ETHICS
THE NORMATIVE ETHICS
MORAL THEORIES AND MORAL
FRAMES
3 MAIN COMPONENT AREAS
IN THE INQUIRY OF OF
PHILOSOPHICAL ETHICS
META-ETHICS
● “Meta” is a Latin term which means
after or beyond. Meta-ethics thus
implies a removed or bird’s eye view
of the entire topic of ethics.
● Meta-ethics as a study of the nature
and meaning of ethical concepts as
it searches for the origins or causes
of right and wrong.
● Two issues involved in the study of
meta-ethics, these are:
○ Metaphysical issues
concerning whether morality
exists independently among
humans
○ Psychological issues
concerning the underlying
mental basis of our moral
judgments and conduct
THE APPLIED ETHICS
● The term refers to the application of
normative ethics.
● It proposes that right and wrong can
be found within scenarios and in
particular issues of practical
concerns
● Examples are: bioethics, social
ethics, environmental ethics,
business ethics, christian ethics,
among others.
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● Normative Ethics is the study of
ethical actions.
● It investigates the set of questions
that arise when considering how one
ought to act, morally speaking
● Thus, entails two general concepts:
The concept of right and the
concept of morally good.
THE MORALLY RIGHT ACTION
● The concept of right is usually
reserved to actions which we ought
to perform as right actions and we
ought not to perform as wrong
actions.
● The concept is also known as the
theory of right action which
investigates the question “what
ought I to do?” while the notion of
ought to refers to the rightness or
proprietary of actions
THE MORALLY GOOD
● The concept of morally good refers
to the states of human character that
are desirable, worthy, or morally
good
● This includes the motives or
intentions
● Thus, based on these central
concepts, the normative ethical
system can be broken down into
three categories
(1) Deontological,
(2) Teleological, and
(3) Virtue Ethics
DEONTOLOGICAL
● The word deontology is derived from
the Greek words for duty (deon) and
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science (logos) or the study of logos.
Moral choices are understood in the
light of moral duties and what correct
rules exist to regulate those duties.
● The theory considers an action to be
morally good because of some
characteristic of the action itself, not
because the product of the action is
good.
● Ex. Cheating is wrong because
○ You look at the nature of the
actions based on the duty to
perform.
TELEOLOGICAL
● The word teleology comes from the
Greek roots telos, which means
“end”, and logos which means
“science”
● Thus, teleology is the “science of
ends”. Teleological moral systems
focus on the consequences of any
action. This is why this ethical theory
is often referred to as a
consequentialist moral system
● Usually, the correct consequences
are those which are most beneficial
to humanity - they may promote
human happiness, human pleasure,
human satisfaction, human survival,
or simply the general welfare of all
humans
● It is believed that those
consequences are intrinsically good
and valuable, and that is why actions
which lead to those consequences
are moral while actions which lead
away from them are immoral.
● Ex. Cheating is wrong because I
don’t want to fail.
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○ You look at the
consequences and purpose
of the action.
VIRTUE ETHICS
● The virtue ethics, focuses on the
issue of what moral character of an
individual is desirable or
praiseworthy.
● It is known as such because virtues
are the most desirable traits or
characters humans must have.
● These character traits will, in turn,
allow a person to make the correct
decisions in life. Virtue theorists also
emphasize the need for people to
learn how to break bad habits of
character like greed and anger.
These are called vices and stand in
the way of becoming a good person.
● Thus, ethics is the study of right and
wrong, the act of making decisions,
and the nature of the agent who
makes the decision
M11: LEARNING CHECK
T I submit my projects on time
because I want to get good grades.
D I voted wisely in the last election
because I am committed to my role
as a citizen of the country.
T I want to graduate with honors so
that I can get a job with good pay.
T I treat mankind as an end because I
want to be treated the same way.
D I take care of my patients because I
am a doctor by profession.
D I study my lessons because
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studying is a good act.
D I do not cheat during exams
because cheating is forbidden.
D I pay my taxes because it is my
socio-political obligation.
VE I follow my parents because I am
an obedient child.
T I always listen to my professors
during discussions because I want
to perfect my exams.
VE I found courage in my faith in telling
the truth.
D/ I go to church every Sunday
VE because I am a devout Christian.
D I tell the truth before the judge
because I am under oath
VE I am tolerant to mistakes being
human.
T I obey my school authorities
because I don't want to be
reprimanded
D/ I always come to school on time
VE because I am punctual.
VIRTUE ETHICS AND THE NATURAL
LAW ETHICS
WHY DO THE RIGHT THING?
● “Because doing the right things is
essential for me to achieve
happiness which is the highest goal
(eudaimonia)” [Virtue Ethics,
Aristotle]
● I am following the human nature
God gave me for me to achieve my
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highest goal, happiness: beatitudo”
