Contents

• Definition of aggression
• Classification of aggression
Human aggression • Models of aggression
• Casues of aggression
Dr. Ahmed Abd ELAziz Ezzat
M.D. Psychiatry • Methods for reducing aggression
Lecturer of Psychiatry
Psychiatry Department
Beni Suef University
2019

Definition
• Aggression is a form of behavior directed
towards the goal of harming or injuring or
inflicting damage upon other individual
who is motivated to avoid it. It intends to
increase social dominance. People can
avoid such treatment or may fight back.
• It is not a motive e.g. revenge.
• It is not a negative attitude e.g. ethnic or
social prejudice.
• It is intended not an accident.
• It is not an emotion e.g. anger.
• Violence
• It is the pursuit of aggression by force.
• It is form of destructive behavior that
endanger life or produce adverse effects on
victims.
• Excitement
• It is the increased psychomotor activity,
with verbal and physical aggression, often
accompanied by autonomic hyperactivity.
 Types of Aggression: Models Of Aggression
• Hostile Aggression: defined as aggression stemming from feelings of anger
and aimed at inflicting pain or injury
• Instrumental aggression: Aggression as a means to some goal other than
1-Biological Basis of Aggression
causing pain. Genetic factor
• Physical or verbal aggression.
• Relational aggression such as bullying and social manipulation; • Twin Studies: Concordance rates for monozygotic twins is
• Direct or indirect aggression. . higher than dizygotic as regards aggressive behavior.
• Pedigree Studies: Some study showed that persons with FH of
Forms of Aggression: aggression are prone to violent behavior.
• Tendency to be physically assaultive.
• Chromosomal influence: More researchers concentrated on
• Indirect expressed hostility.
• Irritability.
XYY syndrome( Jacob’s syndrome, XYY karyotype, or YY
• Negativism. syndrome.) (tall, below average IQ,hypotonia , weak muscles
• Resentment. more likely to engage in criminal behavior).
• Suspiciousness. • Inborn errors of metabolism: It is reported to be associated
• Verbally expressed anger. with aggression, e.g. Lish Nyhan S, Phenyl ketonuria, etc…
• Humors.
• Rumors.

Models Of Aggression
1-Biological Basis of Aggression
B) Anatomical Basis (Neural Substrates):
• Amygdala, temporal lobes and limbic system: Stimulation of
the amygdala results in augmented aggressive behavior, while
lesions of this area greatly reduce one's competitive drive and
aggression.
• Hypothalamus: regulatory role. The hypothalamus causes aggressive
behavior when electrically stimulated, but also has receptors that
determine aggression levels through the neurotransmitters serotonin
and vasopressin.
• Frontal lobe dysfunctions alter neurochemistry, neuro-metabolism.
Impaired function of the prefrontal cortex leads to aggression as
aggressive individuals have reduced prefrontal activation. Lesions in
the frontal cortex are characterized by aggression, irritability and
short tempers. Hypo function of the frontal lobes (which helps control
impulsive behavior) has been found in studies on violent criminals.
 Models Of Aggression
1-Biological Basis of Aggression
• C)Biochemical factors of aggression
• Testosterone has been shown to correlate with aggressive
behavior in mice and in some humans.
• Progesterone, LH, and Prolactin (in birds) increase aggression.
Estrogen decreases aggression.
• Thyroid hormones: increase aggression.
• Cholinergic and adrenergic NT: increase aggression
• Serotonin: Low serotonin could contribute to aggressive
behavior.
• Alcohol disinhibits an individual. Over half of all acts of rape
occur while the aggressor is under the influence of alcohol.
Psychological Theories of aggression
Lorenz Theory- The evolutionary theory of
aggression:
• Lorenz looked at instinctual
aggressiveness as a product of
evolution.
• Stems from fighting instinct and
shared by other animals.
• Aggressiveness is beneficial and allows
for the survival, territory protection
and success of populations of
aggressive species since the strongest
animals would eliminate weaker ones
and over the course of evolution, the
result would be a stronger, healthier
population.
• More optimistic, individual may
rechallenge his aggression to non
injurious acts. Love and friendship may
block aggression.
Psychological Theories of aggression
Psychoanalytical Theories
1- Sigmund Freud asserts that human behaviors
are motivated by sex and aggression which are
instinctive drives.
Freud's psychoanalytic theory demonstrates
that aggression is innate, inevitable, common to
all humans, leading to self or others destruction.
Aggression in children is instinctual and
should be resolved by adulthood.
Psychological Theories of aggression
Social learning Theory
• Albert Bandura and his colleagues were able to demonstrate one of the
ways in which children learn aggression. Bandura's theory proposes that
learning occurs through observation and interaction with other people
• The experiment involved exposing children to two different adult models,
an aggressive model and a non-aggressive one. After witnessing the
adult's behavior, the children would then be placed in a room without
the model and were observed to see if they would imitate the behavior
they had witnessed earlier. He predicted that children who observed an
adult acting aggressively would be likely to act aggressively.
• Aggression is initially learned from social behavior and maintained by
reward, which encourages the further display of aggression.
• Aggressive responses are acquired so they are evitable (optimistic)
• Learning of aggression may be observational, by social restraint
inhibition, or by social desensitization, which are difficult to control.
(pessimistic)
 1- Social causes
• Frustration. Aggression increases
causes of aggression if a person feels blocked from
achieving a goal.
• Direct provocation from others
(physical abuse or verbal insults)
serve as a powerful determinant
of aggression.
• Exposure to aggressive models
(observational learning,
disinhibition, desensitization)
• Lack of social skills (inability to
communicate or negotiate.
• Peer influence: heightened
arousal, deindividuation,
displaced aggression (Mob
psychology)
• Family troubles
• Child abuse
causes of aggression
3- Situational determinants (psychological)
• Heightened physiological arousal due to stress,
anxiety, competition, vigorous exercise or
exposure to films that produce arousal.
• Sexual arousal: Minimal levels of aggression
occur in presence of mild sexual stimulation and
stronger levels with higher degree of stimulation.
• Pain: Physical pain may arouse aggressive drive
but up to limits. Severe pain may hinder
aggression.
• Substance abuse
causes of aggression
2- Environmental determinants:
• Air pollution: noxious odors, fumes, cigarette smoke
produce irritability and aggression. Up to a certain
limit, when the odor becomes foul the aggression
tends to decrease to escape from the unpleasant
environment.
• Noise: Exposure to loud irritating voice may increase
aggression.
• Crowding: over crowding may increase aggression.
• Heat: increased temperature (>32ºC) facilitate
aggression but to a limit.
Methods for reducing aggression
1- Punishment
• Physical punishment is itself
aggressive, it actually models such
behavior to children and may engage
greater aggressiveness, punishment
often fails to reduce aggression
because it does not communicate
what the aggressor should do, only
what he should not do. Sometimes it
may be effective deterrent to overt
aggression if it is non-physical and
delivered immediately after
aggression.
 3- Modeling Non aggressive Behavior
Methods for reducing aggression
• Exposing children to non-aggressive models, to
people who, when provoked, express
2- Catharsis
themselves in a restrained, rational, pleasant
• The theory of catharsis predicts that venting manner. Later, children will behave peacefully
one’s anger would serve to make one less and gently if put in a provoking situation.
likely to engage in subsequent acts of
aggression.
• Guided by this theory, many educators
encourage aggressive person to express
aggression in another form as contact sport.

4- Training in communication and 6- Building Empathy

problem solving skills • Empathy has shown significant effect in
• People are not born reducing levels of aggression among school
knowing how to express children while raising social/emotional
anger non-violently,
teaching people competence and reducing anger.
techniques how to
communicate anger in
constructive ways, how to
negotiate and compromise
when conflicts arise and
how to be more sensitive
to the needs and desires
of others
 7- Aggression Replacement Training
(ART) MCQS
• cognitive behavioral intervention focused on • 1. According to the text, aggression always
a. causes physical pain
adolescents, a program that has three b. involves intent to harm someone
c. involves emotional arousal
components: d. is committed by someone who has been deliberately provoked
• Social skills, Anger Control Training, and Moral • 2. The murders committed by mobster "hit men" provide an example
Reasoning. of
a. emotional aggression
b. silent aggression
c. how catharsis can reduce aggression
d. instrumental aggression

3. Research on biological influences on aggression indicates that

a. animals of many species can be bred for aggressiveness
b. neural influences facilitate animal aggression but not human
aggression
c. human aggression is instinctive
d. there are no biochemical influences on aggression in humans

MCQS

thank you
4. In contrast to Freud's view of aggression, Lorenz
a. supports the social learning explanation for aggression
b. views aggression as instinctive
c. views aggression as adaptive rather than destructive
d. does not believe we have innate mechanisms for inhibiting
aggression
5. Which of the following is false?
a. animals' "social" aggression and "silent" aggression seem to involve
the same brain region
b. alcohol enhances violence by reducing people's self-awareness
c. low levels of serotonin are often found in the violence-prone
d. "hostile" aggression springs from emotions such as anger
6. Research on the effects of televised violence indicates that
a. viewing violence produces a modest increase in aggression
b. viewing violence produces catharsis and thus a reduction in
aggression
c. there is no relationship between viewing aggression and behaving
aggressively
d. viewing violence increases aggression in adolescents but not in
children

Stress and coping mechanisms
AHMED ABD EL AZIZ EZZAT
L EC T U RER OF PSYC HIAT R Y
BENI SU IF U NIVERSIT Y
Characteristics of stressful events
1-Traumatic events outside the usual range of human
experiences.
2- The uncontrollable events.
3- The unpredictable events.
4- Internal conflicts.
5- Life events and changes in a person’s life that
require readjustment and events that challenge the
limits of our capabilities and self concept and
esteem.
stress
 What`s stress?
 Stress refers to the widespread ,generalized responses of
the body to various environmental ,physical or social
situations .
 Body response to different situations that challenge
adaptive mechanisms of the person.
 Stressors refer to situations or events which elicit the
stress responses of the body.
 Stressors: events or situations cause stress; may be mild
or moderate or severe
General adaptation syndrome
GAS : general adaptation syndrome
Refers to the body response to stressors. this syndrome
has three stages:
1- the alarm reaction:
Is the emergency response of the body. It is mediated
by sympathetic nervous system and neuroendocrinal
pathways, and elevated cortisol level.
 General adaptation syndrome Physiological Responses to stress:

2-the stage of resistance:

Hormonal response especially (ACTH) which is an
important line of defense. Physiological
Responses to
3- the stage of exhaustion: stress
During which the body ability to respond to stressors
has been seriously affected .
A) The Neuro- (B) Immune (C) Endocrine
Transmitters response to responses to
response (NT stress( stress

 (A) The Neuro-Transmitters response (NT)  (C) Endocrine responses to stress:

 Stress increase noradrenaline either centrally from
locus cereoleus or peripherally from adrenal medulla
via the autonomic nervous system, dopamine,
serotonin, glutamate, and corticotropin releasing
factor (CRE). Also it decreases GABA.
 (B) Immune response to stress:
 Stress may decrease immune reaction through
increasing glucocorticoids and cortisol level leading
to increased susceptibility to infections and diseases,
e.g., cancer and heart disease.
 1- Acute reactions (Alarm reaction): In response to
sudden unpredictable stressful conditions (Flight / Fight)
responses → sudden stimulation of the hypothalamus,
leads to stimulation of the:
 i- Sympathetic Nervous system: (ANS) increase
catecholamines → increased heart rate, respiratory rate,
dilated pupils sweating and stimulation of adrenal
medulla to release norepinephrine and epinephrine.
 ii- The Hypothalamopituitary Adrenal Axis (HPA-Axis):
Leading to the release of more than 30 stress hormones,
the most important of them is the increased CRF, ACTH
and cortisol, which is important in the regulation of
blood glucose level.
 II- Psychological responses to stress:

 2- Chronic stress, leads to chronic stimulation of

the “HPA-Axis”→ chronic increase in the cortisol
level → permanent structural changes and damage to Psychological responses
the hippocampus and as a result increased to stress
vulnerability to suffer from depression and anxiety
disorders later in their lives (The stress-diathesis
model).
1- Emotional 2- Cognitive 3- Behavioral
responses responses: responses:

 1- Emotional responses:  2- Cognitive responses:

 The GAS (General adaptation syndrome); alarm
reaction occurs. Also some become fearful and may
be angry. If stressors continue for a long time or
occur in a tight sequence, emotional stress reactions
may persist. When people do not have a chance to
recover their emotional equilibrium, they commonly
report feeling tense, irritable, short tempered, or
anxious
 Decreased attention and concentration, decreased
thinking and problem solving abilities, increased
preoccupation by problems and ruminative thoughts,
impaired judgment and decision making, and
increased impulsivity.
 3- Behavioral responses:
 People attempt to escape or avoid stressors;
aggression is also a common response.

