Revista de Asistenţă Socială, anul XVII, nr. 4/2018, pp.

65‑79
www.swreview.ro

Students’ Views on Women’s Leadership

in Social Services: A Qualitative Analysis
in Romania and the Czech Republic
Gonzague Isirabahenda*

Abstract. Gender‑sensitive interventions are more effective, yet highly dependent on

women’s capacity to exert influence in social work decisions. Nevertheless, despite social
services being highly feminized, many women are not fulfilling their leadership potential,
particularly when it comes to senior roles. This research analyzes MA social work students’
perceptions on leadership in social services through gender lenses. It explores their views
on the role of gender in career advancement, the perceived grounds for women’s obvious
underrepresentation in leadership positions, possible barriers. Ultimately, the paper
tentatively suggests several ways for increasing women’s representation in top leadership
positions in social services. This qualitative study is based on semi‑structured interviews
and focus groups with 21 MA students „Babeş‑Bolyai” University (Romania) and Ostrava
University (Czech Republic). The study revealed that respondents are highly aware of the
meaning and importance of leadership and the impact of gender on career advancement
in Social services. By and large, the perceived obstacles for women’s underrepresentation
in high managerial positions refer to broader structures (i.e. gender‑based discrimination
in hiring and promotion, caring roles, cultural stereotyping of leadership roles, pay gap).
However, the research also highlights several less acknowledged barriers, such as the
weak exposure to role models, availability of women in mentorship roles and the impli‑
cation for students’ perception that women have poor self‑confidence.

Keywords: leadership, management, gender equality and equity, social services

Introduction
Gender equality in senior decision‑making levels is the key in creating a fairer society and
many capable hardworking women were not fulfilling their potential, particularly when it
comes to senior leadership roles (South Australia, 2015). To Gasser, it is undeniable that we
have learnt about leadership as patriarchal, hierarchical, competitive, heroic, and individu‑
alistic (2014). Nurturing so far is associated with mothering and thus it became primarily
associated with women’s work even in traditional caring professions such as education,
nursing and social work, where women outnumber men, men are undertaking senior leader‑
ship roles (Kim, Reifel, 2010).

* „Babeş‑Bolyai” University, Faculty of Sociology and Social Work, 21 Decembrie 1989 Blvd.,
No. 128, 400604, Cluj‑Napoca, Romania. E‑mail: gonisir3@gmail.com
66 Gonzague Isirabahenda / Students’ Views on Women’s Leadership in Social Services: A Qualitative
Analysis in Romania and the Czech Republic

Even though men are minority in studying social work and working in the social services
domain, they gravitate towards positions of control such as probation work, management
and civil service (Earle, 2008; Maclean, 2003). Men took their gender privileges that
society is ascribing with them when they enter predominantly female occupations, this
explains why men climb the ladder faster than women in social work (McPhail, 2004). As
we look into the social work profession, the entry of men in social work was mainly in
positions such as senior managers and heads of social work schools (Earle, 2008). It is not
only that, men are occupying decision‑making positions due to gender, but also men’s sala‑
ries are significantly higher than women’s. The gender wage gap is found to be a consistent
feature in the profession (McPhail, 2004).
Statistically, within university at graduate level, women represent most of the social work
students. According to Ostrava University (OSU) faculty of social studies, 95% of all
graduated students were female, 90% also are female at „Babeş‑Bolyai” University (UBB),
Faculty of sociology and social work. Women after graduating continue to be less in occu‑
pying high managerial positions, even though an advanced degree is considered an excellent
entry to such roles. Across the EU, women are underrepresented in decision‑making posi‑
tions, not only in social services, even in politics and business too, though the situation
varies between EU countries (European Institute for Gender Equality, 2017).
In 2015, the Commission on the Status of Women undertook a 20‑year review and
appraisal of the implementation of the Beijing Declaration. The findings of the review showed
that progress for women remained „unacceptably slow”, with areas of stagnation and even
regression, with women significantly underrepresented at the highest levels of political par‑
ticipation as well as across public and private sectors (UN, 2014).
Romania and the Czech Republic committed to promote gender equality in many inter‑
national documents and they have policies and strategies for Equality of Women and Men.
Refer to the Romania strategy for Equality of Women and Men 2014‑2017 (ANES, 2016).
In Romania, there were 2,550 authorized social services institutions, from which 1,154 were
public and 1,154 private; 24 types of social services and 71 categories of services offered
to different vulnerable groups (children, disabled, old people, homeless…) can be found at
County and National level (Ministry of Labor and Social Justice, 2017). There were 5,586
registered Social services providers in the Czech Republic, they are administered to people
in adverse social situations. The most numerous groups of beneficiaries are, particularly,
the elderly, people with disabilities, families with children also, people living on the fringes
of society for various reasons. Municipalities and regions, NGO‑non‑profit organizations
and individualsare important social services providers in the Czech Republic (Ministry of
Labor and Social Affairs [MoLSA], 2017).
As gender inequality in senior social services leadership positions is a concern, social
work professionals are working to handle and raise awareness on this issue. Social work is
known as a practice‑based profession and an academic discipline that promotes social change,
development, social cohesion, empowerment and liberation of people. Principles of social
justice, human rights, collective responsibility and respect for diversities are central to social
work. Underpinned by theories of social sciences, humanities and indigenous knowledge,
social work engages people and structures to address life challenges and enhance well‑being1.
When discussing gender inequality, we need to think social workers who often hold consid‑
erable power in their work as they regularly work with the most vulnerable, powerless, and
oppressed populations (Compton et al., 2005).
This study reviewed perceptions of Master’s social work students on leadership of social
services through gender lenses. It tried to find out their perspectives on the reasons why
women are underrepresented at the highest levels of decision‑making in social services
through a detailed discussion of international and national literature.
 Revista de Asistenţă Socială, nr. 4/2018 67

