
Metaphase-ll Anaphase-l
Telophaso-
Fig. 4.1.1. Various stages of meisis in onion floral bud.
EXPERIMENTS FOR SPOTTING 39
6) Zygotene
() Homologous chromosomes form pairs called bivalent. This pairing is called synapsis.
ii) The individual of a pair are similar in length and in position of their centromere.
(c) Pachytene
The two chromatids of each chromosome become visible, so that a bivalent becomes a tetrad.
(T) Crossing over (exchange ofchromatid segments between homologous chromosomes) takes place between
non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes.
d) Diplotene
() The two chromosomes of each bivalent move away and homologues are held together at one or more
points called chiasmata.
(e) Diakinesis
(i) Homologous chromosomes appear thick and ring shaped.
ii) Nucleolus and nuclear
envelope disappear and spindle begins to be formed.
2. Metaphase I
(a) The bivalent (homologous chromosomes) arrange themselves at the equator of the
b) The
spindle.
spindle get attached to the centromere of the
chromosome.
3. Anaphase I
(a) The two chromosomes of each bivalent move to the opposite
pole.
(b) Each pole has half the number of chromosomes with two chromatids each.
4. Telophase I
a) The chromosome at each pole uncoil, and nucleolus and nuclear envelope reappear.
(b) Cytokinesis occurs to form two haploid daughter cells.
Interkinesis
A very short interphase may intervene betwcen meiosis I and meiosisI1
B. Meiosis II
It includes following four stages
1. Prophase II
a) The chromosomes of daughter cell begin to condense and become thick.
(6) Nuclear envelope and nucleolus begin to disappear.
Metaphase II
(a The chromosomes are
arranged on the equator of the spindle.
(b) Each chromosome is held by the spindle at the centromere to both the
poles.
3. Anaphase II
a) The sister chromatids (daughter chromosomes) of each chromosomes separate and migrate towards the
opposite poles.
(6) Each pole thus, receives haploid number of chromosomes.
4. Telophase II
(a) The chromosomes begin to uncoil and become thin.
(b) The nuclear envelope and nucleolus are reconstituted.
Cytokinesis occurs and four daughter cells are formed, each with haploid nunber of chromosomes.

PRECAUTIONS
1 Floral buds should be fixed between 8 to 10 A.M.
2 Slide should be warmed gently to avoid over heating.
 BIOLOGY
ACTIVITIES VOL. -XI
40 COMPREHENSIVE

EXPERIMENT 4.2

OBJECTIVE
To study meiosis in grasshopper testis through permanent slide.

REQUIREMENTS
Permanent slide of stages of meiosis in grasshopper testis, mieroscope.

PROCEDURE
1. Fix the permanent slide under the microscope.
2 First observe it under the low power and then under high power of the microscope.

Centriole
Nucleoulus Nuclear Chromatids
membrane

Leptotene Zygotene Pachytene

Spindle Equatoriall
plate

Diplotene Metaphase- Anaphase-i

Telophase- Prophase- Metaphase-ll

Telophase-li
Anaphase-l

Fig. 4.2.1. Various stages o! meiosis in

grasshopper testis.
EXPERIMENTS FOR SPOTTING

OBSERVATIONS
Spherical cells with various sages of meiosis can be observed
2. Locate different stages of meiosis with the help of diagram.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Grasshopper should be dissected from dorsal side.
2 Preserved testis should be properly washed before use.
3. Do not heat the testis tubules.
4. Proceed for squash preparation only when testis has taken sufficient stain.

EXPERIMENT 5

OBJECTIVE

To study T.S. of blastula through permanent slide.

REQUIREMENTS
Permanent slide of blastula, microscope.

PROCEDURE
Fix the slide of T.S. of blastula under microscope. First observe the slide under low power and then under
high power of the microscope.

OBSERVATIONS Inner cell mass.

