ADDIS ABABA CITY ADMINISTRATION

URBAN PLAN AND INFORMATION INSTITUTE

URBAN PLANNING IMPLEMENTION

MANUAL FINAL REPORT
(NORM AND STANDARDS)

Addis Ababa
2002
 Table of contents

1. BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................ 4
1.1 General Introduction ............................................................................................ 4
1.2 The need for an "Urban Planning and Implementation Manual" ........................ 4
1.3 Objective and legal status of the Manual ............................................................. 5
1.4 How to use the Manual ......................................................................................... 6
1.5 Organisation of the Manual .................................................................................. 6
2. WORKING DEFINITIONS AND GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE MANUAL ................................. 6
2.1 Working Definitions .............................................................................................. 6
2.2 Guiding Principles for the Manual ....................................................................... 7
PART I: URBAN PLAN PREPARATION GUIDELINES ...................................................................... 8
SECTION I: PLAN TYPOLOGIES AND PLANNING PRINCIPLES...................................................... 8
1. PLAN TYPOLOGIES ..................................................................................................................... 8
1.1 Classification of urban plans ................................................................................ 9
1.2. General characteristics of Mandatory Plan Typologies .................................... 10
2. PLANNING PRINCIPLES ............................................................................................................ 11
2.1 Key Principles ..................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Broad objectives of urban plans and regulations ............................................... 13
SECTION II THE PLANNING PROCESS .......................................................................................... 13
3. THE PLANNING PROCESS .......................................................................................................... 13
3.1. Initiation and Preparing the Planning Programme .......................................... 14
3.2 Determination of Current Context-Baseline studies ........................................... 17
3.3. Conducting Analysis and Formulating Vision, Goals, and Objectives ............. 19
3.4 Preparing Plans .................................................................................................. 20
3.5 Evaluation of plans ............................................................................................. 21
3.6 Approval of plans ................................................................................................ 23
3.7 Plan Implementation ........................................................................................... 23
3.8 Plan Revision ...................................................................................................... 23
SECTION III CONTENTS OF URBAN PLANS ................................................................................. 25
4. CONTENTS OF STRUCTURE PLANS .......................................................................................... 25
4.1 General Land Use Element ................................................................................. 25
4.2 Infrastructure, and circulation element .............................................................. 27
4.3 Open space and environmental aspects element ................................................ 28
4.4 Housing element.................................................................................................. 29
5. CONTENTS OF LOCAL DEVELOPMENT PLANS........................................................................ 30
5.1 General Principles and Land sub-division Guidelines ....................................... 31
5.2 Urban centres plan ............................................................................................. 32
5.3 Strategic investment areas plan .......................................................................... 33
5.4 Residential areas ................................................................................................. 33
5.5 Conservation areas plan ..................................................................................... 33
5.6 Landscape plans.................................................................................................. 33
5.7 Urban design plan............................................................................................... 34
5.8 Upgrading ........................................................................................................... 34
5.9 Redevelopment plan ............................................................................................ 34
5.10 Integration plans ............................................................................................... 35
5.11 Infrastructure and circulation........................................................................... 35
5.12 Open space and environmental aspects ............................................................ 37
5.13 Housing ............................................................................................................. 37
PARTII URBAN PLAN IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES ............................................................ 40
1. COMPONENTS OF IMPLEMENTATION MEASURES .................................................................. 40

