1.

Properties of Fluids (Water unless specified)

Shear Stress – key to defining a fluid: a substance that

deforms continually when subjected to shear stress no
matter how small

A⋅U F U
F=μ⋅ ; τ= =μ⋅ (rate of angular deformation)
t A t

du
τ=μ (Newton’s Law of Viscosity)
dz
Viscosity:  = dynamic viscosity (proportionality constant for
Newtonian fluid): Newtonian: Water, Air, Oil
−3 N⋅s
μ=0 .7×10 2 @ 35º
m
−3
μ=0 .8×10 @ 30º
−3
μ=0 .9×10 @ 25º (no name for SI unit of Viscosity)

Density (mass per unit volume):

kg
ρ=994 3 @ 35º
m
ρ=996 @ 30º
ρ=997 @ 25º
Vl
Kinematic Viscosity (used in ℜ= ):
υ
2
μ −6 m
υ= =0.7×10 @ 35º
ρ s
−6
=0. 8×10 @ 30º
−6
=0. 9×10 @ 25º

Specific Weight (weight per unit volume):

N
γ=9806 3 @ 0º  use 9.8 kN3
m m
=9778 @ 25º
=9764 @ 30º
γ ρs
Specific Gravity of a substance: G s= s =
γw ρw
e.g. Gconcrete = 2.65, Gmercury= 13.6, Galcohol= 0.79, GCCl = 1.59
4

Vapor Pressure: Molecules escape from surface and form

partial pressure in space above. At 100 oC, water has a
vapor pressure of 101,325 Pa which is the standard atm.
pressure. At 20 oC, it is 2,451 Pa (e.g. cavitation).
Surface Tension (): Work per unit area needed to maintain
liquid surface. Water at ambient pressure of 1 atm and
20 oC,  = 0.074 N/m, while at 100 oC,  = 0.059 N/m. In a
droplet, internal pressure is increased by surface tension.
In a hemispherical free body:

2σ p
pr = 2r or
2
p=  
r

In a small cylindrical water jet, pressure is obtained by

hoop tension: p(2r) =  +  or p   r

Capillarity: Wetting fluid (e.g. H20) adheres to solid; non-

wetting fluid (e.g. Hg) has stronger cohesion than
adhesion. Rise or fall in circular glass tubes:

Capillarity is important in unsaturated zone groundwater

flow. Most plant roots are in this zone.
dp
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (Compressibility): K=−
d∀
∀
i.e. a unit volume of liquid will compress by d when
subjected to a pressure change of dp, e.g. for water at
20 oC and 1 atm, K = 2.2 Gpa.
Thermodynamic Relationships
Heat Content in a volume : QH = cpT in J (N·m)
where cp = Sp. Heat at Constant Pressure; T in K (oC+273)
Ideal Gas: cp = c v + R ; k = cp/cv (ratio of sp. heats)
where R is gas constant; e.g. at 26.67 oC for air, R = 287,
cp = 1.004 and cv = 0.716 kJ/kg·K; and for water vapor,
R = 462, cp = 1.863 and cv = 1.403 kJ/kg·K
Enthalpy: h = u** + p/ where u** (Intrinsic Energy) is
energy per unit mass due to molecular activity, which
depend on T, p, and .
Perfect Gas: p = RT (combines Charles’ and Boyle’s Laws)
Atmosphere: Air: M = 29; R = 287; Std. Atm. = 101,325 Pa.
T = T0 + βz; β = -0.00651 K/m (Std. Atm. Lapse Rate)
p = RT  p = R(T0 + βz);

from p = h = -gz: dp = -gdz  ∫ dp p=− Rg ∫ Tγ+dzβz

0

g
p
p0 ( )
= 1+
βz
T0
βR

p0
Examples: with ρ0 = ; at sea level p0=101,325 Pa:
RT
At 30oC=303 K: 0 = 1.165 kg/m3
At 500 masl: p = 95,744 Pa; T = 303+ βz = 299.7 K = 26.75oC
 = 1.113 kg/m3
At 1000 masl: p = 90,415 Pa; T = 303+ βz = 296.5 K = 23.5oC
 = 1.063 kg/m3
At 25oC=298 K: 0 = 1.185 kg/m3
20oC=293 K: 0 = 1.205 kg/m3