A review of literature
When applied to social analysis, the concept of gender reveals how women’s subordination
(or men’s domination) is socially constructed. As such, the subordination can be changed
or ended. It is not biologically predetermined nor is it fixed forever. Sex describes the bio‑
logical differences between men and women, which are universal and determined at birth.
Gender is determined socially; it is the societal meaning assigned to male and female. Each
society emphasizes roles that each sex should play, although there is wide latitude in accep‑
table behaviors for each gender (Hesse, Carger, 2000). Gender is used to describe those
characteristics of women and men, which are socially constructed, while sex refers to those
which are biologically determined. People are born female or male but learn to be girls and
boys who grow into women and men. This learned behavior makes up gender identity and
determines gender roles (WHO, 2002, p. 4).
Gender equality means that women and men have equal conditions for realizing their full
human rights and for contributing to, and benefiting from, economic, social, cultural and
political development. Gender equality is therefore the equal valuing by society of the
similarities and the differences of men and women, and the roles they play. It is based on
women and men being full partners in their home, their community and their society. Gender
equity is the process of being fair to men and women. To ensure fairness, measures must
often be put in place to compensate for the historical and social disadvantages that prevent
women and men from operating on a level playing field. Equity is a means. Equality is the
result (UNESCO, 2003).
Leadership is a process by which an individual influences a group of individuals to
achieve common goals. The term followers is used to describe those whom the leader is
attempting to influence. The term subordinates is often used in organizational settings, but
the term follower suggests that leaders can be in any role or position, and a bureaucratic
hierarchy is not necessarily implied (Northouse, 2004, p. 4). From a feminist standpoint,
leadership is informed by the power of the feminist lenses, which enables the feminist leader
to identify injustices and oppressions and inspires her to facilitate the development of more
inclusive, holistic communities. Feminist leaders are motivated by fairness, justice, and equity
and strive to keep issues of gender, race, social class, sexual orientation, and ability at the
forefront (Barton, 2006).
Most of the time, people are wrongly differentiating leadership versus management.
While management produces predictability, order, and consistency regarding key results and
includes planning, budgeting, organizing, staffing, controlling, and problem solving, leader‑
ship produces change and includes establishing direction through visioning, aligning people
with the vision and strategies, and motivating and inspiring staff (Kotter, 1990). Generally,
there are four basic management functions: planning, organizing, influencing and control‑
ling. Relationships among the four functions of management are used to attain organizational
goals (Certo, Certo, 2012; Neamţu, 2015, p. 15). The reasons behind organizations cannot
act without management and leadership are that: (a) cannot anticipate all the situations and
develop the structure which takes all the problems into account; (b) in the circumstances
of the outside organizing society there are interposing changes that determine various require‑
ments for the organizations, changes that cannot be foreseen; (c) the internal dynamics of
the organization implies a continuous development and change in unexpected ways; and
(d) because the members do not identify themselves completely with the organization, its
leadership exerts an influence in the sense of achieving a much higher congruence between
the individual purposes and the organizing ones (Neamţu, 2015, p. 13). Without manage‑
ment, organizations cannot exist as stated by Weinbach (1990).
68 Gonzague Isirabahenda / Students’ Views on Women’s Leadership in Social Services: A Qualitative
Analysis in Romania and the Czech Republic