(Formative cells)
1. It is a spherical mass of about sixty
four cells. Trophoectoderm
2 It is composed of an outer envelope of
cells, the trophoblast or trophoecto- (Trophoblast)
derm and inner cell mass (= embryo-
blast).
3. Within the envelope there is a fluid
filled cavity called blastocoel.
The side of the blastocyst to which the Blastocoel
inner cell mass is attached is called Zona
the embryonic or animal pole, while pellucida
the opposite side is the embryonic
Albuminous layer
pole. around the zona
5. The inner cell mass is the precursor pullucidaa
of the embryo. Fig. 5.1. T.S. of blastula

PRECAUTIONS
1 . First focus the slide under low power and then under the high power of the mieruscope.
2. Use fine adjustment while focussing the slide under high power of the microscope.
A2 COMPREHENSIVE
BIOLOGY ACTIVITIES
VOL. -XII

EXPERIMENT 6.1

OBJECTIVE
To study Mendelian inheritance using seeds of different colour!size of any plant

REQUIREMENTS
-

Pea seed sample, enamel tray, petridishes, notebook, pencil/pen.

PROCEDURE
1. Take lot of about 100 pea seeds in an enamel tray.
a

2. Senarate out round and wrinkled seeds and put them in separate petridishes.
3. Note down the number of round and wrinkled seeds and calculate their approximate ratio.
4. Repeat the process for the other contrasting trait of the seed i.e., yellow and green colour.

OBSERVATIONS
Present your findings in the form of table given below. Data related to two
record your
a
findings is given in the table,
finding in the same way.

Table 6.1.1
S Characters / Traits of seed Total no. of No. of seeds showing contrasting
Approximate
No. seeds observed form of the trait ratio
1 Seed shape (Round/Wrinkled) 106 80 (Round): 26 (wrinkled)
3.07:1
2. Seed colour (Yellow/Green) 110 83 (Yellow) : 27 (Green)
3.07 1

CONCLUSION
The contrasting forms in both the traits of pea seed (i.e. seed shape and seed
colour) show an approximate
ratio of 3 1. This ratio is exactly the same as obtained by Mendel for
monohybrid crosses and indicate that the
dominant and recessive forms of seed shape and seed colour exist in the ratio
ot 3: 1in the population of pea seeds.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Take a sufficiently large
number of seed tot for analysis to minimise the error.
2 Observe the contrasting form of the trait carefully.

EXPERIMENT 6.2

OBJECTIVE

To analyse seed sample ofpea for Mendelian dihybrid ratio of 9: 3 ; 3: 1.

REQUIREMENTS

Pea seed sample, enamel tray, petridishes, notebo0ok, pencil/pen.

 EXPERIMENTS FOR SPOTTING
43
PROCEDURE

1 Take a lot of about 250 pea seeds in an enamel tray.

2. Separate out yellow round, yellow wrinkled, green round and
petridishes. green wrinkled seeds and put them in separate
3 Note down the number of seeds in each
plate and find out their approximate ratio.

OBSERVATIONS
Present your findings in the form of a table. Data related to one finding is given in the table, record your
findings in the same way.

Table 6.2.1
Total no.of No. of yellow No. of yellow No. of green No. of green
seeds observed round seeds Approximate
wrinkled seeds round seeds wrinkled seeds ratio
257 145 48 48 16 9.06:33:1

CONCLUSION
The ratio of
yellow round : yellow wrinkled: green round: green wrinkled is approximately 9:3:3:1, which
isexactly the same as obtained by Mendel for a dihybrid cross. This indicates that the contrasting genes for
colour and seed shape show an
independent assortment in the population of pea seeds. seeda

PRECAUTIONS
Same as in Experiment 6.1

EXPERIMENT 7
OBJECTIVE
T o study the prepared pedigree charts of genetie traits such as rolling of tongue, blood groups,
widow's peak, colour blindness.

REQUIREMENTS
Prepared pedigree chart of the genetic traits

Tongue rolling

7.1. Tongue rolling. Fig. 7.2. Widow's peak and straight hairline.
Fig.

PROCEDURE
chart and write comment on it.
Observe the given pedigree
roll the tongue)
Problem 1 (Inability to
of
due to recessive gene. Find out the possible genotype
appears in the progeny
Inability to roll the tongue
following pedigree.
the
family members in the
 A C T I V I T I E S
VUL
BIOLOGY