Burnout
 It is an increasingly intense pattern of physical and
psychological dysfunction in response to a
continuous flow of stressors or to chronic stress.
Previously reliable workers may become indifferent,
disengaged, impulsive, or accident prone. They may
miss work frequently; oversleep; perform their jobs
poorly; abuse alcohol or other drugs; and become
irritable, suspicious, withdrawn, or depressed.
Methods for Coping with Stress:
 Like stress responses, strategies for coping with stress
can be cognitive, emotional, behavioral, or physical.
 1- Cognitive eg: Thinking of stressors as challenges rather
than as threats; avoiding perfectionism.
 2- Emotional eg: Seeking social support; getting advice.
 3- Behavioral eg: Implementing a time-management
plan; where possible, making life changes to eliminate
stressors.
 4- Physical e.g.: Progressive relaxation training; exercise;
meditation.
Stages in coping with stresses:
 1- Assessment: Identify the sources and effects of stress.
 2- Goal setting: List the stressors and stress responses to
be addressed, and define which stressors are and are not
changeable.
 3- Planning: List the specific steps to be taken to cope
with stress.
 4- Action: Implement coping plans.
 5- Evaluation: Determine the changes in stressors and
stress responses that have occurred as a result of coping
methods.
 6- Adjustment: Alter coping methods to improve results,
if necessary.
 Coping with stress depends on the following
factors:
 A) Intrinsic factors: related to the individual himself.
 1- Genetics,
 2- personality,
 3-The problem solving abilities.,
 4-Past experience with the event,
 5- locus of control and
 6- Adaptive mental mechanisms (defense mechanisms)

 (B) Extrinsic Factors: The social support system and
interventions offered to the person.

 (A) Intrinsic factors
 1- Genetic vulnerability
 2- Type of personality:
 Type A: More vulnerable to coronary heart diseases, they
are competitive, with increased sense of time urgency, they
have difficulty to relax, perfectionistic and they are less
tolerable to stressful life events,
 Type B: they are able to relax without feeling guilty, not
easily aroused to anger, and are more tolerable to stress.
 3- The problem solving abilities.
 4- Past experience with the event, and learned
helplessness concept, on repetition of the stressful event,
the individual become passive despite and depressed.
Coping with Physical Illness
 Major health problems are perceived as stressful events
 Emotional responses and coping strategies are integral
aspects of any physical illness
 patients are encouraged to express and recognize their
feelings. They should give time and support when
needed.
 The ability of patients to cope with stresses related to
1- The way the patient perceives his illness.
2- The kind of demands or adaptations, imposed by the
illness.
3- The kind of coping strategies used by the patient.
 5- The person’s locus of control: people who
attribute negative events to causes that are internal
to them and being under their own control (Internal
locus of control) are more likely to show a depressed
helpless response than people who believe that their
lives being controlled externally by other factors (eg,
God, destiny, magic, chance) (i.e., External locus of
control).
 6- The defensive styles and defense mechanisms
used unconsciously aiming to reduce intra- psychic
tension, eg, denial, projection, reaction formation,
repression, dissociation, displacement,
rationalization and regression.
Coping strategies
 Methods of coping with all kinds of stressors, including
physical illness, are usually classified into two broad
categories:-
 1) Problem focused 2) emotional focused
 Problem focused (or direct) coping:
 direct efforts to alter or eliminate the source of stress
 this can be demonstrated by certain behavior such as:
1. Seeking information about the illness, its consequences
and different treatment possibilities.
2. Seeking support from family, friends as well as other
sources such as special self-help patient groups suffering
from the same illness.
3. Learning of new skills associated with the treatment
process (e.g. a home dialysis machine).
 Coping strategies
 Emotion focused (or palliative) coping:
 Regulate or eliminate the negative emotional consequences
of the stressor.
 In case of physical illness this may take different forms:
1. Patients may try to distance themselves from
overwhelming emotions
- Initial denial“ early is protective if prolonged become
dangerous
- Active participation and involvement in the treatment
process, in order to keep away anxiety.
2. Patients need to express their painful emotions by
family and health care staff support
Anxiety:
 Anxiety in this context is usually related to the patient's
uncertainty and worry about both the cause and
outcome of his illness.
 This anxiety may be non-specific or it may take the form
of phobias towards specific procedures or treatments.
 Paranoid behavior:
 This is a less common reaction to physical illness in
which the patient becomes suspicious and tries to place
the blame for his illness on someone else such as a
relative or another doctor. This may reach a delusional
level and may be associated with aggressive behavior
and refusal to take treatment.
Adverse emotional reactions
 Emotional reaction to illness may be marked and may
reach a pathological level.
 This may take the form of one or a mixture of the
following disturbances: Depression, anxiety, paranoid
behavior
 Depression : 20-30% of inpatients suffer from
depression. related to the loss or threat of loss of physical
or social functioning.
 It may be associated with guilt arising from the belief that
their illness' is a punishment for past behavior. If not
treated such depression may contribute to poor prognosis.
Coping with Terminal Illness
 1- Communicating with terminal patients:
 The important question usually raised in this context is whether patients
should be told that they have a terminal condition?
 There is no simple answer to this question because it depends on many
variables:
 - Many patients do want to know the truth about their condition and they
cope better when communication has been open and honest.
 - Also, openness in communication with close relatives is usually
associated with better coping both for the patient and his family.
 - However, there are important individual and cultural' differences and
some patients may not respond well to direct and open communication.
 - Finally, however, the physician's real question should not be "shall I
tell?" but rather "How do I tell?" The way of communicating this issue
should be guided by arid tailored to the needs and circumstances of
individual patients.


 2- Psychological responses of dying patients:
 The reactions of patients to the fact that death is impending show wide
variations depending on their personalities, their situation and their
expectation and preparation for this fact. Some patients may be
shocked while others who have been tortured by feelings of uncertainty
may feel some sort of relief.
 Some psychological studies have indicated that the process of coping in
dying patients passes through certain stages:
 1- Denial (It cannot be true, there must be a mistake).
 2- Anger (why me?).
 3- Bargaining (e.g., please, keep me alive until my daughter marries).
 4- Depression (There is no use, it is the end).
 5- Acceptance (This is my destiny; I had my share of life).
 However, not all patients go through such stages in a fixed sequence
and there can be many variations and overlaps depending on
individual patient variables.
Management of Stress
 (A) Acute Stress Conditions:
 Symptomatic drug treatment, eg, anxiolytics,
antidepressants or antipsychotics.
 Psychotherapy, crisis intervention, cognitive
behavioral therapy “CBT”. It enables the individual to be
aware of their own problem and its cause. It also enables
him to evaluate the exact significance of a given stressor
and teach him how to develop and maintain the use of
stress-management skills, correct maladaptive pattern of
thinking and behavior, and do proper management of
time and problem solving skills.

Stress and Psychiatric Disorders

 (B) Chronic Stress  1- Stress may cause, precipitate or trigger psychiatric

 Try to change the individual’s pattern of behavior and disorders, or their relapse, e.g., mood disorders,
personality style by: anxiety disorders and even psychosis.
 1- Relaxation training, eg, progressive muscle relaxation.  2- Severe stress may cause acute stress disorder &
 2- Proper religious meditation, praying and genuinely post-traumatic stress disorder.
religious beliefs in God.
 3- Chronic stress may contribute in the etiology of
 3- Biofeedback, in a trial to put the involuntary
physiological (ANS) responses under the voluntary substance use and abuse.
control, eg, a device which gives an alarm when blood
pressure rises so that the person relaxes.
 4- Physical exercise, yoga, recreation, music, art, dance
and social activities.
 4- Psychological factors affecting general medical conditions
(psychosomatic disorders). These are group of medical
disorders in the form of bodily disturbances that result from
or are exaggerated by emotional hyperactivity to chronic
stress. They can never be treated medically alone unless the
psychological status of the person is properly managed, eg:
 -Cardiovascular disorders: Coronary heart diseases,
hypertension, arrhythmia.
 -Respiratory: Bronchial asthma.
 -GIT: Peptic ulcer, ulcerative colitis and spastic colon.
 -Skin: Alopecia areata, vitiligo.
 -Headache and migraine.
 -Auto-immune disorders, e.g. Rheumatoid arthritis and SLE.
 • Developmental psychology is the branch of
Developmental Psychology
psychology which describes the sequence of
events of the development of human behavior
Dr. Hisham Salah throughout different stages of growth
M.D Psychiatry
Lecturer of Psychiatry
Beni-Suef University

Stages of development are:
• Infancy: the first two years of life.
• Childhood: from 2-12 years
• Adolescence: from 12-19 years.
• Adulthood: from 20-65.
• Senility: 65 on.
Infancy
• The maturation is not simply the maturation of
organs but of the individual as a whole.
• The infant cannot differentiate between the self
and outside world
• Dualism: which means that the infant and mother
(world) are one not a two
 Sensory (toward cognitive) development Motor development
• Gradually he will make simple associations between • At first movements are vague and incoordinate
different senses from the same object. • At five months a normal infant can open and close his mouth, move

• He then gives a name or word (usually heard from near-by arms and legs, wink, roll eyeballs and grasp hands.

adults) to such object. This is a step to maturate perception. • At 28 weeks, he can sit for brief periods without support.

• Vagueness gradually becomes less and less toward • At 40 weeks, he can stand with help.

increasing clarity which is a step in conceptual development. • At one year, he stands for longer periods also with help, plays and is
developing more and more coordination.

• At 15 months, he can walk. This invites him to wider external

environment with new objects to manipulate.

Interpersonal relationship Childhood (from infancy to adolescence 2-12 years)

• The infant is completely dependent on others (mother first then near-by
others)
• It is divided into two periods:

• Such relations in this period are characterized by :

• a- the preschool period (from 2-5 years) and
A) An extreme degree of dependency (diminishing gradually).