[Natural Law Ethics, Thomas
Aquinas]
● Because it is my duty…
[Deontological Ethics, Immanuel
Kant]
● Because it is what is fair and
equitable…. [Justice as Fairness,
John Rawls]
WHO IS ARISTOTLE?
● An ancient Greek philosopher and
scientist born in the city of Stagira,
384 BC
● A student of Plato, he joined Plato’s
Academy in Athens until the age of
thirty-seven (c. 347 BC)
● Teacher of Alexander the Great
beginning in 343 BC.
● Established his school, Lyceum
● He left Athens after Alexander’s
death in 323 BC
● He died in Euboea, 322 BC.
NICOMACHEAN ETHICS
● Aristotle’s theory is teleological in
nature
● Telos means goals, ends, or
purpose
● Eudaimonia (happiness) is the
highest goal (telos) of human life,
one which is final, self-sufficient, and
attainable in one’s life
● The Highest good (eudaimonia) is
achieved if a human being is able to
perform his/her ergon (function) in
an excellent way.
● Thus, human virtue is the excellent
use of one’s reason throughout
one’s life
● Money, power, physical beauty are
only instrumental good because
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they are desired for the sake of
something else
● The intrinsic good is the supreme
end of every act. The good that is
desired for the sake of itself. This is
what we call Happiness.
● Aristotle said, “man’s good lies in his
function”. Man in his whole nature
has a function natural to him as a
man.
● The 2 ergons (funcion):
○ (1) non-rational nature
(appetitive, vegetative);
○ (2) rational nature (intellect
and character).
WHAT IS MORAL VIRTUE
● There are two kinds of human virtue:
○ (1) Moral Virtue
○ (2) Intellectual Virtue
● Intellectual virtue refers to the faculty
to which man is able to do what he
ought to do, it has two kinds :
○ (1) philosophical wisdom
(sophia);
○ (2) practical wisdom
(phronesis)
● Philosophic wisdom which consists
of the life of contemplation is
superior to practical wisdom
● Moral Virtue is being able to be one
ought to be.
● Moral virtue is the state of character,
concerned with a choice lying in a
mean (mesotes), determined by the
rational principle by which a man o
practical wisdom (sage/wise) would
determine it (Arete or virtue)
● Moral Virtue is the habitual use of
reason to choose the mean
(mesotes) in actions and passions,
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between the two extremes/evils of
excesses and deficiencies
● Ex. For it to be in the middle, there
has to be something beside it. The
middle is virtuous, while both ends
are evils or extremes.
● The excesses or extremes are
dependent on the situation.
ARISTOTLE, NICOMACHEAN ETHICS
(384-322 BCE)
● The Golden Mean: do just the right
thing, do not do too much or too little
● Morality is a practical matter - it
involves action:
○ “By doing just acts the just
man is produced…”
EUDAIMONIA & BEATITUDO
● Aristotle: highest good is HAppiness
● Final happiness consists only in the
Perfect Good - which is God.
Because only God is the perfect
Goodness.
● So, the last end of happiness
consists in Beatitude, it is a
supernatural union with God.
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THE CARDINAL VIRTUES
● The cardinal virtues are indicative of
human goodness. These are:
prudence, justice, temperance and
courage
● Prudence is the kind of intellectual
aptitude that enables us to make
judgments that are consonant with
our proper end, the human good
○ Those excellence include
memory, intelligence, docility,
shrewdness, reason,
foresight, circumspection,
and caution.
● Temperance has a twofold
meaning:
○ A kind of modernization
common to every moral
virtue;
○ It concerns the moderation of
physical pleasures
● Courage is a virtue that restrains the
desire for that which is difficult to
attain or avoid (irascible appetite)
○ A courageous person displays
the following traits: endurance,
magnificence, patience, and
perseverance.
● Justice governs our relationship
with others
○ It denotes a sustained or
constant willingness to
extend to each person what
he or she deserves
○ It is a general virtue that
concerns not individual
benefits but community
welfare.
FINALS l SEMESTER 1
THE THREE KINDS OF LAW
ETERNAL LAW
● Eternal Law is made by God through
his omnipotence for all things and
promulgated by dispositions
ordained to them.
● The world is led by the DIvine
providence., hence the whole
communities governed by the divine
reason
● A law is a dictate of practical reason
emanating from the ruler who
governs a perfect community
NATURAL LAW
● Natural law is the moral law made by
God through his goodness for man
as rational creatures and made
known by human nature
● The rational creature is subject to
Divine Providence… as it partakes a
share of providence, it has a share
of Eternal Reason… having,
therefore, the natural inclinations for
its proper acts and ends. (ability to
foresee and discern the good, the
highest good, and the perfect good -
which is God)
POSITIVE LAW
● Positive law is the civil law made by
men in the society through political
legislation for themselves and
promulgate by public
pronouncements.
● A law that is dictated through
practical reason… and
speculations…
● Positive law is a product of human
reason that leads to specific and
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particular demonstrations of certain
subject matters
THE ORDER OF NATURAL
INCLINATION
[St. Thomas Aquinas]
THE NATURE OF PRESERVATION OF
LIFE
● Because in man either is first of all
an inclination to good in