COMPREHENSIVE

44

Solution/Comment
of two recessive
trait is present in the father parent due to presence
The when it becomes
can appear in the progeny only
genes ( l - 2 aa). The trait carries the trait, the m0tner II AaT
aa
4
homozygous recessive. Since, only one of the progeny s00
50% heterozygous,
parent must be heterozygous (test cross-Aa
=
x aa
(test
II-4 are heterozygous
recessive), i.e., I-1 Aa. Il-1 is aa. I1-2, II-3 and
cross) and, therefore, Aa. The cross between II-1 and her husband also produces III Aa aa
1s
recessive (III-2 aa). This is possible only if the outsider
one homozygous
=

heterozygous (Aa). Naturally III-1 is also a heterozygous (Aa). aa) or homozygous

husband can be either heterozygous
(Aa x Aa AA, 2Aa,
l-31s heterozygous (Aa). Her the possibility is that the
Since of the is with recessive rolling tongue
dominant (Aa x AA 2AA, 2Aa). none progeny
either AA or Aa.
n e w entrant in the pedigree is homozygous dominant (AA).
III-3, III-4, III-5 are
Problem 2 (Widow peak)
to dominant or recessive trait. Also
In the pedigree given below, indicate whether the shaded symbols belong
give genotype of the whole pedigree.

Solution/Comment
Since the shaded symbol appears in all the offspring, father must
be homozygous dominant while the mother homozygous recessive (AA x
2
aa = all Aa) because in all other cases this possibility is absent (Aa x aa
2Aa + 2aa ; aa x AA = all Aa ; aa x Aa = 2aA + 2aa). All the members aa - Aa Aa
Aa aa Aa
of II generation will, therefore, be heterozygous (Aa). This is further 2 3 A
confirmed by marriage of II-1 with homozygous recessive (Aa x aa = aa
+Aa) bears children of both the parental types. Marriage of II-3 with
the homozygous recessive can produce both recessive and heterozygous. 3a
1
Problem 3 (Colour blindness)
Colour blindness is a sex linked recessive disorder of humans.
The pedigree chart given below shows the inheritance of colour blindness
in one family. Study the pattern of inheritance and answer the following
questions.
(i) Give all the possible genotypes of the members 4, 5 and 6 in
the pedigree chart.
ii) A blood test shows that the individual 14 is a carrier of colour
blindness. The member number 15 has recently married the member
9999TR
numbered 14. What is the possibility that their first child will be
hemophilic male?
EXPERIMENTS FOR SPOTTING 45

Solution/Comment
not Deai
ne alele lor colour blindness is present on X chromosome (X), while the chromosome Y does
corresponding allele for this character.
A male has only one X chromosome, which he receives from his mother.
.He is colour blindness if his mother is carrier.
A female becomes colourblind, when her mother is a carrier and father is colourblina.
Thus, in the above case
The genotype of number 4 will be XX, that of member 5 will X Y and that of member 6 will be XY.

Carrier woman X Normal man.

xx XY

Gametes

Possible xx xY XY
progeny Carrier XX
Nomal
Colourblind Normal
female female
male male

The possibility of Ist child to be colourblind will be 1/4 25%.

EXPERIMENT 8
OBJECTIVE

To exereise on controlledpollination-emaseulation, tagging and bagging through modelsicharts.

1. Emasculation
Identification. Forceps or scissors method of emasculation.
Comments
(i) This method is employed in the crops having flowers of sufficiently large size lint cotton.
(ii) The instruments used in this method include pocket lens, forceps, needle, scissors, scalpel, camel hair
brush etc.
ii) In this process anthers are removed from the flowers before their maturation.
(iv) The anthers cut with the help of sterilized
are
forceps or
scissors.

Fig. 8.1. Instruments used in the process

of emasculation and hybridization.
 ACTIVITIES
VOL. - X I I
BIOLOGY

c O M P R E H E N S I V E

46

Petal

-Stigma
-Anther

Stamen
- Carpel

Removal of anthers
(Emasculation)

Parent
Parent

Transfer of Pollen
(Pollination)

Fig. 8.2. Forceps or scissors method of emasculation.