Social services are generaly individualised services delivered to individuals, families and
communities during various unfavourable living and social conditions in order to restore or
maintain their abilities to effectively deal with their social problems and to get integrated
into society (Pillinger, 2001). They are also provided by different government organizations
to improve the social welfare of those who need them. According to European Commission,
we find two main categories of social services: 1. statutory and complementary social
security schemes, organized in various ways (mutual or occupational organizations), cover‑
ing the main risks of life, such as those linked to health, ageing, occupational accidents,
unemployment, retirement and disability; 2. other essential services provided directly to
the person (2006, p. 4). These services that play a preventive and social cohesion role con‑
sist of customized assistance to facilitate social inclusion and safeguard fundamental rights.
Halloran and Calderon (2005) defined social services as services provided directly to citizens
to resolve their needs in terms of employment, health, housing, education, social security
and care, social services are generally covered and financed by the authorities at national,
regional or local level, but may be provided by the public or private sector, and dictionary
of Sociology defines it as „all services that a community will provide total or partial, for
all members or for segments particular showing a growing need for such services”.
Social services are the pillars of European society and economy. They play a crucial role
in improving the quality of life and providing social protection. Social security, employment
and training services, social housing, child care, long‑term care, social assistance services,
to name a few, are parts of EU social services (European Commission, 2008). The Romanian
Government Ordinance 68/2003 stipulates that social services are set of measures and actions
addressing the needs of the population that are offered by service providers and these providers
may be: public social services at county and local levels, other public services specialist at
the county level or local public institutions have established departments for social assistance or
private: associations and foundations, religious and other forms of organized civil society,
individuals authorized by law, subsidiaries and branches of international associations and
foundations recognized in accordance with applicable laws, international organizations pro‑
file (11, GO 68/2003). In 2017, Romania had more than 6.5 million of people benefitting
from social services, where more than half are children and women who oversee taking care
of children (Mihai, 2017).
Social services in the Czech Republic cover a range of assistance to people in unfavora‑
ble social conditions ranging from urgent crisis advice, temporary care in shelter homes and
dormitories to services for people who need medium term, intensive assistance in day care
centers and up to long term help provided through care services, personal assistance and
protected living and homes, currently often labeled as institutions. Social services are there‑
fore provided not only to citizens who are handicapped by age, physical, sensory or mental
disability, but also to all those who cannot or are unable to resolve problems related to social
relationships on their own. These are homeless people, people with drug problems or other
addictions, prostitutes, as well as families with children having relationship problems, abused
wives and children. The list shows that the user of social services may be any citizen during
his/her life (MoLSA, 2017).
Leadership theories and models had been and are still taught to university students. Given
the importance of this theme, it should come as no surprise that colleges and universities
all over the world place high value on developing leadership potential among students (Dial,
2006). The topic of gender differences in leadership style has been of great interest to
researchers in the fields of psychology, management, and sociology, especially in recent
years, as women continue to be underrepresented in leadership positions (Moran, 1992).
 Revista de Asistenţă Socială, nr. 4/2018 69

Several studies have tried to find out reasons why women are underrepresented to high
managerial positions, some looked at personality characteristics, behavior patterns, leader‑
ship styles, glass ceiling and on. The „glass ceilings” have inhibited women from advancing
to the highest level of management in most organizations. This glass ceiling is an almost
invisible barrier that prevents ambitious women from moving up in the organizational hier‑
archy (Haslam, Ryan, 2008). Although in the past two decades women have made significant
progress into lower and middle management positions, there is still a dearth of women in
most senior management positions (Rivers, 1991). By examining the difference between the
leadership styles of males and females, some authors strongly argue that there are differences
(Statham, 1987; Winther, Green, 1987), while others assert just as strongly that there are
none (Powell, 1990; Donnell, Hall, 1980).
Another term more recently suggested for these barriers is the labyrinth, indicating the
complicated, exhausting challenges that women must navigate through on their way to senior
roles. Although gains have been made in many employment areas, women remain significantly
underrepresented in positions of power. These women carry such burdens as stereotyping,
prejudice, sexual harassment, tokenism, and isolation (Barreto, Ryan, Schmitt, 2009).
Women are improving their professional opportunities, yet, they are still responsible for
most of the chores and care giving duties, also known as the double burden syndrome. This
syndrome reflects the responsibility for both work and household. European women are
responsible for twice as many household tasks than men (McKinsey, 2007). Women struggle
with so‑called second‑generation gender biases, which are powerful yet often invisible barriers
to women’s upward mobility that arise from cultural beliefs about gender, as well as workplace
structures, practices, and patterns of interactions that inadvertently favor men (Ely et al., 2011).
There is an evolving series of „schools of thought” in leadership. The early theories
tended to focus upon the characteristics and behaviors of successful leaders, later theories
considered the role of followers and the contextual nature of leadership. Transactional lead‑
ership has remained the organizational model for many people and organizations that have
not moved into or encouraged the transformational role needed to meet the challenges of our
changing times. Transformational leadership is a process in which the leaders take actions
to try to increase their associates’ awareness of what is right and important, to raise their
associates’ motivational maturity and to move their associates to go beyond their own
self‑interests for the good of the group, the organization, or society. The transformational
leaders are proactive in many different and unique ways. These leaders attempt to optimize
development, not just performance. They convince their associates to strive for a higher
level of achievement as well as higher levels of moral and ethical standards. (Bolden et al., 2003).
Transactional leadership has been the traditional model of leadership with its roots in an
organizational or business perspective in the „bottom line”.