B) A failure to control impulse (when hungry it cries immediately) . • b- The school period (from 6-12 years)
C) A variable degree of resistance to modification, (which could be considered
as if stubborn or selfish).

• D) Its feelings are to be taken as real and genuine since they are raw and
direct.
The pre-school period (2-5 years( The school period (6-12 years)
• The physical and mental abilities proceed very rapidly with • The child shifts from dependency on parents to a more independent attitude.

change in perception, emotions and general behavior. • He learns to live with others (school mates and teachers) in addition to family
members.
• The child moves from almost non-awareness to a complex • He becomes gradually able to define his personal experience.
society made of family. • Development of moral awareness, cooperation and competition becomes more and
more developed.
• He moves from a state of dependency towards
• He learns skills, values and confidence in his power to create and to master task.
independency.
• Friends are very important and based upon mutual interests and abilities, and
• Desires, interests, values communicated by the family and groups start to form.
reinforced by the culture begin to shape his personality. • There is preference toward identification with the same sex with low interest in the
opposite sex.

Development of thinking Development of emotions

• Distortion of reality Emotions in the Infantile Stage:
• It is difficult for him to deal with conceptual • diffuse experience
relations
• The child considers that every mobile object is • sense of distress
living or animistic • primitive love between two (the child and the
• He can acquire new concepts mother)
• Magical form of thinking • social smile refers to the response of the child
• Gradually till the age of 12 acquires logical to the mother
thinking
• At the age of 6 months, teeth will erupt, and
biting starts.
• At first biting expresses relation and delight.
Later on the infant learns that it is harmful
and unwanted.
• He may then use biting as aggressive
expression
Emotions in the Preschool stage
• The child learns how to express emotions
• He learns how to focus his emotional behavior on
a specific object or person
• He is easily distracted from unpleasant emotion
• Differentiation of emotions into pleasant and
unpleasant
• Jealousy from other children will be evident
• Negativism
• By the age of 9 months, self-awareness starts
• By the end of the second year, the process of
weaning will disturb the satisfaction and love
relationship.
Emotions in Primary School period
(6-12)
• Emotional growth proceeds steadily with
fewer storms
• Violent conflicts in relation with his parents
diminish
• He learns how to deal with inner tension and
adjust to external conditions
• He learns how to accept frustration, tolerate
disappointment and seek satisfaction.
 Language Development
• Most children begin to babble at the age of five to six months
• The first word is pronounced at about nine months.
• The development of language depends on
• At first, it is a word sound, and then in another step it stands as a both maturation and learning
symbol denoting something.
• other factors such as intelligence, heredity and
• By the end of the first year, he can say 3 words. socioeconomic status are also important
• From 18-24 months he starts to combine words.
• By the end of the second year his vocabulary includes 200 words. • Females begin to speak earlier than males
• By the age of 4 to 5 years, he has mastered the basic grammar of
adult speech. • Females using words in comprehensive
• By the end of the fifth year his vocabulary reaches about 5000
sentences with correct grammar formation as
words in addition to mastering the adult grammar. earlier.

Development of Socialization Relations of the child with adults

Relations of the child with Family Two sorts of relation:
• The basic and essential relation ever in the • Dependency on the nearby adults (parents)
world happens to be with the mother and
• 3 types of pathological relationship: • Negativism, especially towards parents to
❑ Rejection prove his individuality
❑Overprotection • More and more he will learn that inter-
❑Erratic attitude dependency is more mutual than exaggerated
independency
 Relations of the child with other
Adolescence
children
• At first he is indifferent to all children: all are This stage is characterized by:
the same. 1- The adolescent goes to adulthood, both
• With age he starts to be hostile, aggressive through physical and mental maturity.
and jealous. 2- He is proud to behave in an independent and
responsible way.
• Competition is essential in psychological
3- The adolescent becomes interested in the
growth between ages 3-5 years.
opposite sex.
• Lately he becomes a cooperative friend. 4- He will be preoccupied by thoughts around
the nature of life.

Aspects and characteristics of

Emotional and social maturity
development
Somatic Maturation
• Hormonal changes declare puberty • The adolescent tries to lead an independent
Mental Maturity: way
• 1- The intellectual abilities reach their peak, but there is relative lack of experience. • The adolescent gradually develops an inner
• 2- Increasing ability to solve difficult mental tasks. code of control
• 3- An apparent increase in the spheres of knowledge, experience and judgment.
• Mood swings easily
• 4- New special form of abilities and interests emerges.
• Sensitive shy adolescents
• 5- An interest in exploring and manipulating different fields of life.

• 6- He has his own self-perception, ideas and values.

• Severe intimate attachments may lead to the
• 7- Excessive daydreams and sexual fantasies.
so-called romantic crushes

• Relations with adults are sensitive
• Special-rather personal-philosophy in life may
have some degree of conflicts with cultural
customs and traditions of the society
1- Dependence - Independence problems:
• a- Identity crisis: declaring the movement towards
independency
• i. Being in a world with the physical appearance of an
adult, yet retaining the child-like intellectual and
emotional comprehension.
• ii. Others doubting his strength and abilities.
• iii. Ready to take part in social and community life, but
shrinking from the responsibilities of doing so.
• iv. Doubting the world around, yet feeling that he is in
due need to every one and all sorts of help.
• v. Losing the childish certainty and the values held
before, yet not acquiring enough self-confidence and
stable achievements.
Essential problems and characteristics of
the adolescence stage
• Dependence - Independence problems
• Academic pressure and career impasse
• Sexuality
• Juvenile Delinquency
• Suicide
1- Dependence - Independence
problems:
• b- Rebellion: Declaring the exaggerated swing
away from authority.
• Rebellion of the adolescent is so normal and
characteristic. It is expressed in various degrees
and forms. It may manifest itself in moodiness,
uncertainty, instability, a tendency toward
introspection and to go to extremes. Many of
these manifestations may approach symptoms of
neurosis, character disorder or even psychosis.
Juvenile delinquency is a form of disturbed
rebellion.

• 2-Academic pressure and career impasse:
• This special problem is of particular interest in our
Egyptian culture. As referred to before, parents may
use their children to achieve, through them, their own
ambitions. Vocational and educational chances are
limited. The so-called last year secondary school
syndrome is related to such problem.
• Overwhelming competition to achieve adequate score
enables one to enter a top faculty results in definite
national hazards to most adolescents.
• There is no simple solution to such situation. However
wider range of opportunities and handling the
situation away from the threat that it is a "life or
death" situation may dilute the pressure.
• 4-Juvenile Delinquency:
• This is a form of characteristic rebellion, in
which there is a trial to oppose environment,
openly defy adults, but mainly parents and
teachers, refuse to do school work, play truant
and bullying his siblings, or classmates. Feeling
that the world is wholly unwilling to accord
him love or attention or a change to "count",
he tries to grasp the world's attention by
making troubles
• 3- Sexuality:
• Inner control of the instinctual sexual urges is
considered as part of incorporating into social and
moral standards. At the same time, an adolescent also
finds outlet in the new capacity to love and seek love.
• However, the discrepancy between the early
physiological maturity and the lagging emotional
maturity as well as the handicapping financial
dependency lies in the core of the sexual problem. One
the main preoccupations of adolescents are
masturbation. Many unscientific rumors go around
such act resulting in some variable complication.
Sublimation through sports and warm decent human
relation can alleviate the problem, at least partly
• 5 -Suicide:
• The adolescent lives in an atmosphere of great
anxiety at times, high elation at another time,
deep despair, quickly rising enthusiasm, utter
hopelessness and burning intellectual and
philosophical preoccupations.
• The yearning for freedom, the sense of
loneliness, the feeling of oppression by parents,
the impotent rages or hating directed against the
adult world, the erotic crushes (whether
homosexually or heterosexually expressed) and
suicidal fantasies, all these are parts of the
normal adolescent's emotional development. At
the same time one or more may be a cause of
suicidal problems .
 Learning
Definition :
Learning is the process of acquiring new knowledge and
responses ,whereby behavior is changed as a result of past
experience.
 A relatively permanent change in behavior or the
potential for behavior that results from experience
 Results from many life experiences, not just structured
ones
 May or may not be permanent change
 May or may not show up in behavior

Learning Types of learning

 1- Associative learning : (conditioning) classical and
 Learning is the acquisition and development of memories
operant conditioning.
and behaviors, including skills, knowledge, understanding,
values, and wisdom.  2- Cognitive (complex) learning : requires constructing
mental map of one`s environment.
 Learning refers to relatively permanent changes in
behavior resulting from practice or experience.  3- Observational learning : can occur through
observation, imitation of others and depends on
 Innate behaviors are inborn, emerge during certain periods, modeling
and are not the result of learning
 Associative learning: classical
Associative learning conditioning

-classical conditioning  The classical example of the conditioning theory is that

of the Russian Psychologist Ivan Pavlov who devised an
-operant conditioning experiment on the dog.

classical conditioning
 extinction The gradual disappearance of a conditioned
response when a conditioned stimulus is no longer
followed by an unconditioned stimulus.
 reconditioning The quick relearning of a conditioned
response following extinction.
 spontaneous recovery The reappearance of the
conditioned response after extinction and without
further pairings of the conditioned and
unconditioned stimuli.
classical conditioning
 Certain stimuli can elicit a reflexive response
– Air puff >> eye-blink
– Smelling food >> can produce salivation
• The reflexive stimulus (UCS) and response
(UCR) are unconditioned
• The neutral stimulus is referred to as the
conditioned stimulus (CS)
• In classical conditioning, the CS is repeatedly
paired with the reflexive stimulus (UCS)
• Eventually the CS will produce a response (CR)
similar to that produced by the UCS
Classical conditioning
 higher-order conditioning A phenomenon in which a
conditioned stimulus acts as an unconditioned stimulus,
creating conditioned stimuli out of events associated with it.
 stimulus generalization A phenomenon in which a
conditioned response is elicited by stimuli that are similar but
not identical to the conditioned stimulus.
 stimulus discrimination A process through which
individuals learn to differentiate among similar stimuli and
respond appropriately to each one.
 Operant conditioning:
Operant conditioning E.L. Thorndike’s Law of Effect
 Learning from the consequences of
behavior  Behaviors that lead to positive (satisfying)
 Organisms must make responses consequences will be strengthened and more likely to
that have consequences be repeated
– Punishment
– Reinforcement
– The response can be associated with  Behaviors that lead to negative, (discomforting)
cues in the environment consequences will be weakened and less likely to be
emitted
 E.L. Thorndike
 Worked with cat in puzzle box
 Cats learned to associate behavior (pull switch) with behavior’s
consequence (getting out of box)

B.F. Skinner and the Experimental Operant conditioning

Study of Operant Conditioning  Operant : a response that has some effect on the
environment
 Introduced term operant conditioning  Reinforcement is any procedure that increases the
 Respondent behavior – classically response.
conditioned behavior  Positive reinforcement
 Operant behavior – behavior that operates on  Behavior leads to something pleasant
an organism’s environment to produce  Negative reinforcement
consequence
 Behavior is rewarded by the removal of something
 Developed Skinner box for unpleasant
administration of reinforcements in  Negative reinforcement is not punishment
animal experiments  “Negative” means removing something
 Remember that reinforcement increases behavior
 Punishment is any procedure that decreases the
response.
 Positive Punishment – presenting a stimulus that leads
to a lowered likelihood for a response to occur in the
future
 Negative Punishment – removing a stimulus that leads
to a lowered likelihood for a response to occur in the
future