Identification. Hot or cold water and alcohol
emaseulation.
Comments
(i) Thismethod of emasculation is
small flowers like paddy, employed the crops having
ii) In this
sorghumetc.
method, the penicles (clusters of flowers) are
dipped in hot water (40°C-45°C) for 1-10 minutes to kill
the anthers.
A
iii) In the same way
emasculation is done with cold water
alcohol. or

C
Fig. 8.3.
Methods
spikelet of paddy B.of emasculation. A.
Single
opening of Removal of anther after
a
flower C.
water. Emasculation by hot
 EXPERIMENTS FOR SPOTTING
47
2 Identification. Bagging,
ling. tagging and label-
Comments
(i) After emasculation,
the flowers are
with small bags to covered
prevent pollination with
undesired pollen grains.
(ii) These bags are made of
muslin cloth polythene, paper,
(ii) The
or
parchment paper.
bags are punctured or made
so as to provide perforated
aeration to the flowers
(iv) The flowers of male
parents are also
protected in bags to prevent mixing of their
pollen grain with foreign pollens.
() After dusting of the desired
the emasculated pollen grains on
flowers, the bags are
retagged.
(vi) A label
of paper is tagged on the plant which A B
displays the date of emasculation, crossing Fig. 8.4. Bagging different cerop
and brief account of the
on
plants.
parents.

EXPERIMENT 9

OBJECTTVE

To identify common disease causing organisms like Ascaris, Entamoeba,

through permanent slide or specimen. Comment on symptoms Plasmodium, Ringworm
of diseases that cause. they
1. Entamoeba
Indentification. Entamoeba histolytica.
Nucleus Food vacuoles
Disease caused. Amoebiasis or Amoebic Plasmalemma
dysentry.
Ectoplasm
Comments
1. It is a human parasite that resides in the Endoplasm
upper part of the large intestine.
2. It causes the disease called amoebic dysentry
or amoebiasis.
Pseudo-
3. The symptoms of the diseases include podium
abdominal pain, repeated motions with blood
and mucus. Ingested bacteria Ingested red
4. The parasite is unicellular and has one blood cells

pseudopodium. Fig. 9.1. Entamoeba histolytica.

nucleus and a number of
5. There is a single
food vacuoles
6. It feeds on red blood corpuscles by damaging the wall of large intestine and reaching the blood capillaries.

7. It produces ulcers and can also reach to other body organs.

48 COMPREHENSIVE BIOLOGY ACTIVITIES VOL. -XI
2. Plasmodium
Pellicle
Identification. Plasmodium vivax (Malarial Parasite) Cytoplasm
Disease caused. Malaria.
Comments
1. Plasmodium enters human body in sporozoite stage by the
bites of female
Anopheles mosquito.
2. The
sporozoite is spindle shaped and uninucleate
capable of wriggling movement. organism
3. The
sporozoites infect liver cells and produce
cryptomerozoites.
The latter enter new liver cells and Nucleus
duce metacryptomerozoites. pro-
4. The
metacryptomerozoites enter RBCs and passes
trophozoite signet ring stage and amoeboid stage and
produce schizont and merozoites.
5. The merozoites enter fresh RBCs and Fig. 9.2. Sporozoites of Plasmodium vivax.
produce gametocytes.
Cytoplasm
Schizont
Nuclei
Metacryptomerozoites
Liver cell
Liver cell
LIver sinusoid breaks
Liver cel Metacrypto-
breaks 4 merozoites

Exoerythrocytic Red blood

Cryptomerozoites SchizogonyY corpuscle
Cytoplasm
Nuciei-
uo6ozua RBC
Schizont
LIver cell Trophozoite
Nucleus of Signet
liver cell
ring stage
Vacuole
Sporozoite-
Amoeboid
tage
Schizogony Schizont
Cyst wall
breaks Haemozoin
granules
Schuffner's
dots
Rosette stage
Sporozoites
Merozoites
Red blood
Female
Mature corpuscle
gametocyte
oOcyst
Male gametocyte
Nuciei Red blood
corpuscle
VacuoleS- Sporogony
Formation of
Growing Female Cone of male gametes
OOcyst gamete reception
Cyst wal Male gamets
Gamogony
Oocyst Residual
Female
gamete
body
Wall of stornach of
anopheles mosquito Male gamete
fertilization
Female
Ookinete Zygote gamete

Fig. 9.3. Life cycle of malarial parasite.

