Sedimentary

Geology
ELSEVIER Sedimentary Geology 105 (1996) 141-157

Provenance of the Sardona Flysch, eastern Swiss Alps: example of

high-resolution heavy mineral analysis applied to an ultrastable
assemblage
Joanne C. Lihou *, Maria A. Mange-Rajetzky
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Ogord, OXI 3PR, UK

Received 19 July 1995; accepted 7 November 1995

Abstract

The Sardona Flysch of eastern Switzerland was deposited in the northern sector of the embryonic Alpine Foreland
Basin, the so-called North Penninic Trough, during the Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary. The flysch sediments consist
of quartz arenites, sublitharenites and arkosic arenites, plus polygenic, pebble to boulder conglomerates. The Sardona
Flysch was sourced by a single petrologic province composed of plutonic, Variscan granitoids, gneisses and low-grade,
quartzo-feldspathic schists, plus associated cover sediments throughout its sedimentary history. Its heavy mineral suite
principally comprises zircon, tourmaline, rutile and varying amounts of apatite, whose distribution cannot be used to
characterise the various lithostratigraphic units. However, recording the diagnostic varieties of ultrastable heavy minerals
using a ‘high-resolution heavy mineral analysis’ (HRHMA) yielded conclusive results. The varietal distribution of zircon
proved especially informative, demonstrating that changes in its distributional trends coincide remarkably well with
lithostratigraphic subdivisions and reveal subtle variations in the provenance of the flysch. The limited number of heavy
mineral species was predetermined by the low diversity of parent rock lithologies in the hinterland, rather than resulting
from high sediment maturity, or progressive removal of unstable species during diagenesis.
The basin was structurally confined by the South Helvetic and North Penninic Prattigau Swells, which defined its
northern and southern margins, respectively; these structural highs may represent Mesozoic normal fault-blocks reactivated
under compressive stresses within the European foreland. They provided detritus to the Sardona flysch basin and prevented
the influx of material from the erogenic thrust wedge. Hence, garnet and unstable heavy minerals recycled from medium-
grade metamorphic rocks within the mineralogically more diverse Austroalpine thrust wedge are absent from the flysch
sediments.

1. Introduction of the individual mineral species: by contrast, a

‘high-resolution heavy mineral analysis’ (HRHMA)
Provenance studies employing heavy mineral subdivides these species into varietal types based
analyses commonly only focus on the distribution upon the recognition that rock-forming and acces-
sory minerals crystallise within a range of pressure-
* Current address: J.C. Kirker, Research and Technical Services, temperature conditions, which determine both their
Shell International Exploration and Production B.V., Care1 van chemistry and morphology. The majority of minerals
Bylanddaan 30, P.O. Box 162, 2501 AN Den Haag, Netherlands. show a diversity of habit, colour, internal structure,

0037-0738/96/$15.00 Copyright 0 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

SD/ 0037.0738(95)00147-6
142 J.C. Lilzou, M.A. Marlgr-Rajet~ky/Srdiine,ltar3’ Geology 105 (1996) 141-157

chemistry and optical properties that are signatures parautochthonous North Helvetic Flysch (NHF) unit;
of geophysical and geochemical parameters during the latter remains partially attached to its basement,
crystallisation. Heavy mineral species in sediments the Aar Massif, in the south of the area (Fig. 1).
are therefore represented by several varietal types The Helvetic nappes and Infrahelvetic Complex
which provide extremely valuable information about were deformed by thin-skinned tectonics during the
their parent rock lithologies, as well as providing im- Alpine Orogeny in the Oligocene-Miocene (Lihou,
portant clues to the identification of lithostratigraphic 1996a). As a result, the original basement of the
units with a common provenance and differentiating Sardona unit and its source areas have not been pre-
them from those with different sedimentary histories. served. Burial by Penninic and Austroalpine nappes
Distinguishing the varietal types of the chemically with concomitant heating led to low-grade metamor-
highly resistant, ultrastable heavy minerals, such as phism in the Infrahelvetic Complex and Helvetic
zircon, tourmaline, and when suitable, apatite (pro- nappes (Frey et al., 1973, 1980; Groshong et al.,
vided that the sediments were not flushed by low pH 1984). Groshong et al. (1984), Pfiffner (1986) and
fluids thus causing partial or total dissolution of ap- Lihou (1996a) have suggested that the overburden
atite), proves to be the most rewarding since they for the Infrahelvetic Complex was in the order of
are ubiquitous and remain stable during diagenesis. 8-12 km. Metamorphism reaches the anchizone-
Recording the varietal types of one particular mineral epizone boundary in the Infrahelvetic Complex, with
species has a further advantage, since the effects of peak paleotemperatures of 300-320°C recorded in
grain-size fluctuations and hydraulic sorting are also the Sardona unit (Erdelbrock, 1994).
eliminated. A HRHMA that focuses on the ultrastable The Sardona unit comprises a continuous Upper
heavy mineral suite is particularly advantageous in Cretaceous-Lower Tertiary succession that consists
the study of mineralogically highly mature sediments of Cenomanian-Campanian pelagic and hemipelagic
(Mange-Rajetzky, 1995), or those with a low diver- Globotruncana Limestone and Marl, plus Maas-
sity of species, such as those comprising the Sardona trichtian to Bartonian flysch deposits (Fig. 2). Li-
Flysch of eastern Switzerland. Previous Alpine prove- hou (1995a) concluded that the Sardona unit records
nance investigations employing heavy mineral stud- the transition from passive margin sedimentation
ies have exclusively focused on the distribution of the on the distal continental margin of Europe (Ul-
heavy mineral species (Wildi, 1985 and refs. therein). trahelvetic paleogeographic realm) to flysch sedi-
This contribution aims to illustrate the potential of mentation in the peripheral North Alpine Foreland
HRHMA for increasing the understanding of sedi- Basin (NAFB) that developed outboard of an ar-
ment provenance and source rock parageneses. cuate erogenic thrust wedge composed of Penninic
and Austroalpine nappes during continental collision
2. Geological setting and history between Europe and the Adriatic microplate.
The Sardona Flysch can be subdivided into three
The Sardona unit is located in the Glarus Alps of formations, two of which are predominantly com-
eastern Switzerland between the Sernf and Rhine posed of calcareous sandy turbidites, termed the
Valleys close to the Austrian border, where it Infraquartzite and Supraquartzite Flysch, that are
crops out in three main areas: Calfeisental, Weis- separated by the predominantly siliceous Sardona
stannental and the district of Elm within Sernftal Quartzite Formation (Lihou, 1995a, 1996b; Fig. 2).
(Fig. l), extending over an area of 25 x 10 km. The latter can be further subdivided into facies as-
It is an allochthonous unit and forms part of the sociations: (1) low-volume, dilute turbidites com-
Infrahelvetic nappe pile that structurally underlies prising the ‘Glquartzite’ unit, (2) large-volume tur-
the Helvetic nappes (Lihou, 1996a). It is exposed bidites composed of mature, reworked shelf material
in tectonic windows through the Helvetic nappes, forming the ‘sandy Sardona Quartzite’ unit, and
from which it is separated by a major thrust, the (3) channelised pebbly sandstones-conglomerates of
Glarus Overthrust. The Sardona unit is structurally the ‘pebbly Sardona Quartzite’ unit (Figs. 2 and
underlain by successively younger tectonic units, 4); these three facies associations are thought to
namely the allochthonous Blattengrat unit and the represent a deep-marine fan-lobe system that pro-
 J.C. Lihou, M.A. Mange-Rajetzky/Sedimentary Geology 105 (1996) 141-157 143