Methodology
The general objective of this study was to explore how graduate social work students perceive
the role of gender in career advancement and the obvious underrepresentation of women in
leadership positions. To enlarge the context of interpretation, the research has been carried
out in two different social settings: in Romania (UBB) and Czech Republic (OSU) University
(Social Work departments). The specific objectives of the study were: (a) To analyze through
gender lenses MA social work students’ notions of leadership in social services, (b) to explore
MA social work students’ perceptions on the role of gender in the process of upward mobility
in Social Services organizations (c) To explore students’ perceptions on possible barriers
70 Gonzague Isirabahenda / Students’ Views on Women’s Leadership in Social Services: A Qualitative
Analysis in Romania and the Czech Republic

preventing women from entering leadership positions and (d) To identify potential solutions
for increasing women’s representation in top leadership positions in social services, informed
by MA social work students’ views.
A qualitative research design was adopted. Focus group discussions were preferable in
pre‑research design, but telephone interviews were used due to the availability of respondents
in Romania. Interviews with MA students at UBB have been conducted, recorded, transcribed
and translated into English; each phone call interview lasted between 30 and 45 minutes.
Secondly, a focus group for MA and PhD students during an international spring school for
social work was carried out. The focus group was recorded and transcribed. Also, this study
used open question questionnaire via Google online forms to get more information among
MA students from Ostrava University. After collecting, transcribing, translating the data,
similar concepts had been identified and responses were organized into items that fall into
four categories: (1) notions on leadership, (2) roles of gender, (3) barriers facing females,
and (4) possible solutions and suggestions.
In total, 21 respondents participated in this study, 7 from OSU (3 Males and 4 Females),
6 from UBB (1 male and 5 female). I also collected data through a focus group composed
of 8 respondents (3 males and 5 females). Two Master social work students from Germany,
two Master social work students from the United Kingdom, three Master social work students
from Ostrava and one Master social work student from France. Respondents’ age category
ranged from 20 to 50.
The main limitation of this study was that it depended on MA social worker students
self‑reporting, which is necessarily subjective. Finding a required number of respondents
who are ready to participate in Focus Group Discussion both at UBB and OSU was difficult,
and problems associated with the language (Czech and Romanian). Clarification of various
key concepts (leadership/management, gender), related terms and possible bias of the
respondents. Unwillingness of some respondents to be interviewed and at UBB, all partici‑
pants were enrolled in the same master’s program (Social services Management). Thus, this
theme should be cautiously extrapolated to other populations of MSW students.

Findings and interpretation

The views expressed by the participants revealed similar and different understandings of the
characteristics of a person holding a top leadership post in SS. All have mentioned in com‑
mon some crucial qualities, such as being responsible, wise, smart, honest, motivator,
determined, reliable, professional, sincere, communicator, open, organizer, flexible etc. They
also have mentioned about theoretical and practical skills and experience, required education
at master’s level, especially in management of social services and have the ability to lead:

A leader is supposed to be sympathetic, sincere, calm, involved, to have team spirit. (female,
UBB student)
A leader should be characterized by a non‑judgmental attitude, self‑determined, keep con‑
fidentiality, respect for the person, congruence, empathy, respect equality, encourage part‑
nership and empower subordinates. (male, international student, UK)
Practical and theoretical equipment, professionalism, reliability, empathy, ability to develop
and lead a team and the ability of personal development. (female, OSU student)

Respondents’ views on employees’ expectations from a leader in SS emphasized not far

from cited characteristics of a leader, specific abilities and friendly, flexible working envi‑
ronment and motivation:
 Revista de Asistenţă Socială, nr. 4/2018 71

[...] a leader who can fulfill employee supports, friendly working environment, i.e. good
working conditions, a leader who knows how to motivate employees in terms of psychosocial
and economical… (female, OSU student)
I’d like to have a leader who always evaluates my activities by providing both positive and
negative feedback. If there are some attitudes to be checked or corrected on my work…
(female, UBB student)

The findings reveal that leadership in politics and business arena are well organized in
terms of gender balanced administration:

In Business, leadership is much more private, everyone can become leader as long as they
are a partner or owner, you can become leader without experience and gain it from your
supervisor, mentor. In Politics, it is better because they have already established percentage
and can go beyond. In social services, they still have long way to go… (female, OSU student)
Women are more organized in politics. They have women’s organizations, networks that try
to promote them towards functions of management. In business, it is more private, to know
their journey is not easy. In SS, I see an increasing number of women in leadership positi‑
ons but still few… (female, UBB student)

The relevance of psychosocial changes was mentioned by almost all of the respondents
when asked about changes they think happen when a person becomes a leader:

…friends circle changes, time for family relatives and friends is reduced, behavior changes,
have more responsibilities, status change, economic development (rich)… (female, OSU student)
…overloaded by work duties, less time for his/her family, more stress than before, some are
abusing their new posts by treating old co‑workers badly, in unrespectful ways, less coope‑
rative… (male, UBB student)

As explained by respondents, it is obvious that women leadership style is based on

encouraging, inspiring, cooperating, providing support to subordinates, fairness, communi‑
cating well, having clear goals etc.:

Yes, women have a firm and friendly style. They like to cooperate, encourage workers,
inspire and motivate always employees… (female, OSU student)
…somehow they are very severe, they have many claims and requirements towards employees,
employees are sometimes afraid of them, but some women are cooperative, open, social,
motivate employees, help them in daily work… (female, UBB student)
…Yes. They mentor and empower subordinates, encourage them to develop their full poten‑
tial, are extremely focused on completing a task assigned, allow more collegial atmosphere.
(female, international student, Germany)

To sum up, respondents mentioned the same concepts regarding that leaders are indi‑
viduals who establish direction for a working group of individuals and who gain commitment
from this group of members to establish direction and who then motivate members to achieve
the direction’s outcomes (Conger, 1992, p. 18). Virtually all the respondents mentioned that
having quota for women in SS will be a good step toward reducing underrepresentation:

Yes. I think this quota would support women. It is a positive discrimination. (female, OSU student)
I feel there is a need for a mixture of men and women to make a good team and a balanced
team… (female, UBB student)
Yes. It will help in reducing gender inequality issues. (male, international student, Germany)
72 Gonzague Isirabahenda / Students’ Views on Women’s Leadership in Social Services: A Qualitative
Analysis in Romania and the Czech Republic

Few said that no quota is needed for women in SS and one female (OSU) student said:

I think social services is still a domain of women. Maybe there should be quota for men.
At one hand, it is important because the management will be balanced and inclusive, at other
part, it will be somehow discriminating toward some capable men. (female, UBB student)

The above perception reveals that a quota principle will help in reducing the gap between
male/female on board, but there is a strong need and long way to go for a balanced board
in SS. To resolve the women underrepresentation, discriminating men will be a nice choice
by establishing a small quota than women, but 50% is not bad either.
To explore if women/men can be good leaders in SS, respondents’ views agreed that both
can be good leaders as far as they possess the necessary education, qualities, skills, experi‑
ence, if they are able to create and maintain an environment where subordinates can succeed,
are able to face the power dynamics of leadership, able to establish common goals, well
manage interpersonal relationships etc.:

Yes, women can make great leaders. We take care of our husbands, kids and parents, we
can multitask and do many things. Most women are detail oriented, so we can see things a
male cannot see. (female, OSU student)
Yes males and females can be. I see men are good leaders because some men are empathe‑
tic to sad situations. (female, UBB student)
Yes. I can say men/women are good leaders. As far as they have required education, expe‑
rience, they can work well at that level. (female, OSU student)

While exploring the main challenges for a woman/man in leadership positions, respond‑
ents emphasized on gender based negative traits, where men are abusing the privileges of
leadership, women are hesitating to take definitive action and care a lot:

Men are more authoritarian, not cooperative, not respecting subordinates. (male, International
student, France)
Women are lacking stress management, lack of establishing strict rules, slow in taking
important decisions. (male, UBB student)
Men are more authoritative, lack of cooperation, have less empathy, lack anger management
and less self‑control. (female, OSU student)

When examining barriers or attractions facing women toward leadership positions,

respondents’ views showed several important similarities. Most notably, it was easy to iden‑
tify barriers than attractions:

Some are attracted by the salary, prestige, some have traits of leader since their births,
hardworking and determination, some are getting help from their relatives, privileges, some
are appointed by their political affiliations and so on. Among hindrance, experience requi‑
red, cultural barriers for women consider them as subordinates, lack of role models, requi‑
red education, lack of self‑confidence, family obligations, corrupted system that favors
in‑group people etc. (male, OSU student)