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 1.1 Guiding Principles for Plan Implementation ...................................................... 40
1.2 Implementation of Structure and Local Development Plans .............................. 42
1.3. Development Regulations .................................................................................. 43
PART III PLANNING NORMS AND STANDARDS ......................................................................... 47
1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 47
2. NORMS AND STANDARDS FOR ZONING AND SUB DIVISIONS ................................................. 48
2.1 Residential use .................................................................................................... 48
2.2 Central Areas ...................................................................................................... 48
2.3 Green Areas and Open Spaces ........................................................................... 51
2.4 Social Services .................................................................................................... 53
2.5. Manufacturing and Storage ............................................................................... 60
2.6 Special Function ................................................................................................. 62
3. PLANNING NORMS AND STANDARDS FOR ROAD, TRANSPORT AND UTILITY NETWORKS .. 65
3.1. Road Networks ................................................................................................... 65
3.2. Utilities Network ................................................................................................ 73
3.3 Transport Use ..................................................................................................... 76
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................. 78
APPENDIX 1. ISSUES TO BE CONSIDERED IN PLAN PREPARATION .......................................... 80
1. LAND USE .................................................................................................................................. 80
1.1 Land use components of SP and LDP ................................................................. 80
1.2 Settlement structure ............................................................................................ 82
2. DETAILED LIST OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES FOR CONSIDERATION .................................... 82
2.1 Population and Demography .............................................................................. 82
2.2. Housing and Related Facilities .......................................................................... 82
2.3. Road and Transport ........................................................................................... 83
2.4. Social and Physical infrastructure..................................................................... 84
2.5. Physical Features and Environment .................................................................. 86
2.6. Expansion area delineation ............................................................................... 86
2.7. Urban Economic base ........................................................................................ 87
2.8. Municipal Finance ............................................................................................. 87
2.9. Local Governance .............................................................................................. 87
2.10. Urban- Rural Linkages (SP only) .................................................................... 87
2.11. Urban - Urban linkages (SP only) ................................................................... 88
2.12. Regional Settlement Structure (SP only).......................................................... 88
2.13. Legal issues and policies ................................................................................. 88
2.14 Land and property administration .................................................................... 88
APPENDIX 2. SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND SPATIAL DATA COLLECTION FORMATS .................... 90
1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 90
2. SOCIO-ECONOMIC DATA FOR URBAN PLANNING ................................................................... 90
2.1 Data Collection Methods .................................................................................... 90
2.2 Socio-Economic Data collection instruments and Presentation Format ........... 91
3. URBAN SPATIAL DATABASE AND DATA FORMATS ................................................................. 98
3.1 Types of Spatial Data and their formats for Urban Analysis ............................. 98
APPENDIX 3. BASKET OF SERVICE FOR URBAN AREAS ........................................................ 105
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 105
2. CATEGORIES OF URBAN SERVICES ....................................................................................... 105
2.1. Hierarchical Classifications of urban services................................................ 106
2.2 Additional determinants for Urban Service Hierarchy .................................... 111
APPENDIX 4. OUTPUT FORMATS ............................................................................................ 113
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 113
2. OUTPUT FORMATS FOR STRUCTURE PLANS ......................................................................... 113
3. OUTPUT FORMATS FOR LOCAL DEVELOPMENT PLANS (LDP) ........................................... 115

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1. BACKGROUND

1.1 General Introduction

This manual presents a concise means for the coordination of activities that form parts of the
urban planning and implementation process. It is a product of several independent studies. The
urban planning and implementation process involves several actors, touches upon complex issues
that are often difficult, if not impossible, to reconcile, and encompasses systems that have
different time spans. The quality of the built environment depends, among other things, on proper
planning and coordination of implementation activities. In fact, the need for proper urban
planning and implementation becomes mandatory, as the transactional cost of complex processes
is immense, once erected physical structures have long life, and property relations in urban areas
are difficult to amend once created. Environmental, social and economic factors make it
imperative to seriously coordinate urban planning and implementation.

1.2 The need for an "Urban Planning and Implementation Manual"

Urban planning and implementation experience in Ethiopia has a short history. Review of urban
planning practice in the country indicated that less than a quarter of the recognised urban centres
have no plans to guide their spatial development. Even those that have plans have difficulty to
implement the proposals. Apart from the pervasive issue of underdevelopment and poverty, the
main factors that have had impact on the preparation and implementation of urban plans have
been
• the lack of qualified personnel to prepare and implement urban plans,
• lack of standards for planning, and
• lack of proper legal frameworks for implementation,

In the past the effort of the central government was limited to providing support for the
preparation of urban plans for a selected few urban centres. Though all urban centres need plans
to guide their developments, due to lack of capacity only few plans were prepared; even then
there was no clear method to set priorities. Moreover, the effort was more on plan-making than
on creating the environment for proper implementation of plans. The result of such an approach
has been, regardless of the presence or absence of urban plans, the development of urban centres
that are haphazard and devoid of basic services. Among other factors the main ones that warrant
the preparation of an urban planning and implementation manual include the following:

1. Lack of conformity between plan formulation and public investment plans which
in the past has resulted in the preparation of over ambitious plans that are not
backed by implementation capacity,
2. Inconsistent methods of data collection and data need has resulted in the
collection of superfluous data in some cases and lack of data in some critical
cases;
3. Mismatches between graphic presentations and explanatory texts due to lack of
appropriate methods that ensure a coordinated production of documents;
4. Lack of standards for level of services to be provided for the different hierarchies
of urban centres has resulted in either over-allocation or down-sizing of
requirements;
5. Lack of clarity of responsibilities between different institutions engaged in plan
preparation and implementation has resulted in the delay of development;
6. Absence of legal framework and clear procedures for urban plan preparation,
approval, implementation, and revision, has rendered decisions to be ad hoc.

The present venture at instituting an Urban Planning and Implementation Manual is the first of
its kind in Ethiopia. This document forms a part of the series of documents on urban planning and
implementation that have either legal or advisory status. This document is last in the series as it is
based on the Federal Urban Development Policy and the Federal Urban Planning Law.

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1.3 Objective and legal status of the Manual

The general objective of the Urban Planning and Implementation Manual is to bring order to the
planning of urban centers and to the implementation of development plans. More specifically the
Manual aims at addressing the following issues:

1. to guide the preparation of realistic and feasible urban plans that take into
consideration local capacity and context,
2. to indicate the procedures necessary in plan preparation and implementation,
3. to show the types of services needed in different urban centers,
4. to indicate methods of coordinating institutions of planning and implementation,
5. Improving awareness about planning among professionals and the public,
6. systematizing plan preparation and implementation with a view to promoting
relevance and implementability of plans,
7. Increasing the efficiency of planning professionals by providing procedures for the
planning processes,
8. providing supplementary ideas for planning thereby alleviating lack of relevant
reference materials on local planning contexts,
9. Promoting the transparency of planning.

This Manual is intended to serve as a guideline, not as a standard or a specification. Standards are
absolute limits that should be enforced whereas the purpose of manuals or guidelines is to assist
decision-making. Therefore, this Manual is prepared with a view to being educative, source of
information, and a document showing a recommended state of planning and implementation
practice at this particular time. Consequently, it does not replace good and innovative planning
and implementation practice. This Guideline is part of policies, proclamations and regulations
that are enacted to govern urban development. Nonetheless, it provides the basics for urban plan
preparation and implementation and cross-refers to relevant documents. The base documents
from which this Manual was compiled include the following:
1. Review and Assessment of planning approaches at national and Global level
1.1 Assessment of the Urban Planning and Implementation Experiences of Amhara
Region
1.2 Urban Planning Practices of Oromia Region: A Brief Assessment
1.3 Assessment of the Urban Planning and Implementation Experiences of Southern
Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region,
1.4 Assessment of the Urban Planning and Implementation Experiences of Tigray
Region
1.5 Assessment of the Urban Planning and Implementation Experiences at Global
Level
1.6 A review Existing Legal and Policy documents pertinent to urban planning and
implementation
1.7 Local Planning Practice
1.8 The interface between regional and urban level planning practice- a review of the
Ethiopian Experience
2 Urban Planning and Implementation Guidelines
3 Planning Norms and Standards
4 Data Collection Methods and Formats
5 Basket of Services for Urban Hierarchy
6 Assessment of Institutional, Financial and Manpower Requirements for urban planning.

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1.4 How to use the Manual
This Manual is not intended to be a checklist for determining the fulfilment of a preset standard.
It is meant to serve as guidance for appropriate practice. This document is intended to be used as
a reference, in so being it does not replace good professional experience and judgement. The
Manual is perceived as an aid to preparing appropriate urban plans, development projects and a
guide to managing urban development. A manual/guideline simply suggests ways for informed
decision; it is not a prescription or an administrative checklist of activities. The planner is
expected to refer this document as a reference material as an informed decision making
instrument.