Aversive conditioning
 When response is followed by aversive stimulus this lead
to suppression of the response on subsequent occasions
 Useful when applied immediately after the undesired
behavior
 Aversive events can be used in learning eg : escape
learning in which the organism can learn response to
terminate on going aversive event or avoidance learning
in which the organism can learn response to prevent
starting aversive event
Complex (cognitive)learning Complex (cognitive)learning
 Active form of learning describing how people
represent, store and use information through cognitive  It may be either:
maps (cognitive mental structures) i. Mental association between stimuli or events as
 cognitive maps develop naturally, and without the classical and operant conditioning.
need for reinforcement, as people and animals gain ii. Map of one`s environment or an abstract concept
experience with the world. like the notion of cause.
 Research on learning in the natural environment has iii. Mental trial and error
supported this view.
 For example, we develop mental maps of shopping
malls and city streets, even when we receive no direct
reward for doing so.
 Complex (cognitive)learning
 Cognitive learning can occur in the following ways either
❖Latent learning: Learning that is not demonstrated at
the time it occurs.
❖ Insight learning: it depends on planning the solution on
the mental level before hand.
❖Past experiences and full information about the problem are
important tools in the insight learning
•

Chimpanzee”s experiment of
kohler
Chimpanzee”s experiment of kohler
 Observational learning
 It depend on the capacity for observation and doing
exactly what others do.
 This method is used mainly by higher animals like apes
and by growing up children.
 It is automatic way of imitation
Observational learning
 It is most associated with the work of
psychologist Albert Bandura, who implemented
some of the seminal studies in the area and
initiated social learning theory .
• It involves the process of learning to copy or
model the action of another through observing
another doing it .

Social Learning Theory and

Cognition
 Four steps to modeling
 Attention – must attend to behavior of model
 Retention – must retain cognitive representation or
memory of model’s behavior
 Reproduction of behavior – use memories to reproduce
behavior; have physical abilities to do so
 Motivation – must be motivated to execute behavior

Factors affecting learning
- General physical and mental health
- Emotional state
- Motivation
- 2-objective factors:
- The learned object
- The method of learning
Factors affecting learning
1- personal factor:
- Intelligence
- Previous learning
- Acquired habits
- Physical handicap
Clinical applications
 Classical conditioning can play a role in the development
of anxiety disorders(such as a child’s fear of a doctor’s
white coat), and it may also lead to phobias.
 Phobias are extreme fears of objects or situations that
either are not objectively dangerous.
 victims of violent crime, terrorism, or other traumatic
events may show intense fear responses to trauma-related
stimuli for many years afterward.
 Clinical applications
 Behavioral psychotherapy focus on changing maladaptive
behaviors by different behavioral methods to be replaced
with adaptive behaviors.
 Behavioral techniques include:
 Systematic desensitization, gradual exposure and response
prevention,
 Reciprocal inhibition,
 Relaxation techniques,
 Participant modeling and shaping,
 Aversion therapy,
 Positive reinforcement,
 Assertiveness and social skill training.

MCQ
CHOOSE THE CORRECT ANSWER(S)
Learning is the acquisition of:
a- memories
b- physical health
c- behaviors
d- knowledge
e- all of the above
 MCQ Complete
choose the correct answer(s)
 - If a man’s conditioned fear of spiders is triggered by
 The following Personal factors affect learning: the sight of other creatures that look
a -Intelligence somewhat like spiders, he is demonstrating stimulus
b- methods of acquiring Knowledge  _GENERALIZATON
c- Motivation
d- all of the above

Complete Complete
❑ When a child learns to fear the doctor’s office ❑When a child learns that his mother’s doctor’s office is
by associating it with the reflexive emotional reaction to a
painful injection . not associated with the unconditioned stimulus
 Doctor`s office is (painful injection).
 -CS-  This is called
 Reflexive emotional reaction is  -EXTINCTION-
 -UCR---------
 Painful injection is
 --UCS------
 Child fear is-
 --CR-------
 MEMORY
Dr. Ahmed Abd ELAziz Ezzat
M.D. Psychiatry
Lecturer of Psychiatry
Psychiatry Department
Beni Suef University
2016

Memory Memory system

• It is the ability to encode information, retain • Memory could be divided into:
them for a time, and recall back to conscious 1- sensory memory
awareness when needed. 2- short term memory (STM)
• Three stages of memory: 3- long term memory (LTM)
• Encoding = the transformation of physical
input into memory,
• Storage = retain or maintain.
• Retrieval = recovered from the stores.
The multi store model

(A) Sensory memory

• A type of memory that holds large amounts of
incoming information very briefly, but long
enough to connect one impression to the next
to be processed further. This maintenance is
the job of the sensory registers which acts as
temporary storage bins.
• It has a large capacity that absorbs all sensory
input from a particular stimulus for a duration
less than one second.
 (B) Short Term memory : (STM)
• Short-term memory: The maintenance component of
working memory, which holds rehearsed information for a
limited time.
• Working memory: The part of the memory system that
allows us to mentally work with, or manipulate information
being held in short-term memory.
Functions:
• Storage of information for only few seconds.
• Computations, it has an important role in thinking and
problem solving.
• It integrates short-term perceptions and memories while
other cognitive processes are taking place, so that it can
combine and contrast these new memories with what is
stored already (past experience).
• It serves as a way station to long term memory.
Storage
• Storage: It has a very limited capacity, average of 7
items + 2.
• Memory span is the maximum number of items
that the person can recall perfectly within few
seconds.
• Chunking, increases the amount of information
stored in short term memory by allowing one entry
to cover several items, so that while the total
number of chunks is restricted, their content is not,
eg, BBC would be considered as one chunk, since
they are understood as a single unit.
Forgetting = either due to:
• Decay of information overtime, or
• Displaced by new items, as it has a limited capacity.
Stages: Encoding
• Encoding: The encoding of information in short term
memory is much more elaborative and varied than
that in the sensory registers which is either:
• a. Phonological, (acoustic encoding). The mental
representation of information is as a sequence of
sounds and verbal stimuli. In the left hemisphere
(Dominant).
• b. Visual—spatial (Visual encoding). The mental
representation of information is as images. In the
right hemisphere (non-dominant).
• Rehearsal is the conscious repetition of an item
overtime in a trial to keep information active.
Retrieval
• Retrieval: The more items in working memory,
the slower the retrieval.
• Retrieval processes include both recall and
recognition.
• To recall information, you have to retrieve it
from memory without much help.
• In recognition, retrieval is aided by clues,
such as the response alternatives given on
multiple-choice tests. Accordingly, recognition
tends to be easier than recall.
 C) Long Term Memory (LTM)
• Definition: When information has to be retained
more permanently, even for life. It is of an
unlimited capacity.
• Stages:
• Encoding: Through elaborate rehearsal and
repetition.
•

Storage
• Storage: Consolidation of memory, so that the learned material
became a part of the molecular structure of the brain tissue
and thus less vulnerable to be forgotten.
• Factors affecting storage:
• Global and more elaborate learning.
• Better organization of information.
• Same context (state-dependent) memory.
• Emotional factors (anxiety leads to disturbance of retrieval).
• Repression (unconscious forgetting of traumatic childhood
experiences.
• Rehearsal (making voluntary) effort with strong concentration
helps storage.
• Interest and motivation are essential factors.
• Learning by using more than one sensory modality.
• Retrieval:
• Forgetting from LTM results from loss of access to the
information rather than from loss of information itself, i.e.
Memory loss is a retrieval failure and not a storage failure,
• Evidences
• inability to recall a fact at a time then it comes to mind
later,
• psychotherapy retrieves a memory that had previously
forgotten.
• Interference of information which may be either:
• Retroactive = the new information interferes with recovery
of old one.
• Proactive = the retrieval of old memories which interferes
with the learning of new one.
 • LTM is divided into:
• (A) Declarative:
• It is the conscious recollection of words, scenes,
facts, and events, information, and personal
experience.
• (B) Non-Declarative:
• These are life experiences occurring
unconsciously which result in behavioral changes.
e.g: the acquisition of motor and cognitive skills
and habits, acquisition of new conditioned
responses which may be either emotional or
skeletal.
• Consolidation: of LTM results in actual structural
changes at the synaptic level, i.e., formation of
new synapses and increase in the strength of
others. This occurs through regulation of the
process of gene expression and protein synthesis
(formation of a new proteins).
• This process occurs mainly in the medial
temporal structures, especially, the
hippocampus, through the process of long term
potentiation in which the neurotransmitters
glutamate, nitric oxide and D-serine plays an
important role.
Physiology of Memory
• Memory trace is the term applied to the chemical
and electrophysiological changes in the brain that
happen in response to the learning process (STM).
Leading to the development of new pathways of
transmission, once they are established they can be
activated by rehearsal, if stimuli are:
• a- Non- signifiant → inhibition and ignorance, i.e.,
Habituation.
• b- Significant (painful or pleasurable stimuli) →
Facilitation and Sensitization.
• Several neurotransmitters esp.: Acetylcholine and
serotonin are involved in this process.
Disorders of Memory
• Amnesia: Loss of memory in the form of partial or total
inability to recall past experiences.
• Antero grade = amnesia for recent events, it occurs in
senility, dementia, and cerebral atherosclerosis.
• Retrograde = amnesia for remote events in normal
forgetfulness and also in senility.
• Global = for both recent and remote events. In
advanced senility and advanced organic brain
syndrome.
• Circumscribed = Focal or presence of an amnesic gap,
which is limited to a particular period of time and
event, before and after which the memory is intact, it
occurs in hysterical amnesia due to the presence of a
traumatic event.
• Hyperamnesia: Exaggerated degree of retention and recall. It
occurs in hypomania and paranoia. Complete
• Paramnesia: Falsification of memory by distortion of recall
which may be:
• Retrospective falsification: Recollection of a true memory to 1) Stages of memory include, …………,…….,………
which the patient adds false details.
• Confabulation: Unconscious filling of gaps in memory by
2) Memory system consists of,…..,….,….
imagined or untrue experiences, that he believes to be true. 3) Forgetfulness is due to ,……….,……….
Occurs in hysteria and Korsakoff’s syndrome.
• Deja vu: illusion of visual recognition in which a new situation is
falsely regarded as repetition of previous memory (Illusion of
familiarity of visual stimuli).
• Deja entendu: Illusion of auditory recognition (familiarity of
auditory stimuli).
• Jamais vu: False feeling of unfamiliarity with a real situation
that one has experienced.
• - Deja vu, Deja entendu and Jamais vu occur in fatigue, epilepsy
and substance intoxication.