As the above answers reveal, men are extrinsically attracted to leadership positions.
Women are more motivated by intrinsic factors, such personal drive, love of domain; women
enjoy having their accomplishment recognized by others to prove their abilities, some women
are curious when something grabs their attention (sensory curiosity) and when something
 Revista de Asistenţă Socială, nr. 4/2018 73

stimulates them to want to learn more (cognitive curiosity). They also are attracted when
they are helping others etc.
Women are facing many barriers including the traditional view of leader as a masculine
man (cultural and societal beliefs), unequal payment the, family obligations, lack of role
models and mentors, recruitment process that favor men, nepotism, required experience.
This study also found out that some women lack self‑confidence, are weak in terms of tak‑
ing responsibilities, fear to compete due to the system that favors men, little flexibility
(family/job), performance evaluation requires women to work harder than men, improper
stress management, some don’t share family duties with their husbands…
Respondents’ views showed that women/men face issues related to time flexibility (fam‑
ily/work duties), a leader does not have enough time for relaxing, being with relatives,
friends; behavior will need to change or adjust:

They [women] always think about housework, and the management of the family. Somehow,
women have double tasks: to think about job and the family (caring for children, their
education, feeding, health) at the same time. (male, OSU student)
In senior positions, they say leaders do not have work life balance. They work all the time
and do not have time for family. So, I see a lot of people, men and women, that have marital
problems because the wife is not home because she works as CEO and husband will cheat.
Or husband is CEO and wife is tired of raising kids alone, so she cheats. I do not see suc‑
cessful marriages with senior leadership both male and females. (female, OSU student)

This participant highlighted a family issue that can be source of divorce. Sharing respon‑
sibility between wife and husband will ensure household stability.

Yes, it affects. Becoming a leader automatically changes your life, no longer has time to go
out with friends, and no longer has time for caring properly your kids. He has more job
obligations every time. (female, UBB student)
Time flexibility to care for family and work duties, some leaders will adopt social destructive
behavior, devaluation of others, self‑interested behavior (nepotism). (female, OSU student)

Participants highlighted some items which leaders are supposed to give up if they want
to effectively perform their leadership duties, they emphasized on time for caring for family
and friends will be minimized, leader will need to conform to the new working environment
that requires behavior change (positive/negative) and leader will not have work life balance.
As Powell (1990) mentioned, the „typical executive job has enormous responsibilities, time
demands and pressures, which eventually calls for considerable sacrifices in personal life”.
Therefore, women are often less willing than men to make such substantial sacrifices as
many want to have children, spend time with family or simply do not want such a huge
responsibility in their daily work.
By exploring participants’ opinions on comfortableness of women being in middle
managerial positions than in top, 6 out of 13 respondents categorically denied the statement:

„Stupidity, typical patriarchal views” (female, OSU student); „this judgment is not true
because where women are in top managerial positions things going on well” (female, OSU
student); „I totally disagree with that. I know many women who wish to occupy the high
managerial positions, including me” (female, UBB student); „it’s a statement made by a
man. I think women have the required abilities to be and carried out top managerial duties,
only they have many barriers than men” (female, UBB student).

On the other hand, 3 out of 13 respondents agreed with the statement and 3 mentioned that
is half true, even in the Focus Group Discussion, half disagreed, half said it is somehow true:
74 Gonzague Isirabahenda / Students’ Views on Women’s Leadership in Social Services: A Qualitative
Analysis in Romania and the Czech Republic

It is true. Women always avoid where they can be stressed, and they will not have time to
take care of their children or family members. (male, OSU student)
Women often just want to make money to feed their kids and will stay in middle management
just to keep the job. I see many qualified women who would be great in senior positions
too scared to speak for fear of losing their jobs. So they settle. (female, OSU student)
Often, women are satisfied with little even if they can take high responsibilities. For avoiding
stress and take care of family duties, I can say that 90% of this statement is true. (female,
UBB student)
It is true, on one side, because in today’s world, people are measuring cost/effect. (male,
international student, France)

Respondents’ views show that women settle in middle managerial positions due to dif‑
ferent reasons, especially if they are trying to balance family and work duties, they are also
facing many barriers in upward mobility due to the system (society, organizational culture).
This lead me to explore respondents’ views on women underrepresentation into strategic
posts in SS. Their perceptions reflect two general barriers, including personal and system
barriers:

Maybe their ambitions are somewhere else than at work... (family). (male, OSU student)
I do not know how many women work in these positions, but they [women] fear to lead.
(female, OSU student)
I don’t know, I’m thinking. If you did not learn how to manage properly, it can be a barrier.
Some women are lacking postgraduate studies, experience… (female, UBB student)

On the other hand, respondents emphasized more on barriers imposed to women from
the system we are living in.