. PAM. . .

Heivetiz & Ciubhdvetic -T- major thrust faults

I3 Pennhii nappes
I3 nappes between nappes
ParaukdlthoIlous
UHrWetic Sardona Mesozoic(PAMI&
•l lzl 0 towrl/viiage
unit c3al North HetveticFtysch(NH!3
South Helvetic
III Bkdtengrat @iI&
Ragaz Rd units
?
+ ?
Aarmassii basement

Fig. 1. Tectonic map of eastern Switzerland adapted from Spicher (1980), showing the location of the Sardona unit; marginal numbers
refer to the Swiss national coordinate system and are marked at intervals of 10 km.

graded out into the Sardona basin from its northern
margin during a relative sea-level lowstand (Lihou,
1995a, 1996b). The fourth facies association is the
cobble- to boulder-grade ‘Crystalline Conglomerate’
unit, which is composed of intraformational and
extraformational, sedimentary and crystalline clasts
and has been interpreted as a series of cohesive de-
bris flows derived from the southern basin margin
(Lihou, 1995a, 1996b). Hence, there was a coeval,
dual supply to the Sardona basin from its northern
and southern margins, which is unlike any other
Alpine flysch basin, whose principal sources were
either on their southern, or rarely their northern mar-
gins (Wildi, 1985; Caron et al., 1989).
Sediment deposited in foreland basins is usu-
ally recycled from the erogenic wedge and as a re-
sult, these source lithologies should be reflected in
the composition of its sediments (Dickinson, 1985),
including its heavy mineral signature. Paleocurrent
data, outcrop patterns, and clast-size and bed thick-
ness trends for the Sardona Flysch suggest that its
principal source area was the northern margin of the
Sardona basin, but at least part of the flysch was de-
rived from the south (Lihou, 1995a, 1996b) and there-
fore could have been recycled from the Penninic-
Austroalpine erogenic wedge. Coeval South Penninic
flysch (Wlgital-Gumigel-Schlieren Flysch), which is
thought to have been deposited in a trough immedi-
ately in front of the Austroalpine thrust wedge (Caron
et al., 1989), has a heavy mineral suite dominated
by zircon, tourmaline and rutile, but is characterised
by the presence of garnet (Winkler, 1983; Winkler
144 J.C. Lihou, M.A. Mange-Rajetzky/Sedimentary Geology 105 (1996) 141-157

< 39Ma
The lack of garnet in the Sardona Flysch either
signifies that garnet was absent from the source ar-
eas of the flysch, or that it was removed during
deep burial diagenesis. The possibility that garnet
was removed from the Sardona Flysch after depo-
sition can be eliminated because garnet is abundant
Lut in the sample analysed from the Taveyannaz Sand-
x 50Ma
stone within the study area and was also reported to
be present in accessory amounts in other Taveyan-
naz Sandstone sections of the NHF unit (Rahn et

-A--
2
g
2
Ypr
Tha 57Ma
al., 1994). The Oligocene Taveyannaz Sandstone,
which is also thought to have been deposited within
the NAFB (Sinclair, 1992) and currently forms part
of the Infrahelvetic Complex, underwent the same
diagenetic and low-grade metamorphic history as
the Sardona unit. The heavy mineral separate from
the Taveyannaz Sandstone contains 56% rounded,
detrital garnets, plus significant amounts of detri-
2 tal and metamorphic epidote and sphene (Table 1).
,o
0 The detrital epidote would have been derived from
a Maa
I- -74 Ma erosion of medium-grade metamorphic rocks in the
E Cmp
0
source area, whilst the sphene probably has a vol-
caniclastic provenance and is related to the an-
desitic rock fragments characteristically found in
the Taveyannaz Sandstone (Trtimpy, 1980). The gar-
net has almandine-rich compositions (XA~,,~generally
Cen
- 97Ma >80%, Rahn et al., 1994), which signifies that detri-
Alb
tal garnet in the Taveyannaz Sandstone was probably
derived from erosion of the Austroalpine erogenic
thrust wedge. Hence, the lack of garnet and unstable
Fig. 2. Generalised stratigraphy of the Sardona unit, show- heavy minerals in the Sardona Flysch remains prob-
ing revised thickness estimates and micropaleontological dates; lematical, since it precludes the possibility of any
timescale according to Harland et al. (1989). Facies associations recycling from the Austroalpine thrust wedge. The
within the Sardona Quartzite Formation: I = iilquartzite unit: 2
= sandy Sardona Quartzite unit; 3 = Crystalline Conglomerate
aims of our research were therefore to reconstruct the
unit; 4 = pebbly Sardona Quartzite unit. source area for the Sardona Flysch and to refine our
understanding of the paleogeography of the NAFB.
If
et al., 1984; Wildi, 1985). The garnet was probably 3. Modal sandstone compositions
derived from high-grade metamorphic rocks in the
Austroalpine realm (Wildi, 1985). Garnets found in Determining the composition of sandstones is one
Lombardian Flysch of the Southern Alps, which was method of unravelling their provenance and can be
derived from the same source terrane as the South an aid to reliable paleogeographic reconstructions
Penninic flysch, are almandine-rich (Bernoulli and (Dickinson, 1985 and refs. therein). Quantitative
Winkler, 1990). Reconnaissance Swiss work in the modal compositions of sandstones from the Sardona
Sardona Flysch identified a zircon-tourmaline-rutile Flysch were obtained using a linear point-counting
(ZTR) assemblage, accompanied by apatite, sphene technique for representative thin-sections, making
and various iron ore compounds, but lacking garnet 1000-2000 counts per sample. Most of the flysch
(Riiefli, 1959; Wegmann, 1961). sandstones plot in a trend from sublitharenite to
 J.C. Lihou. M.A. Mange-Rajetzky/Sedimentary Geology 10.5 (1996) 141-157 145