accordance with the nature which he
has in common with all
substances: in as much as ever
substance seeks the preservation of
its own being, according to its
nature; and by reason of this
inclination, whatever is a means of
preserving human life, and of
warding off its obstacles, belongs to
the natural law.
NATURE OF MAN & ANIMALS
● Secondly, there is in man an
inclination to things that pertain to
him more especially, according to
that nature which he has in
common with other animals; and
in virtue of this inclination those
things are said to belong to natural
law. “which nature has taught to all
animals”.
NATURE OF MAN’S REASON
● Thirdly, there is in man an
inclination to good, according to
the nature of his reason, which
nature is proper to him: thus, man
has natural inclination to know
FINALS l SEMESTER 1
about God, and to live in society;
and in this respect, whatever
pertains to this inclination belongs to
the natural law; for instance, to shun
ignorance, to avoid offending those
among whom one has to live, and
other such things regarding the
above inclination.
● Natural Law is the way for man to
reach the highest and final end,
giving glory to God.
● Since God is good, it follows that
man ought to do good to be able to
glorify him. Man is ordained by his
own nature to do good acts that
would bring him ultimately to the
glory of God.
● At a very general level, then, a law is
a precept that serves as a guide to
and measure of human action
● Thus, whether an action is good will
depend on whether it conforms to
or abides by the relevant law.
KANT AND THE RIGHT THEORISTS
IMMANUEL KANT
● A german philosopher
● Born in Konigsberg, East Prussia
● Has written among other things,
Critique of Pure Reason (1781), ThE
Fundamental principles of/
Foundations of Groundworks of
Grounding of Metaphysics of Morals
(1785), Critique of Practical Reason
(1788), and Critique of Judgement
(1790).
KANT’S MORAL THEORY
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● Knowledge of morality is not
aposteriori but apriori because it
concerns the imperative of how man
ought to behave.
○ Aposteriori → based on
experience (ex. I don’t lie
because I had a
consequence before).
○ Apriori → based on
understanding, consistent in
a sense (ex. We don’t need
to kill to know it’s immoral.)
● Morality is deontological. ‘Deon’ is
Greek for duty.
● Moral acts are “good-in-themselves”
→ not because they cause good
consequences, not because of
emotions.
UNDERSTANDING THE GOOD WILL
● “Nothing can possibly be conceived
in the world which can be called
good without qualifications, EXCEPT
good will.”
GOOD WILL
● Good is inferior to good will. Good
will refers to an action that will
always have intrinsic good values.
● Good will is not about “gifts of
nature” nor qualities ie. talents,
intelligence, wit, courage,
perseverance, liberality.
● Good will is not about “gifts of
fortune” ie. power, richness, honor,
wealth, happiness.
● Good will is good - not because of
the effects or consequences.
● A good will is good because it is
done out of duty. BUT...
FINALS l SEMESTER 1
● Actions that only accord with duty- if
ode out of inclination or self-interest,
are merely “praiseworthy” due to:
○ An inclination (one’s
orientation towards
something) / tendencies may
be natural or inherent, ie.
feelings of pity, joy, fear
○ Cultivated reactions shaped
by family upbringing or
religious background
○ Self-interest refers to benefits
accrued to oneself (awards,
recognition, esteem, etc)
ACTIONS THEREFORE CAN BE:
● Morally “good”/ valuable: if done for
the sake of duty.
● Morally “bad”: is done in direct
opposition to duty.
● Morally “neutral”: not in direct
opposition to duty, not for the sake of
duty, but still not in accordance with
duty.
● Morally “praiseworthy” : (no inner
worth), if in accord with duty, it is
based on some other reasons.
○ Considers professional
duties
KANT’S ETHICAL PROPOSITIONS
● An act must be done from duty in
order for it to have inner worth
● An act done from duty derives its
moral worth, not from the purpose,
but from the maxim by which it is
determined.
○ Maxim refers to the principle
(general rule) of volition, i.e.
will, one’s power of choice.
→ Ex. If the doctor opens the
door to other people beyond
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his role as a doctor (because
he really wants to help).
→ Dependent on the
intention of the action (you
recognize your moral
obligations)
● Duty is the necessity of acting from
respect for the law.
○ Linked to the Moral Law
KANT’S THEORY
● Categorical imperative is in the
form of unconditional directive or
command (objective maxim), as
opposed to hypothetical imperative
wherein act is needed only as it the
means to an end (subjective maxim)
○ Authority does not come from
another person.
○ The act itself commands you
do the precise act because
that act is good will itself.
○ All good acts we know are in
a form of a command. →
They are good in
themselves.
● On the contrary,
○ Command applies authority.
(Ex. Parents, Teachers,
School Administration, etc.)
○ The command is the precise
act to be done.
HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATIVE VS.
CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
HYPOTHETICAL CATEGORICAL
If you want to pass, then
Study.
you study.
If you want a career, Work hard.
then work hard.
FINALS l SEMESTER 1
If you want to have a Respect others.
good relationship, then
respect others.
If you want a degree, Seek
then pursue knowledge. knowledge.
