MAT285 (FURTHER MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS)

2020

3 POWER SERIES
3.0 Introduction to Power Series

The general form of an infinite power series is


 a n x =a 0 +a1 x +a 2 x +a 3 x +... +a k x +...
n 2 3 k
n=0


 a n ( x − a) =a 0 +a1 ( x − a) +a 2 ( x − a) +a 3 ( x − a) +...
n 2 3
or
n =0

where n is a positive integer.

The expansion of a function as an infinite power series is an important mathematical

process. Expansion of a given function can be accomplished by the use of Taylor’s,
Maclaurin’s and Binomial series.

3.1 Taylor’s Series

If f(x) is a function of x which can be expanded in a series of positive integral powers of

(x - a), then

f " (a ) f (a)
f ( x ) = f (a) + f ' (a)( x − a) + ( x − a) 2 + ( x − a)3 +...
2! 3!

This is known as the Taylor’s series about the point x = a or the Taylor’s series in
power of (x - a).

By substituting x - a = y  x = a + y, we obtain
f " (a) 2 f (a) 3
f ( y + a ) = f (a ) + f ' (a )y + y + y +...
2! 3!
or f " (a) 2 f (a) 3
f ( x + a ) = f (a ) + f ' (a )x + x + x +...
2! 3!

This is known as the Taylor’s series in power of x or the Taylor’s expansion of

f(x + a).

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Example 1
π
Obtain the first four terms in the expansion of cos x as a power series of (x - ).
4

Example 2
π
Obtain the expansion of sin (x + ) until the terms in x4. Evaluate sin (89 30' ) correct to
2
5 decimal places.

Example 3
Obtain the Taylor’s expansion of the function f(x) = xe-2x as far as the term in (x - 1)3.

Exercise 3.1
π
1. Obtain the first 3 terms of the Taylor’s expansion of tan x in terms of (x - ).
4

2. By Taylor’s expansion, obtain the first four terms of the expansion of e x/2
as a power
series of (x – 2). Use the series to approximate e 1.01 correct to 4 decimal places.

3. Obtain the Taylor’s expansion of the function f(x) = x2 ln x as far as the term in
(x – 1)4. Use this expansion to approximate f(1.1) correct to four decimal places.

π
4. Expand sin 2x as a series of ascending powers (x - ) as far as the third term. Use
6
this series to approximate sin 123o.

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3.2 Maclaurin’s Series

By putting a = 0 in the Taylor series, we obtain the Maclaurin’s series.

f " (0) 2 f (0) 3

f ( x ) = f (0 ) + f ' (0 )x + x + x +...
2! 3!

Maclaurin’s series is a special case of Taylor’s series.

Following are some standard Maclaurin’s series expansion.

i) sin x
f(x) = sin x → f(0) = 0
f ' ( x ) = cos x → f ' (0 ) = 1

f " ( x ) = - sin x → f " (0 ) = 0

f '" ( x ) = - cos x → f '" (0) = -1

f iv ( x ) = sin x → f iv (0) = 0

f v ( x ) = cos x → f v (0 ) = 1

f vi( x ) = - sin x → f vi(0) = 0

f vii( x ) = -cos x → f vii(0) = -1

x3 x5 x7 ( −1)n x 2n+1
Thus, f(x) = sin x = x − + − + ... = 
3! 5! 7! (2n + +1)!

ii) cos x
f(x) = cos x → f(0) = 1
f ' ( x ) = - sin x → f ' (0 ) = 0

f " ( x ) = - cos x → f " (0) = -1

f '" ( x ) = sin x → f '" (0) = 0

f iv ( x ) = cos x → f iv (0) = 1

f v ( x ) = - sin x → f v (0 ) = 0

f vi( x ) = - cos x → f vi(0) = -1

x2 x4 x6 ( −1)n x 2n
Thus, f(x) = cos x = 1 − + − + ... = 
2! 4! 6! (2n)!