Despite that some women are not confident, they have more obligations from family, struc‑
ture barriers, stereotypes, lack of laws on gender equality, lack of role models… (female,
OSU student)
…in my opinion, it is dependant on how men from ancient time treated badly women’s
issues, even now, the fact that men decide the quota of women to integrate in leadership
positions. (male, OSU student)
...simply, men are preferred. (female, OSU student)
...women have not been considered as worthy and cannot cope with some situations and
women had been incapable. There is also discrimination toward them. The society prefers
men in leadership positions than women, but there are women able to take such responsi‑
bilities. (female, UBB student)

We also find out that respondents focused on the fact that mixed individual and system
barriers are behind women underrepresentation into managerial positions.

Women’s competences are always questioned, structure stereotype, barrier related to family
responsibilities, lack of self‑confidence and fear of competition, nepotism. (female, UBB
student)
...barriers related to the system (family, church, organization), lack of role model, lack of
self‑confidence, some don’t want, avoidance of stress related to job and family, experience
required. (female, OSU student)
The social system (culture, religion) is a barrier for women, women still bear the primary
responsibility for childrearing, there is a strong pipeline of males behind the top managerial
 Revista de Asistenţă Socială, nr. 4/2018 75

posts who favor men, tough work requirements and lack of self‑confidence and ambition,
women also don’t have the critical support needed from high‑ranking sponsors who can
actively campaign for their advancement. (male, international student, UK)

To sum up, participants’ views show us that what can attract a person toward a leadership
position can also be a hindrance. Theories of needs and expectancy give more details on
what can motivate people in organizations. The fact that people act rationally has, of course,
been acknowledged by many sociologists, but they have seen rational actions alongside other
forms of action, seeing human action as involving both rational and non‑rational elements.
Taking the decision to take a leadership journey, males/females will benefit/lose something
in their routines, as can be seen in rational choice and exchange theory, with the idea that
individuals have preferences and choose according to those (Scott, 2007).
The fact that many women are in middle managerial positions, many views disagreed
that women are more comfortable than in top positions, only barriers let them be in middle.
The journey to leadership positions is not the same for everyone, especially considering a
person’s gender. Views show that women face many barriers (individual and system). Among
the obstacles in women’s progress into senior management, some derive from several sources,
such as constraints imposed upon them by society, by the family, by employers, and by the
women themselves. Many women lose their drive to excel due to the many obstacles met
along the path of becoming a leader. These obstacles include discrimination, stereotyping,
prejudice, family demands, and lack of opportunities (Annis, 2008). For many women, in
addition to the roles they hold in their companies, they remain the primary caretakers for
their families (Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy, 2009).
Respondents’ views presented several different arguments to explain why women are not
present in large numbers. Two of the most powerful barriers are: the behavioral expectations
regarding women’s role in the family, which represent a very real obstacle for their career
upward mobility, and discrimination in the form of organizational structures and policies.
This has been confirmed by other studies done previously in the business arena and they are
not far from what the respondents mentioned (Helfat et al., 2006).
Respondents provided their views and suggest what they think can help in solving women
underrepresentation. Main common solutions have been identified such as: a need to have
change in people’s thinking (beliefs, ideology, society, organizational culture, system in
general); encourage women inner desire, self‑confidence; empower women in education,
further training in management; promote gender equality principle with equal opportunity
and equal pay; having networks for women in leadership positions, having mentors; fight
discrimination and eradicate all sources of barriers facing women in their career; having
clear gender and family policies, in which family responsibilities should be shared instead
of remaining on the women’s shoulders and attract and motivate women in Social services.
The following summarize all the suggestions provided by our participants:
1. To change people’s thinking (female, OSU student); 2. It is not a problem. If women
would like to be there, they will. Nobody impedes. It is a choice (male, OSU student);
3. Avoid discriminating them, give them the same opportunity as men, sometimes much
more, increase their self‑confidence, have clear gender policies, reduce requirements for
them in job, work with them and empower them (female, OSU student); 4. Focus on
qualities a candidate has rather than on his/her gender in the process of appointing (female,
OSU student); 5. The commitment on the side of women. Not let men think and decide on their
behalf (male, OSU student); 6. Reduce the barriers women are facing, family policy needs
to be reviewed and changed, sensitize and mobilize women, give women percentage, raise
self‑confidence level, cooperate and sustain women in their career (female, OSU student);
7. Maybe research for understanding the situation of a leader who is in this position and
76 Gonzague Isirabahenda / Students’ Views on Women’s Leadership in Social Services: A Qualitative
Analysis in Romania and the Czech Republic