If you want A, then do B. Do B.
dobedobedo :)))
KANT’S CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
(The Three Formulations of Kant)
FIRST FORMULATION
● (1) Act only on that maxim whereby
you can at the same time will that it
should become a universal law.
(Principle of Universality)
○ The fundamental reason why
I do an act is the idea that
everyone must follow.
○ The maxim that I accept in
doing the act is equally
acceptable to all.
● Ex. Is the act of giving worth doing?
→ Apply the principle of universality.
○ Maria received an apple from
Marites. Maria gave a
banana to Gian. Gian had
mango and gave it to Louie.
[The act of giving was
perceived good and is
therefore being done by
others.]
SECOND FORMULATION
● (2) Act to treat humanity, whether in
your own person or in that of any
other, in every case as an end in
itself, not as means only.
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○ The principle of humanity as
an end-in-itself, people as
end-in-themselves, their
good will is unconditional
○ Other human beings are
rational beings too, hence,
they have their purpose or
telos.
● The best way to treat others is to put
yourself in the shoes of who you
consider as “others”
THIRD FORMULATION
● (3) Act so that your will is what
makes a universal law. (Principle of
Autonomy)
○ The moral law must come
from oneself, oneself is the
law-maker/legislator.
○ Autonomy comes from the
Greek: autos: “self” + nomos:
“lawl”; as opposed
○ Heteronomy: heteros: “other,
different” + nomos: “law”
○ Man is both the creator ( as a
rational being) and an
essential ground (as an end)
of morality: this emphasizes
man’s supreme value.
● When you decide to act upon it, you
decided that it is a law for you.
● Laws are performed all the time and
applied to all.
● This brings an act to become a
universal law. → It is being willed by
the person.
● Good Will → Law [Willed by the
person] → To be followed
PERFECT AND IMPERFECT DUTIES
Kant thinks that there are two different kinds
of contradictions.
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1. Perfect Duty. The maxim cannot
even be thought of as a universal
law of nature without contradiction.
Maxim which fail the test for this
reason give rise to perfect duties.
2. Imperfect Duty. The maxim can be
conceived as a universal law of
nature, but it would be contradictory
to will such a maxim were it a
universal law. Maxim which fails the
test for this reason gives rise to
imperfect duties.
In short…
● A perfect duty is one which one
must always do, while
● An imperfect duty is a duty which
one must not ignore but admits of
multiple means of fulfillment
THE TWO IMPERFECT DUTIES
● The duty to aid others
● The duty of self-improvement
● Thus, they are imperfect duties since
they are not constant obligations, but
they remain obligations.
Defend why the following acts fail the test
for categorical imperative. Cite the perfect
duty that aries:
● Suicide due to misfortune.
● False promises.
● Indulgence to pleasure and
enjoyment.
● Not to help those in need.
● Not to return expensive lost items.
Obligations and acts → needed to be
done
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PLEASURE AND UTILITARIANISM
THE HEDONISM
● Pleasure (and avoidance of pain) is
the central focus of morality of
human acts for the hedonists and
utilitarians
● Hedos: Greek word for “pleasure”
● It is a philosophy of human life which
believes that man exists in this world
only for the sake of personally
experiencing pleasure
● Pleasure → “sarap”
TWO TYPES OF HEDONISM
● Physical Body → inclined to
pleasure, avoid pain
● Extreme Hedonism (Arristipus):
Req: duration and intensity (active
pleasure)
● Pleasure is an intense and temporal
bodily satisfaction and it is
experienced by a person by means
of active sensation. Hence, pleasure
is the only intrinsic good.
● Moderate Hedonism (Epicurus):
The Real Pleasure requires peace of
mind. (absence of pain)
● Real Pleasure results from the
experience of moderation decided
by the mind.
● The wisdom and capacity to control
oneself is the virtue of prudence.
Prudent persons understand the
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future outcomes of their momentary
facts.
● Real Pleasures are acts of prudence
that result to the negative pleasure→
the passive acceptance of not
experiencing any pain
UTILITARIAN PRINCIPLE
● The principle that puts community
welfare over personal caprice is the
basis of the ethical theory called
utilitarianism. → Communal Welfare
● It is about the moral theory that
holds that the morally right action,
the act that borne out of a moral duty
to do, is the one that will (probably)
maximize “utility” (happiness,
welfare, well-being)
TWO TYPES OF UTILITARIANISM
● Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) was
the founder of Utilitarianism
● Quantitative Utilitarianism assumes
that the ethical value of any act is
determined by means of computing
its capacity to either increase
pleasure or decrease pain.
● Bentham on Principle of Utility:
“which approves or disapproves of
every action whatsoever, according
to the tendency which it appears to
have to augment of diminish the
happiness of the party whose
interest is in question: or, what is the
same thing, in other words, to
promote or to oppose that happiness
7 CIRCUMSTANCES ACCORDING TO
BENTHAM (Basis of Calculating
Pleasure)
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1. [From Arristipus] Intensity which Pleasure is “qualified” into:

means the sharpness or dullness
of impression the act brings
2. [From Arristipus] Duration refers to
whether the experience lasts for
longer or shorter period of time
3. Certainty of the act involve the
greater possibility of it to result into
pleasurable experience
4. Propinquity concerns the
immediate pleasurable effect of
the act rather than the one that
would come later.
5. Fecundity is the capacity of the act
t produce further pleasure in the
future
6. Purity of the act which is its ability
to deliver consistent pleasure that
may not result in pain.
7. Extent that refers to the number of
persons affected by the act.
(1) Higher Pleasure
● Derived from moral pleasures and
intellectual pleasures
(2) Lower Pleasure:
● Derived from sensual pleasures
● Qualitative utilitarianism asserts that
it is not the act and its end that
matters more in the real nature of
pleasure or pain but the dignity of
the human agent who is affected by
it.
MODULE 12A & 12B [CANVAS]
Human Law Our experiences in
practical matters will allow
us to improve this law
Philosophical What is the characteristic
of the school, the Lyceum,
that is Aristotle founded

Alexander He was the famous

● John Stuart Mill’s Qualitative the Great political leader and
Utilitarianism: the experience of student of Aristotle.
pleasure and pain is qualitative
By practice According to virtue ethics,
because it emphasizes the character how do we acquire virtue?
and condition of the subject, rather
than the quantitative which focuses Conscience In Natural law, this is the
on the object of the act. guide in making moral
● It is the creed which accepts as the decisions
foundation of morals… the Greatest Arete The greek word for virtue
Happiness Principle [which] holds
that actions are right in proportion as Ethikos The common term that
they tend to promote happiness, describes teleological and
wrong as they tend to produce the deontological ethical
theories
reverse of happiness. By the
happiness is intended pleasure, and University of In this University, Thomas
the absence of pain; by unhappiness Naples Aquinas decided to
pain, and the privation of pleasure” embrace the Dominican
Order
TWO KINDS OF PLEASURES (MILL)