1.5 Organisation of the Manual

The Urban Planning and Implementation Manual (the Manual for short) is organized into five
parts. Part I Urban Planning Guidelines presents basic approaches to urban planning, planning
procedures, contents of mandatory planning typologies, institutional set ups, manpower, and
financial requirements for plan preparation, Part II Implementation Guidelines presents good
practice norms, procedures and necessary regulations for plan implementation. Part III Planning
Norms and Standards deals with the setting of appropriate spatial and service standards for
different urban functions. Once again these standards are meant to guide proper decisions; they
are not supposed to be absolute minimums that deserve strict adherence. Part IV Appendices:
consist of
1. Appendix 1: List of Issues for consideration
2. Appendix 2:Standard Data Collection Formats
3. Appendix 3: Basket of Services
4. Appendix 4: Output formats

2. Working Definitions and General Principles of the Manual

2.1 Working Definitions

For the purpose of this Manual, the following words, concepts/terms, etc. have the definition/s
given here. A working definition is not a comprehensive description; it is an explanation in line
with the application of the terms in this Guidelines. Other concepts specific to the background
document are elaborated in each document.

Concepts Definitions
Guidelines Diagram or statement or the combination of the two that provides
development scenario for an urban area
Plans types Plans that are recognized by an urban centre as legal and binding. For this
Manual, Structure Plans and Local Development Plans are the legal plan
types.
Planning process Step by step activities undertaken by a planning body in the preparation
and implementation of urban plans

Planning brief A work plan for a planning project prepared at the initiation of plan
preparation stage
Urban plan All plan types used to guide the development of an urban area

Plan evaluation Is a method of assessing the financial, social and environmental

implication of plans and the level of achievement of the goals established
at the outset of the preparation
Output format The layout used to represent the final end products of the adopted
planning typologies. It includes output formats for maps, reports and 3D
models.

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 Concepts Definitions
Urban function It is a systematic means of grouping similar categories of different
classification functions in defined analogous categories. These are land use
classifications.
Coding Systematic presentation of data to be explained using maps, reports and
models.
Manual Concise reference that shows working procedures and standards for
planning and implementation of urban plans
Norm An accepted standard or a way of behaving or doing

Standard The required or agreed level of quality, and quantity for usually when
thought of as being correct and written into law
Principles Refer to a set of spatial rules, which should be applied in the settlement
making process
Plan amendment Process of minor revision of an element or part of an element of SP or
LDP.
Plan revision Process of conducting major study and production of revised planning
proposals for an urban centre
Environmental An activity focusing on the evaluation of proposals for their compliance
Impact Assessment with environmental acts of a nation or a region; normally conducted at
(EIA) each stage of plan proposal (SP, LDP, Programmes, Projects)
BAR, FAR Built up area ratio and Floor area ratio respectively. These ratios measure
the allowable density of development over individual plots.
Kebele/wereda Green area, open space provided at kebele or wereda level on top of open
green spaces for residential clusters and neighbourhood
Phasing of Plan showing the sequence of development of urban areas
development

2.2 Guiding Principles for the Manual

Urban development is a complex system that incorporates natural and manmade sub-components.
It goes without saying that complex systems need coordination so as to maximise benefits and to
minimise liabilities. The concept of sustainable development is implied in this definition. For a
development to be sustainable its processes have to be efficient, socially acceptable, financially
affordable, and scientifically desirable. These being basic principles of planning, this Manual is
intended to achieving these goals. In as much as is practical, the Manual has been prepared with
the following guiding principles as its starting point:

• The Manual is simple so that its contents could be understood easily by all plan-makers
and implementers,
• That it is holistic and integrated bringing different issues that go into plan making and
implementing urban plans.
• It is a guide to informed decision making, it is not an administrative checklist.
• In being guide, it is flexible and accommodates new thinking and improved practice.
• The Manual is intended to indicate the preparation of feasible/realistic and achievable
urban plans.