MCQs
• 1) At the neural level, memory is thought to • 2)Long-term potentiation describes:
represent: • A) The day-to-day function of the amygdala
• A) Strengthening connections between • B)How long-term memories are formed
neurons • C) How short-term memories are formed
• B) Severing the connections between neurons • D) Strengthening of neural connections via
• C) Weakening connections between neurons repeated stimulation
• D)Leaving neurons unaffected
 • 4) ______ describes a partial or total loss of
memory. There are two subtypes: ______, which
refers to an inability to recall events prior to injury,
• 3)The structure most greatly implicated in and ______, which refers to an inability to ______.
LTP is the: • A) Partial amnesia; anterograde amnesia;
• A) Parahippocampal gyrus retrograde amnesia; remember events subsequent
to brain injury
• B) Hippocampus • B) Dysphasia; anterograde amnesia; partial amnesia;
• C)Amygdala remember events subsequent to brain injury
• C) Amnesia; retrograde amnesia; anterograde
• D)Hypothalamus amnesia; remember personally meaningful events
• D) Amnesia; retrograde amnesia; anterograde
amnesia; remember events subsequent to brain
injury
 Cognitive Abilities
The capacity to:
Intelligence • reason,
• remember,
• solve problems and
• make decisions

Intelligence Theory of Multiple Intelligence

• One of the major cognitive abilities
• Intelligence includes three main • Gardener (1993) mentioned that there
characteristics: are multiple components for
• The ability to learn from one’s intelligence:
experiences, acquire knowledge, ➢Linguistic abilities
• Use resources and skills effectively to ➢Logical/mathematical
solve problems ➢Spatial
• Adapting to new situations. ➢Musical
Menu
Are There Multiple
Cattell’s View of Intelligence -
Intelligences?
Intelligence as a Few Basic Abilities
• Fluid Intelligence
▪ Social Intelligence • The ability to think on the spot and solve novel
▪ the know-how involved in problems
• The ability to perceive relationships
comprehending social situations and • The ability to gain new types of knowledge
managing oneself successfully
• Crystallized Intelligence
▪ Emotional Intelligence • Factual knowledge about the world
• The skills already learned and practiced
▪ ability to perceive, express, understand, • Examples
• Arithmetic facts
and regulate emotions • Knowledge of the meaning of words
• State capitals

Development and Growth of

Intelligence
• Intelligence is the outcome of interaction
Factors that Influence between biological and environmental
Intelligence factors

• Both are dependent on and influencing

each others
 • The Child’s Influence
• Genetics
• Biological Factors: • Genotype–Environment Interaction
genetics • Gender

Perinatal, natal and postnatal factors • The Immediate Environment’s Influence

• Family Environment
• School Environment
• Environmental Factors:
• Culture, socioeconomic standard • The Society’s Influence
• Malnutrition • Poverty
• Race/Ethnicity
• Education of parents

Group Differences
• Rural /Urban: socioeconomic and
educational differences • Girls as a group:
• Tend to be stronger in verbal fluency, in writing, in
• Occupational differences: certain perceptual speed (starting as early as the toddler
years)
intellectual abilities
• Racial differences:
• Boys as a group:
• Sex differences: males more better in
• Tend to be stronger in visual-spatial processing, in
arithmetic and reasoning; females show science, and in mathematical problem solving
(starting as early as age 3)
better linguistic abilities
 LO 8.9 How intelligence tests are constructed
Origins of Intelligence
Development of IQ Tests Testing
• Deviation IQ scores - a type of
intelligence measure that assumes that ▪ Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
IQ is normally distributed around a
▪ defined originally the ratio of
mean of 100 with a standard deviation
mental age to chronological age
of about 15.
multiplied by 100
• Norms
▪ IQ = mental age/chronological age x
100)
▪ on contemporary tests, the average
Menu performance for a given age is
assigned a score of 100

LO 8.9 How intelligence tests are constructed

Assessing Intelligence

▪ Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

(WAIS)
▪ most widely used intelligence test
▪ subtests
▪ verbal
▪ performance (nonverbal)

Menu
 Intellectual Disability
• Developmentally delayed condition
in which a person’s behavioral and
cognitive skills exist at an earlier
Applied Psychology developmental stage than the skills
of others who are the same
chronological age. A more
acceptable term for mental
retardation.
Menu

Intellectual Disability
• Four levels of delay are:
• Intellectual disability or • Mild: 55–70 IQ
developmental delay is a condition in • Moderate: 40–55 IQ
which IQ falls below 70 and adaptive • Severe: 20–40 IQ
behavior is severely deficient for a
• Profound: Below 20 IQ.
person of a particular chronological
• Causes of developmental delay include
age.
deprived environments, as well as
chromosome and genetic disorders and
dietary deficiencies. Menu
The Dynamics of Are There Multiple
Intelligence Intelligences?
▪ Savant Syndrome
▪ condition in which a person otherwise
limited in mental ability has an exceptional
specific skill
▪ computation
▪ drawing

Thank You
 Consciousness
 Individual awareness of one’s unique
States of Consciousness thoughts, memories, feelings, sensations
and environment
Continuum of Consciousness
 wide range of experiences from being
aware and alert to being unaware and
unresponsive

Continuum of Consciousness Continuum of Consciousness

1. Controlled Processes 3. Daydreaming
 Full awareness, alertness, and  Low level of awareness
concentration
 Often occurs during automatic processes
 Usually interferes with other ongoing
 Involves fantasizing/dreaming while awake
activities
 Occurs in situations that are boring or
2. Automatic Processes
require little attention
 Little awareness and take minimal attention
 Do not interfere with other ongoing
activities
Continuum of Consciousness
4. The Unconscious
 “It contains all sorts of significant and
disturbing material which we need to keep
out of awareness because they are too
threatening to acknowledge fully” –
Sigmund Freud
Continuum of Consciousness
5. Unconsciousness
 Total unawareness and loss of
responsiveness to one’s environment
6. Altered States
 Awareness that differs from normal
consciousness
 Results from using any procedures:
meditation, hypnosis, or psychoactive
drugs
Continuum of Consciousness
4. The Unconscious
 Process of Free Association - a method
of exploring a person's unconscious by
eliciting words and thoughts that are
associated with key words provided by a
psychoanalyst
 Dream Interpretation - the process of
assigning meaning to dreams
Altered States
A. Meditation
 The practice of focusing attention
 To enhance awareness and gain more
control of physical and mental processes
 Increased alpha & theta rhythm – Feeling
deeply relaxed and free from being stressed
B. Hypnosis
 Trance-like state
 A procedure that opens people to the
power of suggestion
 Altered States
C. Psychoactive Drugs
 “recreational drugs”
 A chemical substance that acts primarily upon
the central nervous system where it alters
brain function, resulting in temporary changes
in perception, mood, consciousness and
behavior
Continuum of Consciousness
7. Sleep and Dreams
 Sleep – involves different levels of
consciousness and psychological arousal,
which occurs in 5 stages.
 Dreams – astonishing visual, auditory
and tactile images in sleep, which occurs
in the REM stage.
Altered States
4 Types of Psychoactive Drugs
a. Stimulants: drugs that stimulate the central
nervous system.
b. Sedatives: drugs that slow down the central
nervous system
c. Narcotics: also called opiates; drugs that can
relieve pain
d. Hallucinogens: drugs that cause sensory
and perceptual distortions
Sleep
Stages of Sleep
 Distinctive changes in the electrical
activity of the brain
 REM stands for Rapid Eye Movement,
because eyes move rapidly back and forth
behind closed lids.
 NREM stands for Non-Rapid Eye
Movement
 Stages of Sleep Stages of Sleep
Two Major Categories of Sleep
*Alpha Stage A. Non-REM Sleep
 Relaxed and drowsy stage  Approximately 80% of sleep time
 Alpha Waves – low amplitude and high Stage 1 (Theta Waves)
frequency  Transition from wakefulness to sleep
 Lasts 1-7 minutes
 Gradually lose responsiveness to stimuli and
experience drifting thoughts and images
 Theta Waves - lower amplitude and lower
frequency than alpha waves
 *Hypnic Jerk – falling sensation

Stages of Sleep Stages of Sleep

Stage 2 (Spindles)
 Muscle tension, heart rate, respiration, and
body temperature gradually decrease
 Difficult to be awakened
 Sleep Spindles – brief high frequency bursts
of brain activity
Stage 3 (Delta & Theta Waves)
 Approximately 30-45 minutes
 Delta Waves - very high amplitude and very
low frequency (slowest & largest waves)
 20-50% of brain-wave pattern
 Stages of Sleep
Stage 4 (Delta Waves)
 Delta Waves - very high amplitude and very
low frequency (slowest & largest waves)
 Deepest stage of sleep
 Heart rate, respiration, body temperature and
blood flow reduced
 Secretion of Growth Hormone (controls
levels of metabolism, physical growth and
brain development)
 Most difficult stage to be awakened
Stages of Sleep
B. REM Sleep
 Remaining 20% of sleep time
Stage 5
 Brain waves have fast frequency and low amplitude
 Brain waves are very similar to beta waves (when
awake & alert)
 Heart rate and blood pressure 2x as high than Non-
REM
 Highly associated with Dreaming
 Pardoxical Sleep – both asleep and highly aroused
*Awake and Alert
 Beta Waves – high frequency and low amplitude
Sleep
 Sleep Architecture - represents the
cyclical pattern of sleep as it shifts
between the different stages
Dreams
 Impulses and desires of the id are suppressed
by the superego.
 Because the guards are down during sleep,
the unconscious has the opportunity to act
out and express the hidden desires of the id.
 However, the desires of the id can, at times,
be so disturbing and even psychologically
harmful that a "censor" comes into play
and translates the id's disturbing content into
a more acceptable symbolic form.
4 Major Questions About Sleep 4 Major Questions About Sleep
1. How much sleep? 1. How much sleep?
 There is a gradual change in the total time B. Adolescence & Adulthood
spent sleeping.  Maintain same amount of sleep time
A. Infancy & Childhood  Approximately 7.5 hours a day (same amount
of REM sleep, 20% or less)
 Newborn – Approximately 17 hours (50% in
 However, adolescents need more sleep (about
REM)
10 hours) to aid body changes in puberty
 Toddler – Approximately 10 hours (25-30% in stage
REM) C. Old Age
 Time spent in sleep and in REM gradually  Total sleep time drops to about 6.5 hours a
declines day, but same amount of REM sleep (20%)