Table 1 Quartz
Heavy mineral distributions of the Sardona Flysch as percentages
of the total grains counted; anatase and brookite as total number
of grains counted

SARDONA FLYSCH
Supraquartzite Flysch

;4 11 9 79 1*0*000*
1 * 0 * 0 0 0 0 8
arkosic arenite
E23 5; 3: 8; 0 000 0
W26 73 8 9 1: 00 * : : 00 3

E 38
46 39
28 12
17 9
11 0
0 0* 0
0 00 :0 : ; s Feldspar Lithics
pebbly Sardona Quartzite unit
Cl= monocrystalline + polycrystalline quartz
Z6 42: 3: :: 1: i oo**oo 000 t!l F = feldspar + granitic fragments
w7 52 16 22 10 * : : 00 000 2
L = metamorphic + sedimentary + carbonate
C32 48 27 19 6 * 0 0 0 0 0 0 : + volcaniclastic lithic fragments
Ei 21
391137670 13
3 0 0 0 0 0 0 *0 7

Crystalline Conglomerate unit - matrix Fig. 3. Modal compositions of sandstones from the Sardona
K 22
16 25 31 45 52 2
6 01 0 0 0 0000 0 0 1 Flysch compared with Pettijohn et al.‘s (1987) sandstone classifi-
cation.
w13 47 37 7 8 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 :

W28 51 38 3 7 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 ;
&R 43
81 35
001300*0000
5 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
arkosic arenite, using the classification of Pettijohn
Crystalline Conglomerate unit - clasts et al. (1987) (Fig. 3); the fine sandstones tended to
c7b
C7aR 70
I1 02 23
89 04 0 0 0
4 0 0 0 07 ; plot closer to the quartz axis, i.e., were composi-
C7cR 29 * 59 6 0 0 * 0 0 3 3 34
Cl3 3 09700000000 0 tionally more mature, than the coarser sandstones.
sandy Sardona Quart&e unit However, all sandstones from the sandy Sardona
Quartzite unit contained more than 95% quartz and
;: 40
49 43
27 2
0 24
15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 :
can therefore be classified as quartz arenites (Fig. 3).
%7 49
53 27
20 9
6 14
20 1
1 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0* : No residual porosity remains in the Sardona
z4 59
73 21
15 5
0 15
12 0* 0 0 0 000
0 0 * 0 Quartzite. In rare examples of the sandy Sardona
Olquartzite unit Quartzite, primary calcite cement is present that
20 5 70
3 82 05 0* 0 0* 0* 0 0 0* :
encloses the original subrounded to well-rounded
G5
w14 :: 1 76 1 1 0 * 0 000 1 quartz grain morphologies (Lihou, 1995a). More
Cl6
ClR 21
65 :75 0 3110 0 0 i: ; g ! i commonly though, quartz cement has replaced the
Infraquartzite Flysch early calcite cement, the quartz grains have devel-
oped sutured grain boundaries and have decreased in
5: 52: 3: 7: 1: 4000000
* * :
E21 28 55 7 9 1 00 : : : : ; 0 diameter from >500 km to ~100 Frn. It is likely
E20 48 44 0 7 0 1 * * 0 0 0 that silicification of these quartz-rich sandstones was
TAVEYANNAZ SANDSltXE related to the dissolution and recrystallisation of in
NHFR 19 0 0 1 * 01656 8 0 0 0
situ quartz grains during low-grade burial metamor-
phism. Van Daalen (1995) has described the pro-
Prefixes to sample numbers: E = Elm district, W = Weiss-
gressive recrystallisation of quartz-rich rocks in the
tannental, C = Calfeisental; suffix R = results from samples
reseparated in methylene iodide. Glarus Alps under these metamorphic conditions.
Asterisk denotes accessory mineral species representing c 1% of No pressure solution is visible in thin-sections of the
the total grains counted. Sardona Flysch, despite the tectonic overburden.
Comparing the detrital modes of sandstones from
the Sardona Flysch (Fig. 3) with those reported
146 J.C. Lihou, M.A. Mange-Rajetzky/Sedimentary
for sandstones from different provenances (fig. 2 of
Dickinson, 1985) suggests that the Sardona Flysch
was derived from recycling of an orogen, which is to
be expected with foreland basin sediments. However,
there is some overlap in the data with the reported
fields for sandstones from stable cratons and mag-
matic arcs as well. This probably results from the
mix of granitic basement rocks, associated metamor-
phic rocks (gneisses and schists) and sediments in
the source areas of the Sardona Flysch, which is sug-
gested by conglomerate clast compositions (Lihou,
1995a, 1996b). Hence, modal sandstone composi-
tions are of less use in determining the provenance
of the Sardona Flysch than are conglomerate clast
compositions (see Section 5).
4. Heavy mineral assemblage
4.1. Methodology
A geographical spread of data in heavy mineral
studies is essential in order to estimate the effects
of hydraulic factors, which cause selective sorting
of the heavy minerals according to their grain-size
and density during transport (Morton, 1985; Mange
and Maurer, 1992). In order to ensure a wide geo-
graphical coverage, samples were selected from the
Elm district, thereby including the western extent
of the Sardona unit, from Weisstannental which en-
compassed its northern limit and from Calfeisental
at its southern limit (Fig. 1). The exact locations
of these samples and their specific lithologies are
detailed in Lihou (1995a, appendix C), a copy of
which is available for reference at the University of
Oxford. Fine- to medium-grade sandstones are gen-
erally chosen because these yield the optimum heavy
mineral assemblages. However, the matrix material
of coarse sandstones and fine pebbly conglomerates
was also analysed, which helped to reveal the effect
of bulk grain-size and therefore hydraulic sorting on
the heavy mineral distribution.
Samples were prepared using the standard lab-
oratory technique described by Mange and Maurer
(1992) separating out the heavy minerals from the
63-2 12 /km disaggregated fine-sand fraction using
bromoform (tribromoethane, density 2.89 g/cm”).
Some heavy mineral separates were overwhelmed by
micas, which necessitated reseparation in a denser
Geology 105 (1996) 14I-157
liquid, methylene iodide (di-iodomethane, density
3.32 g/cm3); this floated all the white mica and most
of the biotite and chlorite. However, all the tour-
maline (density 3.03-3.25 g/cm3) and most of the
apatite (density 3.10-3.35 g/cm3) grains were also
retained in the light fraction, so these separates could
not be quantitatively compared with those obtained
by bromoform separation.
Microscopic analysis of the heavy mineral frac-
tion was carried out on grain mounts in liquid
Canada balsam. A minimum of 150 grains per sam-
ple of the bromoform separates were point counted
as a first step in order to determine the heavy min-
eral distribution. The results of this conventional,
species-level heavy mineral analysis are presented
in Table 1. This investigation was then augmented
by a HRHMA using diagnostic varieties of zircon,
and where possible, also tourmaline and apatite,
which were recorded as separate categories, count-
ing on average 75-100 grains per mineral species
(Table 2).
4.2. Species-level heavy mineral distribution
The species-level analysis confirmed earlier ob-
servations that the heavy mineral composition of
the Sardona Flysch is characterized by low diver-
sity of species, comprising predominantly an ultra-
stable ZTR suite, accompanied by varying amounts
of apatite (Fig. 4). No geographical variations were
detected in the heavy mineral distribution. Unstable
heavy mineral species from medium-grade meta-
morphic rocks were encountered only in minor or
trace amounts within the Sardona Flysch, namely
hornblende, staurolite, epidote-clinozoisite, garnet,
sphene and accessories such as xenotime, monazite,
anatase and brookite (Table 1). The presence of un-
stable blue-green, or sometimes brown, hornblende
in many samples bears significant implications, indi-
cating that the effect of intrastratal dissolution was
not highly pervasive. All the unstable grains exhibit
a typically detrital habit, with incipient or more ad-
vanced surface etch patterns, caused by dissolution
processes during burial. The effect of deep burial is
manifested by the development of generally minute
authigenic overgrowth on tourmaline in the majority
of samples. Overgrowth on apatite is not common
and was detected only in one sample from the peb-
 J.C. Lihou, M.A. Mange-Rajetzky/Sedimentary Geology 10.5 (1996) 141-157 147