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 Part I: Urban Plan Preparation Guidelines

Introduction
Urban planning is an activity carried out to guide socio-economic and spatial developments of a
planning area. In principle a planning task takes as its prime goal the objective of the people who
inhabit the area that is being planned. However, due to the longevity and spatial dispersion of
effects of plans, planners should consider the interests of various stakeholders (both current and
future) over an area greater than the jurisdiction of a single urban area. The preparation of an
urban plan assumes the existence of a hierarchy of development frameworks at national and
regional levels. This Guideline is basically limited to urban plan preparation at single urban area
level, irrespective of the grade of an urban area.

Scope of the Guidelines

The scope of this Guideline is limited to providing principles, procedures and suggestions that are
relevant for urban plan preparation and implementation. The Guideline will deal with basic
characteristics of mandatory components of urban plans as provided by law. This Guideline does
not present comprehensive policies related to specific components of urban plans at different
spatial levels.

Relevance of the Guidelines

There is an acute shortage of planning professionals in Ethiopia. Owing to the peculiar nature of
urban planning, the profession cannot be mastered through education alone; on the job training
and being reflective of practice is necessary. In spite of this fact, the lack of well trained planners
limits the chance of on-the-job training. Hence, manuals, log books, procedures, etc. help to
minimise the deficiency of professionals by providing basic principles (or wisdom) that might
otherwise have come from seasoned professionals. Moreover, Guidelines will increase the
transparency of the planning process and also serve as a checklist of what to consider.

Organisation of the Guidelines

The Urban Planning Guidelines is subdivided into three sections. Section I Planning Typologies,
and Planning Principles deals with the identification of planning typologies and principles of
planning applicable to the plan types. Section II Planning Procedures deals with the step-by-step
processes involved in a planning activity. Section III Contents of urban plans presents general
description of elements of urban plans.

Section I: Plan Typologies and Planning

Principles

The literature on planning shows that urban areas in various parts of the world have been
developing with some guiding principles, though not written in most cases. Planning in its formal
sense implies having the power to guide the future development of an area. Hence planning
cannot be practiced in a political vacuum. Then, it is logical to conclude that planning has been
following the footsteps of political ideals in the determination of the future and the means to
achieve it. Plan types, planning methods and principles are ideals and modes for the expression of
ideals. These concepts are elaborated in the next sections.

1. Plan Typologies
The study of urban plan types shows that there are a wide variety of plans that differ in content as
well as in format. Leaving aside formats variation in type of plan could result from the legal
status of plans, the time horizons that the plans are intended to be used, or the spatial levels that a
plan intends to serve. Population size is also one aspect but it could be an integral part of the
spatio-temporal component of plans. The following description of categories of plans is intended
to clarify for the novice planner what types of plans one may come across in the literature. It is
also intended to initiate the preparation of such plans with knowledge of their functions.

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1.1 Classification of urban plans

1.1.1 Legal status of urban plans

Plans are guidelines for actions. In the urban context plans are prepared and adopted to guide the
activities of multiple actors. Therefore, it becomes necessary that certain provisions should be in
place to coordinate the activities of all actors so that the external effects of individual
developments do not compromise the benefits and legal rights of others and the wider society.
Based on the status of plans in the legal system the following terms are used to designate plans
and policies: statutory, non-statutory; mandatory, advisory; guidelines, circulars, planning policy
guidance. In general for legal purposes, urban plans are categorized into two: legal and binding
plans and advisory plans.

The administration of an urban centre must determine which plans are legal and binding; the
provisions of such plans will be mandatory. Such plans should pass the normal preparatory and
approval processes of policy adoption by a legislative body. The planning process will be
described in Section II. In the Ethiopian urban context two plan types are identified as legal and
binding: structure plans and local development plans; the characteristics of these two plan types
will be elaborated in Section III.

Advisory plans are provisions that an urban centre prepares as guide to good practice in the
fulfillment of the provisions of legally binding plans. Such plans may deal with specific subjects
elaborating possible ways of handling issues. Their main purpose is to ensure compliance to the
binding plans while at the same time providing concrete policy guidance that a planning
department would like to pursue in the development of the urban area under its jurisdiction.
Urban design briefs, conservation area plans, housing typologies, etc. are some of the common
examples of advisory plans. Advisory plans need not be approved by the legislature, but the
planning department should publish such plans so that the public knows about their contents.