4 Major Questions About Sleep

2. Why do I sleep?
 1/3 of each day in sleep
A. Repair Theory
 Day-time activities deplete key factors in
brain or body that are repaired in sleep
 Sleep is a restorative process
4 Major Questions About Sleep
2. Why do I sleep?
B. Adaptive Theory
 Sleep evolved to prevent early humans and
animals from wasting energy and exposing
themselves to nocturnal predators
 Humans have little night vision so sleep is
evolved to avoid becoming prey
4 Major Questions About Sleep
4. What causes sleep?
 ‘Master Switch’ found in VPN
(Ventrolateral Preoptic Nucleus)
 Sleep and awake involve a complex
interaction between circadian rhythms,
brain areas, sleep-inducing chemicals, and
body temperature
4 Major Questions About Sleep
3. What if I miss sleep?
 Physiological functions (e.g. heart rate,
blood pressure, hormones secretion) are
not significantly disrupted
 Affects immune system
 Interfere with performance and cause
moodiness
4 Major Questions About Sleep
4. What causes sleep?
 VPN – nucleus in hypothalamus that acts as
master switch for sleep
o On – VPN secretes GABA
(neurotransmitter that turns off areas that
keeps the brain awake)
• Reticular Formation – one of areas
turned off. A column of cells that stretches
the length of the brain stem, arouses and
alerts the forebrain (receive and process
info. from senses)
o Off – Certain brain areas become active
and the person wakes up
 Rythms of Sleeping and Waking
Biological Clocks
 Internal timing devices that regulates
physiological responses for different periods
of time.
Circadian Rhythms
 physical, mental and behavioral changes that
follow a roughly 24-hour cycle, responding
primarily to light and darkness in an
organism’s environment
Rythms of Sleeping and Waking
Circadian Rhythms
 regulates sleep-wake cycle, hormone release,
body temperature and other important bodily
functions
 controlled by the Master Clock that
consists of a group of nerve cells in the brain
called the suprachiasmatic nucleus, or SCN
 Suprachiasmatic Nucleus – regulates
secretion of melatonin
 Melatonin – hormone that promotes sleep
Sleep Disorders
 Somnambulism/Sleep Walking – sitting,
walking or performing complex behavior
while sleeping.
 Night Terrors – extreme fear, agitation or
screaming while asleep. A state of panic
experienced when sound asleep.
 Restless Leg Syndrome – uncomfortable
sensations in legs causing movement and loss
of sleep
 Nocturnal Leg Cramps – painful cramps in
calf or foot muscles
 Sleep Disorders
 Circadian Rhythms Disorders –  Hypersomnia – Excessive day time
disturbances of sleep-wake cycle such as jet
lag and work shifts.
Jet Lag – experienced by travelers whose
internal clock is not synced with the
external clock time in their new location,
which results in fatigue, disorientation, lack
of concentration and reduced cognitive
skills
References
Ciccarelli, S. & White, J. (2012). Psychology (3rd. Ed.).
Upper Sadle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Cherry, K. (2013).What is Consciousness. About.com.
Retrieved, July 1, 2013, from:
http://psychology.about.com/od/statesofconsciousn
ess/f/consciousness.htm
Dietrich,A. (2007). Introduction to Consciousness. New
York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan
Dream Moods. (2012). Dream Theorists: Sigmund
Freud. Dreammoods.com. Retrieved, July 20, 2013,
from:
http://www.dreammoods.com/dreaminformation/d
reamtheory/freud.htm
Sleep Disorders
sleepiness
 Enuresis – urinating while asleep in bed
 Insomnia – inability to get to sleep, stay
asleep or get good quality sleep.
 Sleep Apnea – consist of loud snoring and
stopped breathing.
 Nacrolepsy – consist of sudden onset of
REM sleep during otherwise waking hours.
References
McLeod, S. (2009). Unconscious Mind. SimplyPsychology.
Retrieved, July 1, 2013, from:
http://www.simplypsychology.org/unconscious-
mind.html
Peters, B. (2011).What is sleep architecture?.
About.com. Retrieved, July 18, 2013, from:
http://sleepdisorders.about.com/od/doihaveasleepd
isorder/a/What-Is-Sleep-Architecture.htm
Plotnik, R. (1998). Introduction to Psychology (5th Ed.).
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
National Sleep Foundation. (2013). How much sleep
do we really need?. NationalSleepFoundation.org.
Retrieved, July 18, 2013, from:
http://www.sleepfoundation.org/article/how-sleep-
works/how-much-sleep-do-we-really-need

EMOTIONS
Dr. Ahmed Abd ELAziz Ezzat
M.D. Psychiatry
Lecturer of Psychiatry
Psychiatry Department
Beni Suef University
2018
EMOTIONS
• Emotion is a complex condition.
• arises in response to certain affectively toned
experiences. i.e. affective state.
• Emotions are organized psychological ,
physiological and behavioral reactions to
changes in our relationship to the world.
• Mood = inner subjective experience of the
individual, it is pervasive and relatively
sustained.
• Affect = observed expression usually transient.

Components of emotions Characteristics of emotions

1)The affective state (subjective experience).
(2) Accompanying thoughts and beliefs that
come to mind automatically (cognitions).
(3) Bodily reactions especially autonomic
nervous system.
(4) Facial expression.
(5) Action tendencies and set of behavior.
(6) Global reaction to the emotion.
1. Emotion is usually temporary; it tends to
have a relatively clear beginning and end, as
well as a relatively short duration.
2. Emotional experience can be positive, as in
joy, or negative, as in sadness. It can also be
a mixture of both.
3. Emotional experience alters thought
processes, often by directing attention
toward some things and away from others.
Negative emotions, such as fear, tend to
narrow attention, while positive emotions
tend to widen our attention, which makes it
easier take in a broader range of visual
information and perhaps to think more
broadly.
Types of Emotions
• (A) Classification according to the Type of
stimulus:
• Primary emotions
• secondary emotions
• (B) Classification according to Maturity:
• Primitive emotions
• Mature emotions
4. Emotional experience triggers an action
tendency, the motivation to behave in
certain ways. Positive emotions, such as joy,
and pride, often lead to playfulness,
creativity, and exploration of the
environment. These behaviors, in turn, can
generate further positive emotions by
creating stronger social ties, greater skill at
problem solving.
• (A) Classification according to the Type of
stimulus:
• There are eight primary emotions (universal),
these are: Anger, fear, anticipation, sadness,
joy, surprise; disgust and acceptance.
• Any two adjacent emotions can give rise to a
secondary emotion eg. love is derived from
joy and acceptance, submission from fear and
acceptance, and so on.

• (B) Classification according to Maturity: Along
the primitive mature scale:
• Primitive emotions like fear and anger lie at
the bottom of the scale, while
• Mature emotions like depression and
sympathy lie high up.
• The highest the emotion means that it is most
associated with thoughts and volitional acts.
• Cannon-Bard Theory: This theory suggests that
an emotion is produced when an appropriate
stimulus is perceived by the thalamus which then
simultaneously activates the part of the cortex
concerned with emotional experience and
causes the initiation of physiological changes in
the periphery.
• Criticism to that theory is that there are stimuli
eg, sudden danger which can lead to increased
sympathetic activity before the emotion is
experienced
Theories of Emotions
• James-Lange Theory: It is claimed that the
physiological changes associated with
emotion are primary, and that the experience
of emotion is secondary to these somatic
responses (sweating, increased arousal and
increased heart rates).
• Cognitive interpretation of events, and of
physiological reactions to them, shapes
emotional experiences.
• Autonomic arousal can be experienced as
anxiety or excitement, depending on how it is
labeled.
• A single event can lead to different emotions,
depending on whether it is perceived as
threatening or challenging.
• Schachter’s Cognitive labeling theory:
• The cognitive appraisal theory
 Schachter’s Cognitive labeling theory
• “Two-factor theory” Schachter and Singers”.
The conscious experience of an emotion is a
function of the stimulus, of somatic or
physiological responses and of cognitive factors
such as the cognitive appraisal of the situation
and input from long term memory i.e. It places a
considerable emphasis on cognitive and
environmental factors in determining the
emotional responses.
Physiology of Emotions
• The brain contains an alarm system (A fear
network) which is crucial for survival, over
sensitive fear network causes anxiety and
pathological extremes- may result in panic
disorder, when this network becomes
conditioned to noxious stimuli.
• This fear network is formed of prefrontal
areas, thalamus, and limbic system, especially
amygdala interconnected together.
The cognitive appraisal theory
• “Lazarus”, stresses the cognitive aspects of
emotion suggesting that our emotions are the
result of our appraisal of the situation which
we are in at any particular time with less
attention to the physiological aspects of
emotion.
• None of these theories is sufficient alone,
there are several interacting components to
emotions.
• Limbic areas that modulate emotions are
connected via different circuits to all parts of
the neocortex.
• The emotional centers have immense power
to influence the function of the rest of the
brain.
• The amygdala is the main site of emotional
memories; also amygdala is the center of fear
and its related (acute) emotional reactions.
 Disorders of Emotions
• I) Quantitative Disorders:
(A) Excessive pleasure
(B) Dysphoric emotions
(C) Shallow (Dull) emotions
• II- Qualitative disorders
• (B) Dysphoric emotions:
• 1-Depression: Exaggerated sadness with gloomy
outlook, self depreciation, unworthiness and
despair. It is present in depressive disorders, e.g.,
major depression and dysthymia.
2- Anxiety: Sense of uneasiness with ill-defined
fear without definite known cause.
• 3- Phobia: Fear from a particular known stimulus
which is usually unfearful e.g., social phobia and
Simple phobia (Animal and Claustrophobia)
• 4- Apprehension: Severe overwhelming fear,
evident in the patient’s facial expression.
Quantitative Disorders
• (A) Excessive pleasure:
• 1- Euphoria: Sense of well being associated normally
with physical health. If exaggerated, it is abnormal and
may be induced by drug abuse.
• 2- Elation: The individual looks unduly happy,
attentive, responsive and witty, eg, in hypomania.
3- Exaltation: It is associated with elation but with
sense of grandeur and sarcasm, e.g. in paranoid states
with grandeur or mixed with manic features.
• 4- Ecstasy: Related to extreme states of euphoria but it
is characterized in addition with a mysterious air and
extreme satiety, eg, in Mystical experience,
schizophrenia and with substance abuse eg.
cannabinoids
(C) Shallow (Dull) emotions:
1- Apathy: Emotional flattening, with lost
emotional expression and experience.
2- Indifference: A state of apparent shallowness
where expression is abolished yet experiences
are preserved.
3- Blunting: Diminution of facial expression, it is
also used as an alternative term for apathy or
indifference.
II- Qualitative disorders:
1- Ambivalence: In which there is opposite
contradictory feelings, towards the same object
or person at the same time.
2- Incongruity: The patient reacts in an
inappropriate manner that is not harmonious
with the content of thoughts or situations.
3- Facility: “Facile smile” A secret smile as if the
patient is laughing to himself with no apparent
reason. Both incongruity and facility are met
with in disorganized schizophrenia.
4- Lability of affect: Rapid shift from one
extreme to the other with no apparent
reason, usually in organic disorders, e.g.,
dementia.
5- Mood swings, mood shifts are more sudden
but relatively prolonged, as in immature
personalities.

Thank you
 Definition & Classification
• Motivation refers to the driving and pulling forces
which result in persistent behavior directed
Motivation toward particular goals. i.e.: The influences that
account for the initiation, direction, intensity, and
persistence of behavior.
• A motive is an internal state or set of the
Dr. Ahmed Abdelaziz Ezzat individual which disposes him towards certain
Assistant professor of psychiatry mode of behavior for seeking certain goals (A
Psychiatry department faculty of reason or purpose for behavior). Motives are
medicine- Beni-suif university powerful tools for the explanation of behavior
and they allow us to make predictions about
future behavior.
 Sources of Motivation: Classification of Motives:
• The number of possible motives for human behavior seems
endless, but psychologists have found it useful to organize them
into four somewhat overlapping categories.
• A- Motives can be innate or acquired.
• - First, basic biological factors, such as the need for food and
water.
• -Innate motives are characterized by being:
• - Second, emotional factors are a source of motivation. Panic, fear, • 1- Universal: found in all members of the
anger, love, and hatred can influence behavior ranging from selfless
giving to brutal murder. species.
• - Third, cognitive factors can motivate behavior, People behave in
certain ways—becoming arrogant or timid, for example—partly • 2- Permanent: Found (active or inactive) all
because of these cognitive factors, which include their perceptions
of the world, their beliefs about what they can or cannot do, and the time.
their expectations about how others will respond to them.
• - Fourth, motivation may stem from social factors, including the • 3- Present since birth.
influence of parents, teachers, siblings, friends, television, and
other socio-cultural forces.

B- Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motives:

Classification of Motives:
• Certain acquired (learned) motives:
• There are certain motivating forces that are not innate but • Maslow’s ideas about deficiency motivation
they still act as persisting power responsible to push the were part of his more general view of human
individual to do certain performances. These include general
or individual socio-cultural attitudes, interests and purposes. behavior as reflecting a hierarchy of needs, or
• 1- Attitude: a disposition to act in a certain manner towards motives.
the object, situation or idea.
• 2- Interest: a positive inclination and activity towards certain • Needs at the lowest level of the hierarchy, he
objects, situation or idea.
• 3- Purpose: is the expected result to be obtained and related
said, must be at least partially satisfied before
to the goal. people can be motivated by higher-level goals.
• 4- Sentiment: is a combination of feelings around an object,
situation or idea e.g. love, patriotism or truth.
• However, the separation between innate motive and other
motive is not very well delineated. Classifications of motives
go along different dimensions.

• 2. Safety, such as the need to be cared for as a child and have a
secure income as an adult.
• 3. Belongingness and love, such as the need to be part of
groups.
• a- The need to belong (herd motive): It is said that man is
a social animal by nature. This refers to the fact that man has
some basic need to belong to other human fellows. The circle
of belonging increases from the family to the school or work
society, to the club or political party, to the nation as a whole
and so on.
• b- Need to participate in affectionate sexual and nonsexual
relationships. i.e. Sexual motivation'. Biologically, sexual
motivation depends to a large degree on sex hormones. These
hormones help in organization of the brain and body of
developing people so that they have male or female
characteristics. The activation of sexual motivation in humans
seems to be controlled more by external stimuli and learning
than by sex hormones.
B- Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motives:
• From the bottom to the top of Maslow’s hierarchy, these five motives
are as follows:
• 1. Biological, such as the need for food, water, oxygen, and sleep.
• These motives can be aroused by changes of the balanced or
homeostatic levels of body processes.
• a- Hunger motivation: may be initiated when blood level or rates of
use of nutrient substances or blood sugar and free fatty acids. The
cessation of hunger motivation is related to nutrient receptors in the
stomach which provide step-eating signals and possibly to the release
of a hormone called cholecystokinin.
• The hypothalamus is considered as the brain region important in
regulation of hunger motivation. Hypothalamic centers may be
considered in monitoring the body's fuel supplies, the control of
metabolism and the perception of food related stimuli.
• b- Thirst motivation: thirst is usually aroused by loss of water from
hypothalamic osmo-receptors cellular dehydration and a decrease in
the volume of the blood due to water loss-hypovolemia.
• 4. Esteem, such as the need to be respected as a useful,
honorable individual.
• i.e.: Power motivation, A social motive in which the goals
are to influence, control, lead, charm others and enhance
one's own reputation in the eyes of other people. The
behavioral expression of power motivation takes many forms
such as:
• Impulsive and overtly aggressive actions: This is rather
abnormal except in justified situations such as wartime or
self defense.
• Participation in competitive sports: This sometimes
considered as sublimation of aggression.
• Joining of organizations: Here the power is achieved by
belonging to (& consequently possessing) the power of the
whole group.
• Collection of possessions: Here power is related to the
increased authority and potentiality enabled by the fortune
possessed or money collected.
• Association with people who are not particularly
popular: A part from some gang collection in
the adolescent, this form of satisfying power
motive could lead to eccentric and group
delinquency.
• Choice of occupations which have a high impact
on others. Certain occupations implies in its
nature explicit or implicit authority. Political
leadership is a direct way of expressing power
and in Egypt the physician role still represents
dignified authoritative role.
• Heavy and strenuous sports like weight lifting
boxing or wrestling or even bodybuilding.
Provocation of motives can be done
through:
• Defining the final goal as an ultimate clear purpose.
• Then defining the intermediate goals which will lead
ultimately to the final. The more the goal is near and clear,
the more the motive is strong.
• Establishment of confidant relations between leader and
subordinates related to the common goal.
• Supplying adequate and enough equipment and facilities. A
motive should have some tool and way to be expressed
through.
• Establishment of fair competition (but remember that
exaggerated competition can block motivation)
• Elimination of, interfering motives (or factors). Motives are
often blocked or frustrated by other contradictory
motives, environmental factors, personal factors or conflict.
Elimination of all such factors would provoke the proper
motivation towards certain goals.
• 5. Self-actualization, The need for achievement.
• This is a motive to accomplish things and to be successful
in performing tasks.
• People driven by this motive are persistent in their work,
seek more challenging tasks and like to work in situations
where they have some control over the outcome.
• The level of achievement motivation in a society can
sometimes be related to its economic growth.
• Self actualization need leads to reaching one’s fullest
potential. People motivated by this need explore and
enhance relationships with others; follow interests for
intrinsic pleasure rather than for money, status, or
esteem; and are concerned with issues affecting all
people, not just themselves.
• According to this view, self-actualization is the essence
of mental health.
Motivation in clinical practice:
• It is very important to put in consideration
that the patient has a role in recovery.
• The physician should be keen to arouse
positive interest in health.
• Hope is another motive and is related to some
optimistic attitude of life.
• Motivating a mother to follow health rules for
herself and children is another field where
motivation can work.
thank you
 thinking
is a process whereby we conceptualize,
construct, manipulate and communicate
symbols
The Circle Of Thought

Psychiatry Department
Beni Suef University

According to
Some psychologists study thought processes as
if they part of an Information-processing system nature
Types of
thinking

According to the
According to
degree of
the objects it
conformity with
deals with
reality
A) According to nature:
1-Simple thinking:
It consists of dealing with present objects according to
the meaning, they have acquired in our past
experience.
2-Trial and error thinking:
When you’re faced with a problem, you try to find a
solution. You keep on until a trial is successful.
3-Insight thinking:
We put a hypothesis and try it out.
B) According to the objects it deals with:
1-Egocentric type:
The person relates other objects to oneself.
2-Objective type:
We relate objects to each other.
C) According to the degree of conformity
with reality:
1-Realistic type:
The object of thinking is formed from reality.
2-Idealistic type:
The object of thinking come from what ought to be.
3-Autistic type:
The predominent thought content is wish fulfillment.

Concepts
Concepts are categories of objects, events or
ideas with common properties.
The concept “Bird”
having feathers
laying eggs
being abble to fly
If you have the concepts “whale” and “bird”,
you can decide whether a whale is bigger than a
bird without having either creature in the room
with you.
 2-Natural concepts:
Types of concepts can’t be defined by a fixed set of necessary
1-Formal concepts : features.
can be clearly defined by a set of rules or
properties such that members of the concept
have all the defining properties and
nonmembers don’t.

“Home” can be defined as the place where you

A square can be defined as
were born, the house in which you grew up,
A shape with four equal sides and where you live now, your country of origin, the
four right angle corners place where you are most comfortable.

“Bird” is a natural concept. Propositions

We often combine concepts in units known as
propositions. A proposition is a mental
representation that expresses a relationship
between concepts.
A robin, a chicken, an ostrich and a penguin are
all birds. But a robin is the best example because Heather dumped Jason
it can fly and is closer to the size and shape of
what most people have learned to think of as a Heather dumped Jason
typical bird. A robin,then, is a prototypical bird.
 Schemas
Schemas are generalizations that we develop
about categories of objects, places, events and
people.
Scripts
Scripts are schemas about familiar activities
such as going to a restaurant, visting a doctor’s
office or attending a lecture.

Schemas create expectations about objects,

places, events and people.

Mental models Images

Mental models are representations of particular Mental representations of visual formation. Ex.
situations or arrangements of objects. Hearing a description of your blind date creates
a mental picture of the person.

If a mental model is
incorrect or
incomplete, Cognitive maps
we’re likely to make Mental representations of
mistakes. familiar parts of the world. Ex. You can get to
class by an alternate route even if your usual
route is blocked by construction.
 imagination
1-Imaginative play:
It’s a process of mental manipulation in which
the person recalls memories and rearrange
them into a new pattern.

2-Day dreaming:
It’s a universal phenomenon, The motives behind them
are usually those of mastery and self assertion.
3-Autistic thinking:
Thinking that doesn’t go with the real world. It gratifies
certain desire and isn’t subject to criticism.

We require imagination to produce art and enjoy it. The

appeal of art is partly emotional and partly intellectual.
 Definition:
Attention is the direction and
concentration of perception
towards selected stimuli.

1-selectivity and attraction At the moment many stimuli are

competing for our attention.
2-shifting.
The factors which give advantages to
3-Distraction one stimulus over another in this
4-Fluctuation competition are to be 2-internal
factors.
5-Sustainability.
remembered through watching the
T.V. advertisement.
1-external factors
2-internal factors
help ;;;; would attract more attention
3- changeability: a changing stimulus
is more attractive than a non
changing one .flickering lights
attract attention more than steady
light
1-Intensity of stimulus :a stronger
stimulus is more attractive than a
weak one
2-Repetition of stimulus: a loud sound
repeated many times is more
attractive than a single one
.Repeating the cry.
4-Contrast : the more the contrast
between a figure and background the
more it is attractive.
:5-Unfamiliarity : the unfamiliar stimuli
are attractive .the clown in the street
can attract our attention more than a
fully dressed gentlemen.
6-Combination of sensory stimuli
stimuli reaching more than one
sense organ at the same time attract
attention more than a single one.TV
is supposed to be more attractive
than the radio.
1- General factors:
-sensory fitness (acuity of vision in
visual perception)
-intelligence (the more the individual
is intelligent the more he can be
readily attentive)
7- Combination of factors: stimulus
characterized by more than one of
the above mentioned factors is more
attractive than that influenced by
one factor only.
2-temporary factors:
physical state (feverish patient is less
attentive)
-emotional state (depressed person is
less attentive)
-set (attention is related to what the
individual is ready to perceive).
 2-Exploring : with complex stimulus
One cannot focus his attention of a pattern ,each part is focused at ,one
particular object for an indefinite after another .
time but attention shifts from one
After exploring different parts we
stimulus to another through:
combine them in a whole.
1-Spontaneity: one has a spontaneous
3- Monotony : attention to the same
tendency to shift from one factor to
stimulus for long time gives feeling
another.
.

of uneasiness ,hence attention shifts to
another.
4- Fatigue: the efficiency of a student
studying certain subjects tend to
decrease by time due to fatigue .thus
attention tend to shift away from the
one same subject if it lasts for a long
time.
5-Satisfaction: satisfaction tend to
inhibit continuation of attention.
It is the negative aspect of attention
.Attention here is attracted away
from the original stimulus and turn
to subsidiary passing by the
stimulus.
The attracting foreign stimulus could
be external ,
This refers to the fact that even if we
concentrate on the same subject our
attention waxes and wanes .
like a sound that shifts attention away
from conversation .
It could be internal like the intrusion
of an irrelevant idea that disrupts
the original stream of thoughts and
this is called flight of idea.
This is the opposite aspect of both
shifting ,distraction and fluctuation.
It is need studying .
It refers to the ability to maintain
attention to a particular stimulus for
a long time.
Factors help sustainability: -Inattention

-interest -hyperprosexia
-curiosity -distract ability

Sigmund Freud
University of Vienna 1873
Voracious Reader
Medical School Graduate
Specialized in Nervous
Disorders : Some patients’ disorders
had no physical cause.
(1856-1939)
Dynamic psychology & social
psychology
Dr. Ahmed Abd ELAziz Ezzat
M.D. Psychiatry
Lecturer of Psychiatry
Psychiatry Department
Beni Suef University
2016
Sigmund Freud
• What is the structure and development of
personality, according to Sigmund Freud and his
successors (i.e.,psychoanalysts)?
• According to psychoanalysts, much of behavior is
caused by parts of personality which are found in
the unconscious and of which we are unaware.
• Freud’s 3 levels of awareness/consciousness:
– the conscious mind;
– the preconscious mind; and
– the unconscious mind.
 Psychoanalysis: The
Unconscious
“the mind is like an iceberg - mostly hidden”
Conscious Awareness
small part above surface
(Preconscious)
• Three levels of consciousness:
Unconscious
below the surface
(thoughts, feelings,
wishes, memories)
Repression
Banishing unacceptable
thoughts and passions to
unconscious:
Dreams and Slips
Psychoanalysis:
Freud’s Theory of Personality
– Conscious mind:
things we are
focusing on.
– Preconscious mind:
things are are not
currently aware of
but which we could
focus on.
– Unconscious mind:
that which we are
unaware of.