EXPERIMENTS FOR SPOTTING 49

6. The gametocytes reach into mosquito stomach, when the later sucks the blood of infected human host.

.The gametocytes produce male and female ganetes in the stomach of mosquito.
8. The male and female gametes fuse to form zygote. The later becomes worm like called ookinete, which
penetrate in the wall of stomach and form oocyst.
9. The oocyst produce sporozoites which are released in the haemocoel of the mosquito and reach into the
salivary gland and make the mosquito infective.
Symptoms
1. The symptoms of malaria fever appear about 14 days after the infectious bite.
2. Early symptoms include restlessness, less appetite, slight sleeplessness followed by muscular pain, head-
ache and feeling of chilliness.
3. In response to chills the body temperature starts rising and may reach 106°F at the maximum height of
fever.
4. The patient sweats a lot and the temperature steadily goes down to normal, till the next attack takes
place after 48 hours.
3. Asearis
Identification. Ascaris lumbricoides (The giant intestinal roundworm)
Disease caused. Ascariasis.
Comments -Mouth
Mouth
1. It is an endoparasite of the small intestine of human
beings and is more common in children.
-Excretory
pore
2. The animal shows sexual dimorphism. The female is
longer than the male.
3. The posterior end of the male is curved ventrally. Female
4. In female, the genital aperture is present on the mid- genital
ventral line at about one third of the length from the aperture
Lateral Line
anterior end.
5. In male from the cloaca two equal chitinous spicules
oacal
or pineal setae project which help in copulation. aperture
Symptoms
1. Generally a large number of adult Ascaris worm
infest a single host, and obstruct the intestinal
passage and thereby cause abdominal discomforts
Anus
like colic pains.
Pineai setae
2. The patient may also suffer from impaired digestion,
(spicules)
diarrohea and vomiting. Tal
3. In children mental efficieney is affected and body Male Female
growth is retarded. Fig. 9.4. Ascaris.
4. Microsporum
Identification. Microsporum andouini
Disease caused. Ringworm of scalp in children or Dermatomycosis.

Comments
of the fungus occurs in break in the dermis.
1. The fine mycelium
where hyphae emerge trom the sheath and grow up and down them.
2. It infects hair,
hair put out to the surface fine filaments on which spores are borne.
3, The hyphae in the
are very small
and are produced in great numbers. They are readily detached and spread
4. The spores
infection.
 50 BIOLOGY
ACTIVITIES VOL. I-XI
COMPREHENSIVE

Tinea captls
(Ringworm of the scalp)

Fig. 9.5. Ringworm, A. Ringworm of skin, B. Ringworm of scalp

C. Fungus causing ringworm (Microsporm andouini).

EXPERIMENT 10

OBJECTIVE

Study two plants and two animals found in

xerophytic condition. Comment upon their
tions/morphological features. adapta-
ADAPTATIONS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS TO
CONDITIONS XEROPHYTIC
1. Capparis decidua (Kair or teent)
Comments
1. It is a drought enduring non-succulent xerophyte.
2. The leaves do not
open completely and remain on the plant for Stipular spines
very short period to reduce
transpiration.
3. The stipules are modified into
slightly curved spines to reduce
transpiration and check grazing.
4. The function of Stem
photosynthesis is mainly carried out by green
stem.

Fig. 10.1. Capparis

decidua.
EXPERIMENTS FOR SPOTTING 51

2. Acacia arabica (Babool or kikar)

Comments
1. It is Leaves
a drought enduring xerophyte.
2. The older part of the stem covered
are over by thick brown
corky bark.
3. The leaves are bipinnate to reduce transpiration.
4. The stipules are modified into spines to reduce
transpiration
and prevent grazing.

Stipular
spines

Stem

Fig. 10.2. Acacia arzbica.

3. Zizyphus nummularia (Beri)
Comments
1. It isa
drought enduring spiny wild shrub that grows in
arid areas and waste lands.
2. The leaves are small and
leathery. The lower surface of
leaves is covered by hair.
3. The stipules are modified into
spines. Leaves

Stipular spines

Stem

Fig. 10.3. Zizyphus nummularia

 ACTIVITIES VOI
cOMPREHENSIVE
BIOLOGY
XI
52
4. -Floral buds
Calotropis procera (Ak)
Comments Leaf
1. It is a drought enduring wild shrub of arid, desert
and waste lands
it
2. The plant has a light grey colour which makes
possible for the plant to absorb less sunlight.
3. The leaves and young branches are covered by a mealy
with hair. 'The mealy coating acts as
coating along
insulating covering
do
4. The leaves are thick and partially leathery. They
not wilt easily.
5. The plant possesses latex, which help in retaining
water.

. .

Stem

Fig. 10.4. Calotropis procera.