1.1.2 Time horizons of planning

Development planning activity should have time perspective. The future oriented-ness of
planning has been one of the contentious phenomena in planning theory and practice. The trend is
to prepare plans for short time spans so that uncertainties could be minimal. The most common
time frames for urban plans are: short, Medium, and long-term plans.

Short-term plans
Short-term plans are directly linked to yearly fiscal budgets. Short-term planning is concerned
with projects which, if executed, will fulfill the objective of medium-term planning exercises;
hence, short-term planning is basically project planning. Therefore, it should clearly define the
objectives to be achieved, who will undertake the implementation, sources of finance and time
schedule divided into quarters or similar time spans as the budget expenditure report. Such plans
are usually known as urban projects.

Medium-term planning
Medium-term planning is usually concerned with a five-year development agenda. This is
basically the main development plan for an urban area: its local development plan. Such plans
consist of development priorities in a spatial framework. The priorities are agreed-upon
statements of official development objectives. Problems should be identified together with means
for addressing them. Medium-term planning is a strategic framework for development; the
guidelines that ensue from it provide the basis for resource allocation.
Long-term planning
Long-term planning is development scenario for 10-20 years. The trend with regard to long-term
planning is limited to those critical issues of and resources for development where there is
relative stability in the phenomena being considered or development direction that a community
would like to achieve. Structure plans are long-term plans.

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1.1.3 Spatial hierarchy of planning
Plans are guidelines for action; hence basically spatial development frameworks follow
administrative hierarchies: national, regional, and local levels. Each level in the hierarchy of
plans should be consistent with the higher-level plan. In situations where the higher-level plan is
found to lack directives for some issues, planning bodies should consult with the appropriate level
of urban administration for clarification. Once issues are clarified, the new additions should be
included in the plan as addenda.

The experience of countries that have a well-functioning urban system shows that there is a need
for a national spatial development framework. Some countries have simple provisions at national
level and more detailed plans at regional level. For issues that require inter-regional cooperation,
either the central government or the regional states affected by the problem could deal with the
issue by agreement. This requires the establishment of supra-state authorities to plan integrated
development schemes. The Federal Constitution of Ethiopia empowers federal institutions to deal
with cross-regional state issues. Currently horizontal level plan coordination is not in place, but it
is a highly recommended approach to coordinate orderly development.

At an urban level, depending on the planning approach adopted by an urban centre, there could be
plan types that are variously termed master plans, comprehensive plans, structure plans, or
general plans at a higher level and specific plans, action area plans, or local development plans
at the lower level (Refer Document 1.5). International experience has shown that the trend of
planning is towards limited spatio-temporal and social scales. Hence two levels of plans are
mandatory: a general one that provides frameworks or structures for the urban area and a more
detailed local level plan that guides the scale and variety of developments. In a similar way, in
Ethiopia two plan types are getting recognition: structure plan and local development plan. These
two plan types were first recognized as legal plans in Ethiopia by the Office for the Revision of
the Addis Ababa Master Plan (ORAAMP). The draft “Urban Planning Proclamation” has
recognized these plan types as legal and binding. This Manual presupposes that the draft
proclamation will be approved; hence Structure Plans and Local Development Plans are stated as
legal and binding throughout the Manual. Other plans of specific nature may be prepared for
urban centers as subject plans; however, such plans should comply with the provisions of these
two plan types.

1.2. General characteristics of Mandatory Plan Typologies

1.2.1 Structure Plan

Structure plan contains the general mandatory provisions for the development of a planning area.
Structure plan sets out the basic minimum requirements regarding spatial developments whose
fulfillment would produce a coherent urban development in social, economic and spatial spheres.
The structure plan is a basis for rational decisions regarding an urban areas’ long-term physical
development. It serves as a bridge between community values, visions and objectives on one
hand and decisions on physical developments on the other. Normally, structure plans are long-
term plans prepared to guide development for 10-20 years. The main characteristics of structure
plans are:

1. Comprehensiveness
• Geographically, it should cover the whole jurisdiction area of the urban centre.
• All broad issues related with the development of an urban centre should be
handled.
2. Long term perspective
• Time horizon for structure plan is between 10-20 years comprehensiveness
• Time frame for different issues within the plan could vary
3. Consistency of provisions

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 • Policies of structure plans should have external consistency-be in agreement
with and supportive of policies in other development sectors.
• All elements have equal status; policies within a structure plan must have
internal consistency between elements.
• Mandatory elements should be internally consistent within each element.
• Texts and diagrams of structure plans must be consistent.