how a person can get the position of leadership (male, OSU student); 8. There is a strong need
to have flexible working conditions, women should be supported for work and family life
balance, introducing gender‑specific hiring, women should integrate networking opportuni‑
ties for women etc. (UBBP); 9. More social service institutions should have good benefits
to attract more women in leadership positions. Women do not get paid time off to have babies
and raise kids. Reduce barriers facing women, pay them, the same salary as men and col‑
laborate with them, not exclude them (UBBP); 10. Well, I can say anti‑discrimination
measures can be considered, women should be given the same chances as men, women need
to be more involved, raise their self‑confidence, demonstrate their ability and capability,
gender equality must be respected, and family duties can be shared between husband and
wife (female, UBB student); 11. The initiative of reasonable proportion for women to be in
the leading position is an important step. I like smaller step and I am confident that 30%
would be for starting. 50% it will be step two. I would also recommend women to increase
their self‑confidence and be ready to fight for their rights, gender equality. With the help of
our husbands, brothers, women can balance family and work duties (female, UBB student);
12. Employer is supposed to recruit qualified workers with master’s degree in the domain,
experience comes with time, self‑confidence among women is supposed to be encouraged,
not discrimination (male, UBB student); 13. It would be a good idea to have quota for
women because it would give women a chance to advance in their career. There are good
women managers, but if there is not a certain proportion in SS in high managerial positions,
competent women will be neglected. It would be a surplus for women. Reduce any kind of
discrimination against women, family responsibility shared, social institutions should attract
and motivate women (female, UBB student); 14. Women should be motivated and be pushed
to advance further, help them in their career ambition, reduce discrimination and recruitment
requirements, system must be fair toward women (male, International student, UK); 15. There
is a strong need to have flexible working conditions, women should be supported for work and
family life balance, introducing gender‑specific hiring, women should integrate networking
opportunities for women, motivating, coaching, mentoring and sponsorship for potential
women talent will also help (female, International student, Germany).

Conclusions and implications for practice

This study aimed to analyze MA social work students’ perceptions on leadership in social
services through gender lenses in Romania and the Czech Republic. The findings indicated
that respondents understand the characteristics of a person holding a top leadership position
in Social Services, such as education attainment at tertiary level, crucial qualities, theoretical
and practical skills and experiences, among others. The relevance of psycho‑social changes
occurs for a new leader, thus, could hinder/motivate career mobility especially for women.
In addition, numerous women have transformational leadership styles even if some use trans‑
actional styles known to be fit for male leaders. It highlighted a gender balance in leadership
of politics and business than in social services, possibly because politics and business fields
are controlling other spheres.
The results showed that currently leader’s gender doesn’t matter, what is important is
that a leader knows what to do and can fulfill his/her attributions. The strategy of having
quota for women in Social services is a good step toward reducing underrepresentation,
though discriminating men will be a nice choice considering that social services are domi‑
nated by women. Men are more extrinsically attracted to leadership positions, whereas women
are more motivated by intrinsic factors, such personal drive, love of domain; women enjoy
 Revista de Asistenţă Socială, nr. 4/2018 77

having their accomplishment recognized by others, to prove their abilities, some women are
curious when something grabs their attention (sensory curiosity) and when something
stimulates them to want to learn more (cognitive curiosity).
Women underrepresentation in major decision‑making positions of social services is based
on gender unequal treatment, the glass ceiling remains unsurpassable, family responsibilities are
almost exclusively on women’s shoulders, the percentage of women in executive positions is
gender specific. Still, leadership behavior is often evaluated more positively when attributed to
a male than to a female. Constraints imposed upon women by society, by the family, by
employers, and by women themselves also hinder their career mobility. Eliminating the barriers
and facilitating women representation in high managerial positions of social services could have
significant impact on different angles of well‑being of women as well as of many families.
The first main practical contribution of the research findings fills the gap by providing
much detail on the role of gender in career advancement and the obvious underrepresentation
of women in leadership positions of social services, while numerous extensive researches
have been carried out on women’s participation in leadership positions of the political and
business arena. Moreover, the findings could inform higher educational and social work
educators, social services managers the unbalanced gender in leadership of social services
in which have negative impact on the well‑being of people, especially women. It is not sur‑
prising that policy makers could be informed by these findings and revise and initiate gender
equality strategies, with clear steps towards gender equal treatment, not only to focus on
political or business domains, but in every sphere including the social services sector, also
review family policies that focus on shared family responsibilities for both genders and
respecting equal rights for both genders. It is important to consider the women’s role in
decision making is a key‑condition for women’s empowerment; it is a basic human right of
women to participate directly in decision making processes that affect their lives.

Note
1. The IFSW General Meeting and the IASSW General Assembly in July 2014 approved the Global
definition of Social Work.

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