5. Opuntia dillenii (Nagphani)

Comments
1. It is a succulent or drought resisting xerophyte,
which grows wild in arid areas
2. The leaves are caducous. They fall down soon after
their formation to reduce transpiration.
3. The stem is jointed, flattened and green called
Phylloclade
phylloclades. It is green and takes over the function
of photosynthesis. W
4. The stem becomes fleshy due to storage of water. Leaf scar
The stored water is used throughout the
unfavourable periods. Spine Areole
5. The stem possesses abundant mucilage, which helps
Bristles
in retaining water.
6. Phylloclades bear several nodes or areoles. The
Scar of
areoles have one or more spines which represent the fallen scale Areole
leaves of axillary branches.
7. Besides there are a number of bristles to reduce
transpiration and prevent grazing.

Fig. 10.5. Shoot of Opuntia showing phylloclades.

EXPERIMENTS FOR SPOTTING 53
6. Euphorbia royleana (Danda Thor) cnnditin
Comments poundin 20toy
18/0
rwr ptind
1. It is a succulent shrubby xerophyte which grows wild in drier areas.
2. The leaves are drought deciduous (t.e., fall off during drought). They persist only during rains or when
water is available.
3. The stem is green and shining. It carries out the function of photosynthesis.
4. The stem possesses paired spines to reduce transpiration and grazing by animals.
5. It stores water and possesses white latex. The latex is a device to conserve moisture and sealing the
places of injury.

Stipular.
spines Leaf scar

Green
fleshy stem

Fig. 10.6. Phylloclade of Euphorbia royleana

showing a few leaves at the tip.

7. Kangaroo rat
Comments
1. It is a xerocole rodent, which avoid heat by adopting nocturnal habits (i.e., active during night).
2. It conserves water by excreting solid urine and can live from birth to death without drinking water
3. It seal its burrow by day to keep its chambel moist.
4. It obtains water from its own metabolic processes and from hygroscopic water in its food.
54
cOMPREHENSIVE BIOLOGY ACTIVITIES Vo
vOL.-X
Pinna
Neck Trunk
Eye

Tail

Hind Limb
Vibrissae
Fingers Fore limb
Toes

Fig. 10.7. Kangaroo rat.

8. Camel
Comments
1. It is a xerocoles animal adapted to the desert conditions.

Hump (Stores fat) Large eye lashes Muscular

Nostrils

Lower lip
Tail

Feet (2 toes)

fig. 10.8. Camel-Adapted to desert conditions.

2. It is able to tolerate wide
range of
temperature fluctuations and is able to
during hot period.
maintain blood moisture even
3. It excretes concentrated
urine and can
4, It accumulate its fat in the withstand dehydration
hump rather than all over the upto 25% of its body weight.
and its thick coat prevents the flow of body. This speeds heat flow
heat inwards to the away from the bouy
5. Its feet has two toes each with
fleshy pad below which body.
and slippery sand spread the load on sand enable it to move on
6 Itsslender snout bears a cleft upper no
protection from wind blown sand. lip, long eye lashes and muscular
nostrils which can be close
EXPERIMENTS FOR SPOTTING 55

EXPERIMENT 11

OBJECTIVE

Study of two plants and two animals found in aquatic conditions. Comment upon their adapta
tionmorphological features.
ADAPTATIONS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS TO AQUATIC CONDITIONS
1. Hydrilla
Comments Flower
1. It is a submerged hydrophyte found
attached to the substratum by adventitious
roots in freshwater ponds.
2. The stem is soft and slender and bears thin
and membranous leaves in whorls of 3-8. It
limps when taken out of water showing the
absence of any mechanical tissue.
3. The leaves are arranged in such a way to
Water
provide least resistance to the flow of water.
They lack cuticle and stomata.
4. The whole plant is covered over by
mucilage. It prevents epiphytie growth and Branch Whorls of
submerged
protects the plant against the rotting effect - ieaves

of water. Stem

Roots

Fig. 11.1. Hydrilla (A submerged hydrophyte).