Psychoanalysis: Freud and Personality Structure

Freud’s Theory of Personality Id - energy constantly striving to satisfy basic drives
Pleasure Principle
• Freud’s theory suggest that personality is composed of
the id, the ego, and the superego.
Ego - seeks to gratify the Id in realistic ways
• id: the unorganized, inborn part of personality whose Reality Principle
purpose is to immediately reduce tensions relating to
hunger, sex, aggression, and other primitive impulses. Super
Ego
• ego: restrains instinctual energy in order to maintain the Ego
safety of the individual and to help the person to be a Super Ego
- voice of conscience
member of society.
that focuses on how
• superego: the rights and wrongs of society and consists we ought to behave
of the conscience and the ego-ideal. Id
 Freud’s Theory:
Freud’s Theory:
“the ID” “the Ego”
• The id uses the most primitive of thinking process.
• Basic biological urges (e.g., hunger, self-protection).
• The id operates on the Pleasure Principle.
– Seeks pleasure and avoids pain:“ I want what I want NOW!” • The ego consists of a conscious faculty for
• The id operates completely at an unconscious level. perceiving and dealing intelligently with reality.
– No direct contact with reality.
• The id has 2 major instincts: • The ego acts as a mediator between the id and
– Eros: life instinct = motivates people to focus on pleasure-
seeking tendencies (e.g., sexual urges). the superego.
– Thanatos: death instinct = motivates people to use
aggressive urges to destroy. – The ego is partly conscious.
• The energy for the id’s instincts comes from the libido, (the – Deals with the demands of reality.
energy storehouse).
– Makes rational decisions.

Freud’s Theory: Freud’s Theory:

“the Ego” “the Superego”
• The ego serves the ID:
– The rational part of personality that maintains contact with • Superego: the moral part of personality.
reality.
– Governed by ‘Reality Principle’ – Internalized rules of parents and society.
• “What consequences are there to my behavior?” • Superego consists of two parts:
• The ego is the Executive of the personality
– Conscience: “notions of right/wrong.”
– The ego controls higher mental processes.
• Reasoning, problem solving. – Ego Ideal: “how we ideally like to be.”
• Autonomus functioning (perception, thinking, learning) • Superego: constrains us from gratifying every impulse (e.g.,
• Impulse and emotion control
murder) because they are immoral, and not because we might
– The ego uses these higher mental processes to help satisfy get caught.
the urges of the ID. • Superego: partly conscious, partly unconscious.
– Defense mechanisms
– object relation : ability to make and maintain relations with
others
 Freud: superego, id, and ego Freud’s Theory of Personality:
• The id, the ego, and the superego are continually in
• According to Freud, an individual’s feelings, conflict with one another.
thoughts, and behaviors are the result of the
• This conflict generates anxiety.
interaction of the id, the superego, and the
• If the ego did not effectively handle the resulting
ego. anxiety, people would be so overwhelmed with
anxiety that they would not be able to carry on with
the tasks of everyday living.
• The ego tries to control anxiety (i.e., to reduce
anxiety) through the use of ego defense mechanisms.

EgoDefense
Defense Mechanisms:
Mechanisms
Ego Defense Mechanisms
Ego Id
• Definition: An defense mechanism is a psychology
When the inner war tendency that the ego uses to help prevent people
gets out of hand, the from becoming overwhelmed by any conflict (and
resulting anxiety) among the id, the ego, and the
result is Anxiety
superego.
• Defense mechanisms operate at an unconscious
Ego protects itself via level:
Defense Mechanisms – We are not aware of them during the time that we
Super are actually using them.
Ego – However, we may later become aware of their
Defense Mechanisms reduce/redirect previous operation and use.
anxiety by distorting reality
 Freud’s Theory:
Defense Mechanisms
• Repression: pushing unacceptable and anxiety-
producing thoughts into the unconscious; involves
intentional forgetting but not consciously done;
repressed material can be memories or unacceptable
impulses.
– A rape victim cannot recall the details of the attack.
• Regression: acting in ways characteristic of earlier life
stages/earlier stage of personality.
– A young adult, anxious on a trip to his parents/ home,
sits in the corner reading comic books, as he often
did in grade school.
Freud’s Theory:
Defense Mechanisms
• Denial: claiming and believing that something which
is actually true is false.
– A person disbelieves that she is age, asserting that
“I am not getting older.”
• Displacement: redirecting emotional feelings (e.g.,
anger) to a substitute target; involves directing
unacceptable impulses onto a less threatening
object/person.
– A husband, angry at the way his boss treated him,
screams at his children.
– Instead of telling your professor what you really
think of her, you tailgate and harass a slow driver
on your way home from school.
Freud’s Theory:
Defense Mechanisms
• Reaction formation: replacing an anxiety-producing
feeling with its exact opposite, typically going
overboard; repressed thoughts appear as mirror
opposites.
– A man who is anxious about his interest in gay men
begins dating women several times a week.
• Rationalization: creating false but believable excuses
to justify inappropriate behavior; real motive for
behavior is not accepted by ego.
– A student cheats on an exam, explaining that
cheating is legitimate on an unfair examination.
Freud’s Theory:
Defense Mechanisms
• Projection: attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings or
beliefs to others; perceiving the external world in terms of
one’s own personal conflicts.
– An employee at a store, tempted to steal some
merchandise, suspects that other employees are stealing.
• Sublimation: substitute socially acceptable behavior for
unacceptable impulses.
• Playing video games instead of getting in a fight.
Suppression :- You are vaguely aware of the thought or
feeling, but try to hide it.
e.g. "I'm going to try to be nice to him."
 Freud’s Theory:
Defense Mechanisms thank you
• Somatization: converting emotional pain or other
affective states into physical symptoms

• Humor: finding comic or ironic elements in difficult

situations to reduce bad and unpleasant affect and
discomfort
 Definition: perception is the process of
giving meaning to a sensation .
We receive signs and percieve meanings.
Signs are of two types :
1- symbols :they are stimuli which stand
for an object.
2- signals: they are stimuli received from
object.

 Factors are divided into those in the  4-Symmetry.

stimulus (figural factors ) and those in
the individual (personal factor).  5-Approximation.
 1- figural factors :
 6-Good continuation
 1- Similarity
 2-Proximity.  7-Competition and cooperation of
 3-Closure grouping tendencies.
 2-personal factors:
1- Mood: our mood influence markedly
our perception.
2-Need: when we are hungry we
selectively perceive odors of foods.
3-Interest: every one perceives what he is
interested in more than any other thing.

4-Mental set 1- Illusion:

5-Habit and familarity: habit is based on It is a false perception of an external
past experience. stimuli.
6-Aesthetic factors: the pleasant figure will 2- Déjà vu phenomenon:
be perceived where an irregular figure Illusion of familarity
will be overlooked. 3-Hallucination :
Mental impressions of sensory vividness
occuring without external stimuli.
1-dreaming and hypnagogic state 1- psychotic disorders.
2-with severe emotions. 2-organic brain diseases.
3-with stimulation of sense organs. 3-temporal lobe epilepsy.

4-sensory depivation. 4-substance intoxication.

 Memory &learning
Memory & learning
 Learning : acquirement of information
By : maha eid
 Memory : retention & storage of
information
 It is the higher brain function

Types of memory Immediate memory

 Retain information for few seconds to few
minutes after sensory signals.
 Usually fades or change into short term
memory.
 Molecular basis :
Reverberating circuits
post tetanic potentiation
 Short term memory Long term memory
 Retain information for several minutes like  Retain information for months , years ,
digits , number & letters. indefinite
 Rapid recall.  Not instantous
 Easily disturbed.  Resist disruption
 Small amount.  Huge amount
 Molecular basis :  Molecular basis :
By formation of temporary memory traces. It is made by formation of memory
Due to synaptic sensitization or long term engrams caused by structural changes at
potentiation. presynaptic terminals

 Long term memory may be : Explicit memory = declarative =

recognition
 Explicitmemory = declarative =  Needs effort to recall information.
recognition  Depends on hippocampus in medial
temporal lobe.
 Recall information in details.
 Implicitmemory = non declarative =  It include most of information as dates
reflexive formulas.
 Types :
 Eposidic memory for events.
 Semantic memory for words rules
language.
 Implicit memory = non declarative
= reflexive
 Unconscious effortless automatic recall of
information
 Doesn't involve hippocampus
 Responsible for learning
 It includes:
 Skills & habits like riding bicycle
 Priming starting of a song & continuation

 Implicit memory can be divided into

A) non associative learning

B) associative learning
 A) non associative learning

 The person learns about single stimulus by either

 Habitation
 gradual loss of response to a begin stimulus

 Sensitization
 it is the opposite reaction
 Increase in response due to aplication of
anicous stimulus to a beginin stimuls

Conditioned reflexes
B) associative learning
 Reflex response to a conditioned stimulus
 The person learns about relation of one like bell ringing beside a dog
stimulus to another
 It includes

 Conditioned reflexes
 Operant reflexes
 Operant reflexes
 The animal is taught to perform a task in
order to obtain a reward
Centers for memory encoding
&storage
 Implicit memory : may be encoded in the
basal ganglia & cerebellar folliculus

 Explicit memory :
Short term memory may be in hippocampus
Long term memory in neocortex or
mygdaloid

Speech centers
 Wernick ( general interpretative
area ).
 Borca area.
 Angular gyrus.
 Visual association area .
 Auditory association area .
Aphasia

 Inability
to produce or understand spoken
or written words
 Type Defect lesion

Auditory aphasia Unable to understand spoken Auditory association area

words

Visual aphasia Unable to understand Visual assocation area

(word blindness ) written words

Wernickes area
(fluent aphasia )
Unable to interpert the
meaning of spoken or written
Wernickes area THANK YOU
words
Meaningless & excessive talk
Borcas area The speech poorly Borac area
( non fluent aphasia articulated
Motor aphasia ) Limited two or three words
Motor apraxia The patient unable to Hand skills area
( agraphia ) express thought in written
words in absence of paralysis