Table 2
Distribution of heavy mineral varieties in the Sardona unit as percentages of all grains of a particular mineral species

ZIRCON VARIETIES AFJAllTE

MORPHOmY

Rounded
to i
b
spherical
;
3
i
c
i
I

Supraquartzite Flysch
16 25 6 25 0 12 6 4 6
:8 10 24 8 11
9 13
17 24
11 0 19
15 Insufficient grains ; ; 3 57 32
54 33
E23 ‘4 1: 8 I 34 22 1 10 4 6 0 13 10 23 16 15 3 Insufficient grains
W26 10 11 10 Insufficient grains Insufficient grains
C29 3 15 2 1; Y33 f; 1’ 1: 7 8 1 16 9 27 9 20 3 Insufficient grains
c37 5 21 3 1 35 17 1 17 2 6 4 23 5 13 11 20 6 Insufficient grains

pebbly Sardona Quartzite unit

! 1 5 51 35
:-: 5
3 13
4 12
3 63 44
48 20
15 01 12
11 !2
6 13
3 45 13
9 ; ;; 1; f; :
Wl6 7 8 9 3 59 8 1 5 6 : 1: :: ;;
C32 5 8 9 1 60 13 0 4 8 23 40 211 21 40
21 16 4 28
16 13
12
c20 2 9 4 6 59 15 0 5 Insufficient grains ; 02 5 56
48 38
31
Cl8 1 3 4 5 73 9 0 5 Insufficient grains I 0 9 57 33

Crystalline Conglomerate unit - matrix

E2 0 11 16 7 46 15 0 5 6 1 6 16 16 19 11 16 9 0 1 10 57 22
8 20 4 20 9 16 2 17 4 f0 2 2 57 29
&3 81 13
12 3
8 03 63
57 18
3 03 6
2 0 3 t :: ‘: :; 5 25 14 Insufficient grains
W28 : I: 3 1 59 18 0 7 Insufficient grains
C8 :, 4 65 15 0 6 : ; 7 11 I 22 65 23
29 79 Insufficient grains
C22R 14 21 4 34 9 1 8 Insufficient grains Insufficient grains

Crystalline Conglomerate unit - clasts

C7aR 13 42 11 8 3 17 3 3 Insufficient erains Insufficient grains
Insufficient $ins 1
L%: 201 43
29 65 14
5 206 13
4 50 13
6 Insufficient grains 4.z 2 10
5 40
34 33
10
Cl3R 0 28 4 10 10 16 2 30 Insufficient grains 5 17 30 22 26

sandy Sardona Quartsite unit

z: 6 116 118 08 60 54 10 6 0 10
4 : 9 12 18 16 22 62 206 123 Insufficient grains
Insufficient grains
w2 : : ; I0 61 1 0 5 z : ;2 :: 5 ‘:3 ;;3o 7 27 4 Insufficient grains
w21 I 70 12 0 6 5 0 3 58 34
: 85 67 15 12
9 23
18 ‘:7 ::16 10
; Insufficient grains
::4 4 7
9 1
4 5 54
55 14
10 0 13
9 Insufficient grains

dlquartzite unit
E9
w15
w14
4 27 6
33 19 3
25 28 5
14
9
11
29
16
11
6
6
8
2
2
0
12
12
13
Insufficient
Insufficient
Insufficient
grains
grains
grains
z
3
:
5
2: ::
9 43 40
::