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iii) (1 + x)n
f(x) = (1 + x)n → f(0) = 1
f ' ( x ) = n(1 + x)n-1 → f ' (0 ) = n

f " ( x ) = n(n - 1)(1 + x)n-2 → f " (0) = n(n - 1)

f '" ( x ) = n(n - 1)(n - 2)(1 + x)n-3 → f '" (0) = n(n - 1)(n - 2)

n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3

Thus, f(x) = (1+ x)n = 1 + nx + x + x +...
2! 3!
n(n − 1)...(n − r + 1) r
=  x
r!
This is known as the binomial series.

iv) ex
f(x) = ex → f(0) = 1
f ' ( x ) = ex → f ' (0 ) = 1

f " ( x ) = ex → f " (0 ) = 1

f ' " ( x ) = ex → f ' " (0 ) = 1

1 2 1 3 xn
Thus, f(x) = ex = 1 + x + x + x +... = 
2! 3! n!
This is the exponential series.

v) ln (1 + x)
f(x) = ln (1 + x) → f(0) = 0
1
f ' (x) = → f ' (0 ) = 1
1+ x
1
f " (x) = - → f " (0) = -1
(1 + x) 2
2
f ' " (x) = → f ' " (0 ) = 2
(1 + x) 3
−6
f ' v ( x) = → f iv (0) = -6
(1 + x) 4

x2 x3 x4 x2 x3 x4 ( −1)n x n+1
Thus, f(x) = ln (1 + x) = x - +2 −6 + ... = x - + − + ... = 
2! 3! 4! 2 3 4 n +1

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Example 4
Obtain the Maclaurin expansion of x e −2 x as far as the term in x4.

Example 5
Find the Maclaurin’s series of f(x) = x2ex as the term containing x4. Hence, estimate
1
2 x
 x e dx correct to three decimal places.
0

Example 6
Obtain the Maclaurin’s expansion of ln (1 + cos x) as far as the term in x4.

Exercise 3.2
1+ x 
1. Express the Maclaurin’s series for ln   . Find the value of x which satisfies the
1− x 
1+ x  3 3
equation   = . Then find the value of ln   correct to 3 decimal places.
1− x  2 2

2. Derive the first four terms of Maclaurin’s series for ln (1 + x).

a) Using the series above, write the eepansion for ln (x2 + 2x +1).
ln( x 2 + 2x + 1)
b) Hence, estimate 01 dx .
x
1
−
3. Obtain the Maclaurin’s expansion of (1 − x ) 2 as far as the term in x3. Hence,
1 1
estimate 03 dx .
1− x
1
4. a) Write out the first 4 nonzero terms in Maclaurin’s series for sin x.
2
1
b) Differentiate the series to obtain Maclaurin’s series for cos x.
2
1 1
c) Given that 1+ sin x = sin x + cos x , obtain Maclaurin’s expansion for
2 2
1+ sin x .

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3.3 Binomial Series

In this final section of this chapter, we are going to look at anther series representation
for a function. Before we do this, let’s first recall the following theorem.

Binomial Theorem
If n is any positive integer, then
n
n
(a + b)n =   i a
i=0
n−i
bi

n(n − 1) n−2 2
= a n +na n−1 b + a b +... + nab n−1 +b n
2!
where
 n  n(n − 1)(n − 2)...(n − i + 1)
  = , i = 1, 2, 3, …, n
i i!
n
= Ci

n
and   = 1.
0

This is useful for expanding (a + b)n for large n when straight forward multiplication
wouldn’t be easy to do. Let’s take a quick look at an example.

Example 7
Use the Binomial Theorem to expand (2x – 3)4.

Now, the Binomial Theorem required that n be a positive integer. There is an extension
to this however that allows for any number at all.

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Binomial Series

If 0< n < 1, then


n
(1 + x)n =   i x
i=0
i

n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3

= 1 + nx + x + x +...
2! 3!
where
 n  n(n − 1)(n − 2)...(n − i + 1)
  = , i = 1, 2, 3, …, n
i i!
n
= Ci

n
and   = 1.
0

So similar to the binomial theorem except that it’s an infinite series and we must have
|n| < 1in order to get the convergence.

Lets check out an example of this.

Example 8

Write down the first four terms in the binomial series for where 9 − x .

Example 9
Given the binomial series for
k(k − 1)x 2 k(k − 1)(k − 2)x 3
(1 + x)k = 1 + kx + + +…
2! 3!

a) Find the first four terms of the binomial series for 1− 3x .

b) Hence, estimate the value of 0.97 , correct to four decimal places.

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Exercise 3.3
1. Expand :
a) (x2 + 3)6 b) (2x – 5y)7
2. Find the fourth term in the expansion of (3x – 2)10.
3. Find the middle term in the expansion of (4x – y)8.
4. Find the first four terms of the binomial series for the following:
1
a) 1− 2x b)
(2 − x) 2

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