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ETHICS
The How did Thomas Aquinas
Philosopher refer to Aristotle
Those who In the Beatitudes, who are
submit to the “poor” and the “meek”
God’s
authority
Doctor Thomas Aquinas earned
Angelicum this title because of his
knowledge, especially in
theology, and was already
respected as a universal
principle
Eudaimonia This is the Greek word
that usually translated to
happiness
Prudence Our experiences in
practical matters will allow
us to improve this law.
Benedictive This was the derive of
Abbot Thomas Aquinas’ parents
for him to be
Inward In “Blessed are the pure
Holiness in heart, for they will see
God, what is being
emphasized?
Matthew and There are two books in
Luke the Bible where the
famous story of Jesus'
Sermon in mount
appeared declaring the
beauty of blessing.
Eudaimonism This theory holds that
ethics in some function or
activity appropriate to
man as a human being,
tend to emphasize the
cultivating virtue…
Justice What cardinal virtue of St.
Aquinas that claims
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“religion is a virtue since it
involves offering God his
due honor”
Plato He was an Ancient
philosopher who
discussed the four key
virtues: wisdom,
courage,temperance and
justice
Virtue Ethics It is a quest to understand
and live a life of a moral
character.
CLANED [PART 2, MODULE 1]
Metaphysical One of the issues in
Metaethics which
concerns whether
morality exists
independently among
humans.
Professional The term refers to a field
of ethics that deals with
ethical questions specific
to profession, discipline,
or practical realms.
Normative It Investigate the set of
questions that arise when
considering how we
ought to act and how we
ought to be be
Bioethics This type of applied is the
study of the ethical and l
implications of new
implications of new
biological discoveries
and biomedicamoral
Social ethics A type of apple ethics
which concerns direct
dealing with people, and
standards of behavior so
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as not to harm others
Business This type of applied ethic
ethics examines ethical rules
and principles with a
commercial context
Meta ethics This approach in applied
ethics does not begin
with theory, rater it starts
with the immediate facts
of a real and concrete
case
Psychological An issue in the
ethics Metaethics which entails
a psychological
involvement (mental and
emotional) in the
apprehension of moral
concepts.
Concept of A central in the normative
right Ethics which usually
reserved to actions that
we ought to perform as
right actions and we
ought not to perform as
wrong actions
Social ethics This component area is
concerned with the
questions
JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS
THE CONCEPT OF JUSTICE
● It is a theory (philosophical and
legal) by which fairness is
administered
● Plato: Justice is a command from
God
● John Locke: justice is derived from
natural law.
FINALS l SEMESTER 1
● Social Contract theorists: It is
about the mutual agreement of
everyone concerned.
● John Stuart Mill: It is about
something that has the best
consequences (maximity of
happiness)
● Egalitarians: justice exists only in
the context of equality
● John Rawls: (Distributive) Justice is
a form of fairness.
CATEGORIES OF JUSTICE
COMPENSATORY JUSTICE
● Refers to the extent to which people
are fairly compensated for their
injuries by those who have injured
them; just compensation is
proportional
● Concerns the fairness when
restoring to a person what the
person lost when he or she was
wronged by someone else.
● There is no absolute rule as to
determining the amount of
compensation the wrongdoer owes
to the victim.
● It is difficult to restore the
sentimental value of objects.
● Not all things can be compensated
→ for Life, Eyesight, etc.
● Compensation → Money
PROCEDURAL JUSTICE
● Issues of procedural justice concern
the fairness of how information is
gathered of how a decision is made
(fairness in the imposition of
punishment and penalties); also
known as retributive justice
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ETHICS
● Substantive Due Process →
questions on the application of the
law (based on the evidence
presented)
● Procedural Due Process →
Concerned with how information is
gathered and how a decision is
made
○ If procedural justice is not
met, then the person will not
be found guilty.
● 3 Conditions in Procedural Justice
○ Knowledge about the issue
○ The certitude that the person
was the one who did the
wrong act
○ Punishment: consistent and
proportionate to the wrong
act
DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE
● Issues of distributive justice concern
the fairness of the distribution of
something among several people or
groups.
● 5 Theories of Distributive Justice
1. Justice as Equality:
(Egalitarianism)
○ All burdens and benefits
should be distributed
according to the formula:
○ “Every person should be
given exactly equal shares of
a society’s or a group’s
benefits and burdens.”
2. Justice based on Contribution:
(Capitalism)
○ Capitalist Justice says:
“benefits should be
distributed according to the
value of the contribution the
FINALS l SEMESTER 1
individual makes to a society,
a task, a group, or an
exchange”
3. Justice based on Needs and
Abilities: (Socialism)
○ “Work burden should be
distributed according to
people’s abilities, and (but)
benefits should be distributed
according to people’s needs.”
○ Acts 2:45, 11:29, “from each
according to his ability to
each according to his needs.”
○ It is very applicable at home.
4. Justice as Freedom:
(Libertarianism)
○ “From each according to
what he chooses to do, to
each according to what he
makes for himself and what
others choose to give him of
what they’ve been given
previously and have not yet
expanded or transferred.”
5. Justice as Fairness
○ The distribution of benefits
and burdens in a society is
just, if, and only if:
○ (1) each person has an equal
right to the most extensive
basic liberty compatible iht
similar liberties;
○ (2) Social and economic
inequalities are arranged so
that they are both (a) to the
greatest benefits of the last
advantages people and (b)
attached to offices and
positions open to all under
conditions of FAIR and
EQUALITY of opportunities.
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ETHICS FINALS l SEMESTER 1