Cl6 37 30 0 2 18 4 3 6 Insufficient grains 11 6 12 42 29

ClR 5 7 6 8 54 9 2 9 Insufficient arains Insufficient grains

Infraquartzite Flysch
w9 9 17 5 7 25 18 1 18 Insufficient grains 13 1 9 46 31
E28 6 14 3 3 46 14 7 7 6 13 7 18 3 14 6 18 6 Insufficient grains
E21 4 15 2 11 39 9 0 20 6 3 1 53 37
E20 7 9 7 10 39 21 1 6 ; 1; 09 10
12 63 21
18 1; ;; 12
7 Insufficient grains
-

Note that ‘insufficient grains’ means that ~50 grains of a particular mineral species were encountered. Prefixes to sample numbers: E =
Elm district, W = Weisstannental, C = Calfeisental; suffix R = results from samples reseparated in methylene iodide.

bly Sardona Quartzite unit. In addition to authigenic low numbers. Detrital anatase and brookite can be
overgrowth on tourmaline and apatite, other authi- clearly distinguished from the authigenic phases by
genie phases (anatase and brookite) are present in their characteristic morphology, and colour in the
 J.C. Lihou, M.A. Lunge-Rajetz~/Sedimentar~ Geology 105 (1996) 141-157

Although some mineralogical subdivisions within

0 20 40 60 60
% of all grains counted
? ?Zircon H Tourmaline 0 Apatite [IIII Rutile
Fig. 4. Heavy mineral distribution according to stratigraphic
subdivisions in the Sardona Flysch using a species-level analysis,
illustrating the lack of stratigraphic variation in the heavy mineral
species present and the significant overlap in the heavy mineral
distribution between stratigraphic units.
case of brookite: detrital brookite is green whereas
authigenic brookite is brown.
Granites are the likely source for the phosphates,
xenotime and monazite, and the Ti02 group min-
eral species, especially detrital anatase and brookite;
these species were encountered in relative abun-
dance in the granite sample C7c from the Crystalline
Conglomerate unit (Table l), which may be repre-
sentative of granites in the source region. The sandy
Sardona Quartzite is compositionally and texturally
mature (Fig. 3) and so its lack of unstable or stable
heavy minerals is not surprising. However, the other
Sardona Flysch sandstones are compositionally and
texturally somewhat immature (Fig. 3), yet they still
contain a predominantly ultrastable heavy mineral
suite (Fig. 4). Therefore, the low diversity of the
heavy mineral suite in the Sardona Flysch cannot be
linked to sediment maturity, but must in fact mirror a
low diversity of species in the source terrane.
the Sardona Flysch coincided well with lithostrati-
graphic subdivisions, such as an apatite-dominated
suite (>70% of the grains) characterising the
olquartzite unit, or assemblages with little or no ap-
atite (~10% of the grains) characterising the sandy
Sardona Quartzite unit, generally there was a great
deal of overlap between the heavy mineral distribu-
tion for the different lithostratigraphic units (Fig. 4).
The species-level analysis could not distinguish be-
tween the different source areas to the north and south
of the Sardona basin that were deduced from sedimen-
tological investigations of the Sardona Flysch (Lihou,
1995a, 1996b).
By comparing the species-level heavy mineral
distribution with the modal composition of the sed-
iments, it becomes evident that the variable apatite
content of the heavy mineral separates is related to
the bulk grain-size of the samples (Figs. 5a and 5~).
For all lithostratigraphic units in the Sardona Flysch,
100
the coarser the sediment, the lower its quartz content
(Fig. 5a). By plotting the results of the species-level
??OtnerS
analysis against the quartz content of the sediment,
it is apparent that apatite content decreases dra-
matically with increasing percentage of quartz (and
therefore decreasing bulk grain-size) in all units ex-
cept the ijlquartzite unit (Fig. 5~). The very high
apatite content in the ijlquartzite pebbly conglomer-
ate matrix samples may partially be a result of their
low quartz content and their bulk coarseness, but
may also reflect a subtle difference in provenance.
Modal compositional trends of sandstones and
pebbly conglomerates from the Sardona Flysch show
that the coarser the sediment, the higher the pro-
portion of feldspathic (granitic) or metamorphic ma-
terial that they contain (Fig. 5a). This suggests that
apatite in the coarser samples may have been sourced
from basement lithologies. Heavy mineral separates
from granitic and metamorphic basement clasts in
the Crystalline Conglomerate unit were therefore
analysed and were indeed found to be dominated
by apatite (Table l), confirming that apatite con-
tent in the flysch is directly related to the amount
of basement-derived material surviving in the sedi-
ment. The large size of the apatite crystals recovered
from the Crystalline Conglomerate basement clasts
and the flysch sediments furthermore suggests that
hydraulic sorting would have favoured their accu-
 J.C. Lihou, M.A. Mange-Rajetzky /Sedimentary Geology 105 (1996) 141-157 149

(a) Modal (b) ZTR plots (c) Species-level (d) Zircon (a) Tourmaline
comoositions analysis varieties varieties

Supraquarlziie Flysch Z:T:R = 10:9:1 96 Of all grains counted % of all zircons counted % of all fourmalines counted

E2
F LT R
96 of all grains counted 96 of all zircons counted % of all tounnalines camted
Crystalline Conglomerate

96 of all grains counted

Sardona Quart.& Z:T:Fl = 421

Insufficient grains

0 20 40 60 80 loo

0lquartzite
% of all grains counted % of all zircons counted
Z:T:R = 1521

R
b
96 Of all grains counted % of ail towmalines counted
lnhaquartzile Flysch Z:T:R = 6:3:1