2. Vallisneria
Comments
1. It isa submerged stoloniferous flowering
FemaleFemale flower
plant that grows in freshwater ponds.
plant Male plant
2. The stem is redueced and the roots are
mostly concerned with the function of an-
chorage.
3. The leaves are large and ribbon shaped.
They lack cuticle and stomata. Water
4. The leaves do not provide any resistance to Thin
the flow of water.
submerged
leaves
5. The whole plant is covered with mucilage.
Male flower

Compact
rhizome

Stolon
Fig. 11.2. Vallisneria (A submerged hydrophyte).
56
cOMPREHENSIVE BIOLOGY ACTIVITIES VOL -XII
3. Potamogeton

Comments
1. It is a
submerged hydrophyte that grows
in
ponds, lakes and water bodies.
2. It has
spongy, slender, and elongated
delicate stem. It
limps
water showing that it
when taken out
of
does not bear any
mechanical tissue.
3. The leaves are
thin, ribbon like and pale
green in colour.
4. The leaves do not
water current.
provide any resistance to
Ribbon shaped
5. The whole plant is Leaf
covered over by
mucilage. It
protects the plant against lexible slender
rotting effect of water. and spongy stem
6. The leaves lack cuticle and
stomata.
Wavy margin
Fig. 11.3. Submerged hydrophyte of
Potamogeton.
4. Eichhornia (Water
Comments
Hyacinth or
Jalkumbhi)
1. It is a free
floating hydrophyte that grows in
lakes and water bodies ponds,
2. When the containing
level of water is
fresh water.
in the soil. low, the plant gets rooted
3. The stem is

4. The leaves
offset that
surface of water. It is grows prostrate below the
spongy and stores air.
arise at the node in
oles of the leave: are clusters. The peti-
inflated that keep the leaves
P Lamina

out of water.
Inflated
5. The nodes also bear clusters petiole
of brown
roots in water. They act adventitious
6. The
as balancers. Spongy stem
emerged leaves have Adventitious roots
cuticular coating to waterproof waxy and
prevent wetting. Root pocket
Fig. 11.4. A part of
the
floating
plant of Eichhornia.

5. Utricularia (Bladder wort)

Comments
1. It is a
floating hydrophyte
that grows
2. The stem is
horizontal, soft and abundantly in tanks and lakes.
The leaves spongy. The roots
are highly segmented. They do not are
absent
AThe plant bears small provide much
subsessile bladders resistance
animals.
segmented leaves. to water currents.
on its

5. The whole plant is covered with They catch and

mucilage to prevent digest small aquatic
decaying by water.
EXPERIMENTS FOR SPOTTINGG 57

Leaf
bladder

Leaf
segments

Dissected
leaf

Flexible slender
spongy stem

Fig. 11.5. Floating hydrophyte of Utricularia.

6. Nelumbo (Lotus)
Comments
1. It is a floating leaved anchored hydrophyte that
grow in pond and lakes.
2. The stem is rhizomatous and grows
horizontally under the mud.
3. The leaves are broad and float on the surface of water.
4. The petiole is long, slender and spongy.
5. The leaves have cuticle and stomata on the upper surface. A
coating of wax is present on the upper
surface of the leaves to avoid wetting and clogging of stomata by water.

Flower

Floating leaves

Lamina

Petiole

Water

Rhizome

Mud Roots

Fig. 11.6. Nelumbo (A floating leaved, anchored hydrophyte).

 BIOLOGY
A C T I V I T I E S
VUL -Xli
cOMPREHENSIVE

58
7. Typha (Cat tail)
Comments waters and marshy places.
in shallow
hydrophyte that grows
1s an amphibious anchored leaves.
t roots and emerged
stem, adventitious
he plant has a rhizomatous
Male spike

Female spike
Floral shoot

Emerged erect
spongy leaves

Rhizome

Adventitious
roots

Fig. 11.7.
Emergent or amphibious hydrophyte of Typha.
3. The leaves are large, linear, soft, thick and sub-cylindrical.
4. The large leaves
able to stand erect because of the
are
They have
spongy texture.
5. The leaves presence of mechanical tissue.
possess cuticle and stomata on the
8. A Freshwater Fish emergent portion.
(Carp or Rohu)
Comments
1. Its body is compressed laterally to reduce friction and to allow swift
passage in water while swimming.
nostril eye
Scales
dorsal fin lateral line caudal fin

mouth
operculum
pectoral fin
pelvic fin anal fin
tail
Fig. 11.8. A
2. It
possesses fins that freshwater fish.
3 help in
It has air
bladder or swim bladder swimming
4. It which
possesses gills as organs ot maintains
5. The body
is covered with waterrespiration for the buoyaney.
exchange
impermeable scales to of gases in
prevent osmoticwater.
entry of wat
rater in the body.