○ Ex. Rich or poor, you have

from saving account
equal access to education.
Keeping a log of business Avoidance
expenses

Claiming children to have Evasion

been paid for work that
MANDATED TOPIC: TAXATION they did not perform.

Receipts are not issued to Evasion

TWO BASIS OF TAXATION the customers
● As a necessity for the government
(projects do not come from the
WHAT IS TAX MORALE
individual, management, or
● Refers to the motivation of a
administration)
country’s citizens to pay taxes, in
● Reciprocal duties of protection and
addition to legal obligations that
support between the state and its
come with it.
inhabitants.
● Varied assumptions:
● Good citizens should pay
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
taxes
TAXATION
● Tax evasion is not justified.
● Raise revenue
● Cheating on taxes is not
● Reprice good and services;
justified.
● Redistribute income and wealth
● Raise representation within the
INDICATORS OF HIGH TAX MORALE
democratic process
● Religious Identity
● Reorganization of the economy
● Educational Attainment
through fiscal policy.
● Employment Status (self-employed,
full-time, retired)
TAX AVOIDANCE VS TAX EVASION
● Self-perceived economic status
● Determine if the following is tax
● Trust and satisfaction with the
evasion or tax avoidance.
government
● Avoidance → Legal
● Focused government programs:
● Evasion → Crime or Illegal
health, education, general welfare
Ignoring earnings from a Evasion services
part-time job ● Overall trust in the legal system
● High expectation of people on their
Claiming your dependents Avoidance
potential benefits in paying taxes
as tax deductions
(tax reciprocity)
Keeping a log of Avoidance
contributions
According to Chris Cooke…
Not reporting interests Evasion

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ETHICS FINALS l SEMESTER 1

“We simply have to carry out our duties to John rawls For him, justice is a
each other xxxx is is no use arguing that form
thi responsibility is somehow subordinate
distributive Kind of justice…
to claims of fairness; it is the very
fair and just benefit
nature of moral obligation that it trumps and burdens
any other kind of consideration.”
Distributive justice Distribution of
This is the logic of taxation. goods and wealth
● From each according to his ability,
Aristotle
to each according to his needs.”
(Acts 2:45, 11:29)

CLANED PART III, MODULE 4

Millennials The gadget lovers and
social media users are
often tagged as

Moral ______ is the tendency

Disengagement people seeing
themselves as moral
despite of acting
unethically.

The Older generations,

Conservatives particularly

CANVAS MODULE 15
fairness justice

socialism Based on needs

and abilities
exemplifies

Ayn Rand Capitalism is a

social system
based on the
recognition of
individual rights,
including property
rights, in which all
poverty is privately
own

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