0 sandstone
. pebbly conglomerale
- coarsening trend

Fig. 5. Petrography of the Sardona Flysch according to stratigraphic subdivisions and modal compositions of sandstones and pebbly
conglomerates, using (a) a point-counting technique, (b, c) species-level heavy mineral analysis and (d, e) high-resolution heavy mineral
analysis.
150 J.C. Lihou, M.A. Manjie-Rnjetz~/Sedimentn~
mulation in the coarser sediments. Subrounded and
rounded apatite morphologies dominate the heavy
mineral suites of both the basement clasts and the
flysch sediments (Table 2), so the roundness of ap-
atites in the flysch is inherited from the parent rocks
and is not entirely due to sedimentary abrasion dur-
ing transport.
The lack of apatite in the fine-medium Sardona
Flysch sandstones may not only have been caused
by a combination of selective sorting according to
grain-size (constrained by the relatively coarse grain-
size of apatite in the host rock), but also by acidic
leaching. Apatite can be eliminated at source by
acidic leaching in a low-lying area undergoing pe-
dogenesis, resulting from climate-related weathering
patterns (Morton, 1985, 1986), but this should be
mirrored in all coeval sediments. However, the pos-
sibility that some acidic leaching may have taken
place during burial diagenesis is supported by the
recognition that a large proportion of apatites in
the olquartzite unit and Supraquartzite Flysch have
severely etched, corroded surfaces, signalling incipi-
ent dissolution due to short-lived or more prolonged
contact with acidic fluids.
Since apatite content in the Sardona Flysch is
clearly influenced by factors other than provenance,
zircon-tourmaline-rutile (ZTR) ternary plots were
generated to see whether they could be used to char-
acterise the different lithostratigraphic units (Fig.
5b). ZTR ratios for samples from a particular lithos-
tratigraphic unit are approximately the same regard-
less of the bulk grain-size of the sample, with the
exception of the Infraquartzite Flysch samples where
that ratios are widely spread (Fig. 5b). Anomalously
high ZTR ratios are found in the olquartzite unit,
which might again reflect real differences in prove-
nance. However, the ZTR ratios for the Sardona
Quartzite unit, Crystalline Conglomerate unit and
Supraquartzite Flysch are essentially indistinguish-
able, meaning that this approach also cannot pro-
vide appreciable information on provenance. It was
therefore concluded that species-level heavy mineral
analysis of the Sardona Flysch could neither further
our understanding of its provenance, nor act as an
independent stratigraphic indicator.
Geology 105 11996) 141-157
4.3. Zircon varieties
Zircon is generally regarded as a good petro-
graphic indicator and in the Sardona Flysch, its vari-
eties have proved the most informative. The morpho-
logical varieties of zircon that can be distinguished in
the Sardona Flysch are illustrated in Fig. 6. Morpho-
logical varieties of zircons are especially informative
since they reflect the genetic parameters of the par-
ent lithologies, as well the subsequent sedimentary
history of the grains. These subcategories include
zircons with a pre-existing euhedral or rounded core,
which is surrounded by an overgrowth that refacets
the crystal; the overgrowth may appear with euhe-
dral zoning, can be only peripheral, or also rounded.
Zircons with overgrowths signify parageneses asso-
ciated with either high-grade metamorphism, con-
tact metamorphic events or granitization (Larsen et
al., 1953; Poldervaart and Eckelmann, 1955; Speer,
1980). In general, rounding of zircons suggests a
polycyclic history, whereas euhedral and subhedral
zircons are thought to indicate first-cycle detritus
(no previous sedimentary history) and are mostly
derived from granitoid bodies (Poldervaart, 1955,
1956; Speer, 1980). The 1ength:breadth ratio of zir-
cons in granitoids is a function of their crystallisa-
tion temperature, so that the more elongate a crystal,
the higher its temperature of crystallisation (Pupin,
1976; Pupin and Turco, 1972). The colour of zircons
is ultimately linked to their age and/or the abun-
dance of radioactive elements in the crystal lattice:
the deeper the colour of the zircon the older its age
in general (Deer et al., 1982; Pettijohn et al., 1987).
HRHMA of zircon grains from the Sardona Fly-
sch provides two major advantages over the species-
level analysis: firstly, the varietal distributions co-
incide remarkably well with the lithostratigraphic
subdivisions and secondly, the varietal distribution
for each stratigraphic unit was virtually unaffected
by changing quartz content and therefore bulk grain-
size variations (Fig. 5d), i.e., zircon varieties were
not affected by hydraulic sorting and sedimentary
processes. Consequently, differences in the distribu-
tion of zircon varietal types between stratigraphic
units proved to be a more reliable provenance indica-
tor than ZTR ratios from the species-level analysis.
Rounded, colourless zircons are generally the ma-
jor constituent in all samples, with euhedral plus
 J.C. Lihou, M.A. Mange-Rajetzky/Sedimentary
Geology 105 (1996) 141-1.57 151

-
Fig. 6. Morphological categories of zircon employed in the high-resolution heavy mineral analysis of the Sardona Flysch: I = euhedral;
2 = subhedral; 3 = anhedral; 4 = elongate rounded; 5 = rounded to spherical; 6 = zoned; 7 = with overgrowth.

subhedral zircons comprising the second most abun- 35% rounded colourless; 17% rounded purple; 13%
dant variety (Fig. 5d). Again, the ijlquartzite unit with overgrowth.
proved to be anomalous, in that euhedral and sub- Nevertheless, HRHMA still could not provide
hedral zircons are far more abundant than any other conclusive evidence to differentiate between the
morphological category of zircon (on average rep- northern and southern sources of the Sardona Fly-
resenting 50% of all zircons counted). The average sch; both the Sardona Quartzite and Crystalline Con-
abundances of some key zircon varietal types can be glomerate units belong to zircon province 2, even
used extremely well to separate the lithostratigraphic though they were derived from opposite sides of the
units into three zircon provinces, which probably basin (Lihou, 1995a, 1996b). This may therefore in-
reflect real differences in provenance: dicate that the northern and southern source areas
Province I, olquartzite unit: 50% euhe- contained the same suite of basement lithologies and
dral+subhedral; 20% rounded colourless; 6% sedimentary cover rocks.
rounded purple; 10% with overgrowth. The presence of both rounded, and euhedral plus
Province 2, Sardona Quartzite and Crystalline subhedral zircon varieties in the Sardona Flysch
Conglomerate units: 12% euhedral+subhedral; 60% could indicate that these sediments had a mixed
rounded colourless; 13% rounded purple; 6% with provenance. Euhedral and subhedral zircons are rel-
overgrowth. atively abundant in the granitic clast analysed from
Province 3, Infraquartzite and Supraquartzite Fly- the Crystalline Conglomerate unit (C~C, Table 2)
sch Formations: 20-25% euhedral+subhedral; 30- and so support the hypothesis that they constitute
152 J.C. Lihou, M.A. Mange-Rajetzky/Sedirnenta~
first-cycle detritus in the flysch sediments. A propor-
tion of the rounded zircons may have been recycled
from earlier sediments. However, rounded zircons
may also have been derived as first-cycle detritus
from metamorphic rocks, i.e., schists and gneisses
(C7b and C13, Table 2) formed from a sedimentary
protolith or resulting from the effects of magmatic
resorption (Deer et al., 1982). Uncertainties remain
as to whether the chosen basement clasts from the
Crystalline Conglomerate unit are representative
the source terrane for the Sardona Flysch, but more
extensive sampling of such clasts was not undertaken
in this study because of restricted field time.
Pink to purple zircons dominated the granite and
gneiss samples from the Crystalline Conglomerate
unit (C7c and C13, Table 2), whereas colourless zir-
cons were most common in the mica schist sample
(C7b, Table 2). The differences between the predom-
inant zircon colour in the analysed metamorphic and
plutonic crystalline clasts suggests that their relative
contributions to the sediments can be estimated. One
of the defining characteristics of the Infraquartzite
and Supraquartzite Flysch (zircon province 3) is the
greater abundance of pale pink to pink, rounded
zircons (Fig. 5d), which may therefore indicate a
relatively greater plutonic input.
The other zircon varietal types showed little strati-
graphic variation, except for a slightly higher propor-
tion of zircons with overgrowths in the Infraquartzite
Flysch, ijlquartzite unit and Supraquartzite Flysch
(zircon provinces 1 and 3) relative to the Sardona
Quartzite and Crystalline Conglomerate units (zircon
province 2) (Fig. 5d). Zircons with overgrowths are
most likely to have been derived from the weather-
ing of gneissic rocks, considering their relative abun-
dance in the gneiss clast analysed (C13, Table 2).
4.4. Tourmaline varieties
Tourmaline is invariably present in the Sardona
Flysch; its abundance is generally controlled by the
quantity of apatite present in the sample, such that
tourmaline content is distinctly higher in the apatite-
poor samples (Fig. 5~). The proportions of the prin-
cipal colour varieties, brown and green tourmaline,
were recorded in order to find out whether any of the
lithostratigraphic units in the Sardona Flysch could
be distinguished by the preferential concentration
Geology 105 (1996) 141-157
of one of these varieties. However, neither brown
nor green tourmalines dominate in the Sardona Fly-
sch, nor is there any stratigraphic variation in the
morphological subcategories of tourmaline (Fig. 5e),
meaning that in the case of the Sardona Flysch,
HRHMA of tourmaline is of limited use. To some
extent though, the occurrence of prismatic crystals
in elevated numbers parallels the high proportions of
euhedral zircons (Figs. 5d and 5e), highlighting the
of significance of first-cycle input.
The chemistry of tourmaline is documented in
numerous publications, all confirming the complex
character of tourmaline compositions both regarding
major and trace element compositions. Rock types,
pressure-temperature conditions, stage of crystal-
lization and fractionation within a melt, and the
locality of a particular crystal within the rock body
exert controls on the chemistry that can cause vari-
ations even within a particular tourmaline variety
(among others, Staatz et al., 1955; Power, 1968;
Leckebusch, 1978; Deer et al., 1982; Henry and
Guidotti, 1985; Lottermoser and Plimer, 1987). Al-
though the geochemistry of detrital tourmaline is
advocated as a potential provenance indicator, par-
ticularly focusing on variations in MgO/FeO ratios
(Morton, 1991) or TiO2 content (Jeans et al., 1993),
the results need to be evaluated with caution since
the differences or variations in tourmaline composi-
tions cannot unequivocally be attributed to changing
provenance or hinterland lithology, as inherent vari-
ations in tourmaline composition can be delivered
from a single parent rock body.
Consequently, the geochemistry of detrital tour-
malines in the different Sardona lithostratigraphic
units was not determined. As discussed above, com-
positional variations could lead to dubious conclu-
sions, especially when other signatures indicate that
the hinterland comprises a low diversity of parent
rocks. Another reason for the omission of this ap-
proach was the virtual absence of tourmaline in the
Crystalline Conglomerate clasts, which precluded
the comparison of detrital and parent tourmaline
chemistries.
5. Discussion of provenance
The Sardona Flysch lacks the garnet in its heavy
mineral assemblage which is diagnostic of South
 J.C. Lihou, M.A. Mange-Rajetzky/Sedimentary Geology 105 (1996) 141-157
Penninic flysch sediments derived from the Aus-
troalpine erogenic thrust wedge. As established ear-
lier, this does not result from excessive acidic leach-
ing during deep burial diagenesis, but signifies that
garnet was absent from the source areas of the fly-
sch. In addition, the Sardona basin was supplied by
coeval northern and southern sources unlike other
Alpine flysch basins (Lihou, 1995a, 1996b). How-
ever, HRHMA leads to the conclusion that a single
petrologic province probably supplied detritus to the
Sardona flysch basin throughout its sedimentary his-
tory. Also, conglomerate clast compositions in the
Sardona Flysch suggest that it was sourced from
a single terrane composed of a plutonic, Variscan
granitoid suite with related low-grade, quartzo-
feldspathic schists and associated cover sediments
(Lihou, 1995a). Therefore, its northern and south-
ern source areas were probably composed of the
same suite of basement and cover lithologies. Mixed
Variscan and Alpine cooling ages were determined
on zircon crystals extracted from the Sardona Flysch
(Lihou et al., 1995), confirming that Variscan detritus
is present in the flysch. Environmental and hydraulic
factors were probably responsible for the varying
relative contributions of the material available, for
example, in controlling the proportion of apatite in
the sediments.
Apart from the Austroalpine domain, one of the
main Alpine zones containing Variscan granitoids,
gneisses and schists is the Helvetic basement of the
European foreland (Trtimpy, 1980), as exposed in the
Aar and Gotthard external basement massifs today
(Fig. 1). Derivation of the granitoid clasts in the
Sardona Flysch from exhumed Helvetic basement
requires that the Helvetic shelf was eroded down to
basement levels by the Paleocene, at which time such
clasts appear in the Glquartzite unit (Lihou, 1995a).
This was patently not the case, as the Helvetic shelf
continued to accumulate carbonate sediments un-
til the late Maastrichtian and the subsequent Early
Tertiary forebulge erosion did not reach the level
of basement (Lihou, 1995b). Hence, the material
supplied to the Sardona basin cannot have been de-
rived from exhumation of the main Helvetic domain.
However, it is possible that the northern and south-
ern source areas which supplied the Sardona Flysch
have not been preserved, owing to the thin-skinned
detachment of the Sardona unit from its basement
1.53
during Alpine orogenesis in the Oligocene-Miocene
(Lihou, 1996a).
RiIefli (1959) maintained that there were long-
lived ‘South Helvetic’ and ‘North Prattigau Swells’
defining the northern and southern margins of the
Sardona basin, respectively. Petrographic and pale-
ocurrent evidence from the Sardona Flysch supports
the possibility that exhumed Helvetic fault-blocks,
or South Helvetic and North Prattigau Swells, sup-
plied elastic material to the Sardona flysch basin.
Rtiefli (1959) also postulated that the North Penninic
Prattigau Flysch, now exposed to the east of the
Rhine Valley (Fig. l), may have been deposited in a
basin to the south of the Sardona flysch basin, with
the North Prattigau Swell separating them (Fig. 7).
Nanny (1948) had proposed that the source of clas-
tic material for the Prattigau Flysch was a swell
to the north of the basin, on the basis of a gen-
eral south-southeastward decrease in pebble sizes.
He also noted the similarity of exotic pebbles in
the Prattigau and Sardona Flysch, particularly with
regard to their crystalline clasts. In addition, their
heavy mineral suites are essentially identical (Thum
and Nabholz, 1972; Table 1). Therefore, the North
Penninic Prattigau Swell may have been a common
source region for the Sardona and Prattigau fly-
sch basins, supplying them with Variscan basement
clasts and eroded Helvetic strata. The North Prat-
tigau Swell and Mid-Penninic Brianconnais High
probably acted as topographic barriers to sediment
eroded from the Austroalpine thrust wedge (Fig. 7),
which accounts for the absence of garnet in the
Sardona Flysch sediments.
A similar situation probably existed in western
Switzerland. Like the Sardona and Prattigau Fly-
sch, North Penninic and Valaisan flysch in western
Switzerland is characterised by a ZTR assemblage,
with or without apatite, which Wildi (1985) also
thought originated from Variscan granitoids, low-
grade metamorphic and cover rocks in the European
basement. Like the Sardona Flysch, the North Pen-
ninic Niesen Flysch had dual sources, though they
were never coeval: Ackermann (1986) inferred that
the Niesen Flysch was sourced from the south dur-
ing the Maastrichtian (‘Hautecour massif’ within
the ‘Tarine Cordillera’ of Homewood et al., 1984)
and from an uplifted swell to the north during the
Eocene (Fig. 7). Wildi (1985) tentatively correlated
 154 J.C. Lihou, M.A. ManXe_Rajetz~//Sedirnentar3: Geology 105 (1996) 141-157

MAASTRICHTIAN PALEOCENE - EARLY EOCENE

PALAEOCLJRREKT DIRECTION
-100 km

> measured > lllcewl - I

Fig. 7. Paleogeographic reconstructions for Swiss Alpine flysch basins based upon sedimentological and petrographic considerations.
adapted from Wildi (I 985) and Caron et al. (I 989) using new data from this study.

the Niesen and Sardona Flysch, with a swell di- 6. Conclusions

viding them from the Prlttigau Flysch to the south
(Fig. 7), a hypothesis which is further supported by The Maastrichtian-mid-Eocene Sardona Flysch
the similarity of conglomerate clast lithologies in consists of quartz arenites, sublitharenites and
these units (Caron et al., 1989; Lihou, 1995a). Had arkosic arenites, plus polygenic, pebble to boulder
HRHMA been applied to all these ultrastable assem- conglomerates. Modal sandstone compositions are
blages, it may have been possible to recognise subtle of less use in determining its provenance than are
variations in their provenance. conglomerate clast compositions, which suggest that
Pfiffner (1992) believed that elongate basement the Sardona Flysch was sourced by a single petro-
highs were exhumed along constraining bends within logic province composed of plutonic, Variscan gran-
a Mid to Late Cretaceous dextral transpressive sys- itoids, gneisses and quartzo-feldspathic schists, plus
tem. Our inference is that these narrow structural associated cover sediments. However, sedimentolog-
highs in the European foreland of the NAFB rep- ical evidence points to dual sources to the north and
resent reactivated Mesozoic, basement-cored normal south of the Sardona Flysch basin.
fault-blocks within the European foreland, which Species-level heavy mineral analysis of the Sar-
supplied most of the material to adjacent flysch dona Flysch confirmed that its heavy mineral assem-
basins and restricted input from the Austroalpine blage lacks the detrital garnet which is characteristic
erogenic wedge further to the south. Compressional of Alpine flysch sediments derived from erosion of
or transpressional forces in the erogenic wedge being the Austroalpine thrust wedge. The heavy mineral
transmitted to the European foreland could have pro- distribution in the Sardona Flysch consists of an ul-
duced the inferred sustained relative uplift of these trastable zircon, tourmaline and rutile (ZTR) assem-
swells. These ideas are developed further in Lihou blage, accompanied by variable amounts of apatite,
and Allen (1996). but shows no significant geographical or temporal
variations. This suggests that there was a single,
constant petrologic province supplying the Sardona
 J.C. Lihou, M.A. Matlge-Rajetz~/Sedimenrarq Geology 105 (1996) 141-157 155

basin throughout its history, despite the flysch be- European foreland, resulting from the continental
ing sourced from both basin margins. Hinterland collision process.
lithologies appear to have contained a monotonous
heavy mineralogy with very few unstable species. Acknowledgements
The low diversity of heavy mineral species in the
Sardona Flysch was thus predetermined by the low This work was undertaken by J.L. as a part of a
diversity of parent lithologies, which were domi- D.Phil. research project at the University of Oxford,
nated by quartzo-feldspathic rocks, rather than being England, supervised by Philip Allen, and funded
a function of sediment maturity. by a student sponsorship provided by Shell Interna-
The species-level analysis could not be used tional Petroleum Company Limited. We would like
to characterise the different lithostratigraphic units, to thank Kitty Milliken for suggesting major im-
firstly because apatite content was related to the provements to the original manuscript, Earl McBride
bulk grain-size of the samples, reflecting the greater and Walter Wildi for their reviews, and David Wright
amount of apatite-bearing granitic and metamorphic and Steve Wyatt for their assistance with the labora-
detritus surviving in the coarser-grained sediments. tory preparation of samples.
Secondly, the ZTR ratios of sediments from different
lithostratigraphic units were too similar. References
A HRHMA of the Sardona Flysch facilitated a
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