The mandatory components of structure plans will be described in detail in Section III.

1.2.2 General characteristics of Local development Plans

A local development plan describes the medium term development direction of an urban centre.
Local development plans contain policy statements and development guidelines for particular
areas. Its emphasis is on concrete standards and development criteria. It provides requirements for
the development of necessary infrastructure and facilities, allowable land use categories and open
spaces for the selected area. A local development plan should specify programmers and
regulations necessary to finance infrastructure and public works projects.

Local development plans should deal with all planning issues within the development area.
Provisions of local development plans must be consistent with that of the structure plan;
provisions within a local development plan must have internal consistency too. The time frame
for local development plans is five to ten years. Details of the elements of local development
plans will be elaborated in Section III.

2. Planning Principles
Planning method refers to the approaches used in the identification of need for planning and the
procedures followed in plan preparation; whereas principles imply paradigms that guide the
formulation of development policies. The two concepts are elaborated in the sections that follow.

2.1 Key Principles

Principles are general assumptions, fundamental rules, paradigms that guide the spirit of planning
policies, proposals, standards and implementation measures. Principles should be based on
community values, generally accepted good planning practices, technological level of a
community, and planning objectives. Principles serve the preparation of plans but need not be
included in the plan itself. Principles should take contextual situations; but there are some basic
ones that emanate from higher policy frameworks such as the Constitution, general development
plans, federal urban development policy, etc. The following main principles should be considered
for all cases of urban plan preparation and implementation.

1. The health, safety and property rights of citizens, environmental sustainability, efficiency
in resource use, and transparency in management of affairs will be promoted with
planned development.
2. Participatory approach in planning enhances the relevance of development plans and the
chance of plans being implemented.
a. Identification of stakeholders at an early stage of the plan preparation process
will shorten the preparation and approval of plans.
b. Involvement of stakeholders in plan preparation increases plan implement-
ability.
c. All inhabitants of a planning area are stakeholders, albeit at varying intensity and
capacity.
d. Devising proper methods for public participation promote level of participation.
3. Planning should aim towards sustainable development.
a. Resources are finite; planned uses promote effective use of resources.

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 b. Plans should promote opportunities for current inhabitants without compromising
the need of future generation
c. Promotion of public participation in development and equitable distribution of
resources promotes the objectives of sustainable development.
d. Plans should address the visions and interests of stakeholders at all levels.
e. Providing due consideration for environmental issues increases the life span of
natural resources.
4. Financially feasible development plans are easy to implement.
a. Plans should consider financial implications at the planning stage.
b. The user-pays principle promotes responsibility; however, the government
should support socially and economically disadvantaged section of society.
c. The public must benefit from planning gains.
5. Spatial integration at national/regional/local levels promotes overall development of
society.
a. Hierarchy of plans should be consistent with higher level plans/and policies and
other related policies in other sectors.
b. Integrated planning and implementation economizes on resource requirements
while at the same time it increases the multiplier effect of positive components.
6. Strategic approach in plan preparation increases relevance of urban plans.
a. Identification of critical elements during planning enhances the adoption of
better-performing plans
b. Identification of critical elements increases public preparedness for unavoidable
consequences.
7. Urbanization viewed as a potential for development
a. Urbanization is an irreversible process, it should be managed rather than try to
curb its development.
b. Urbanization is positive development for a well-prepared urban administration.
8. Policy formulation is iterative.
a. Plan preparation and implementation should be a continuous process
b. Shortening the revision time of plans increases the relevance of plans
c. Learning through practice and a reflective-practitioner promotes local contexts.
d. Planning is process oriented.
9. Proper consideration of plan implementation capacity of institutions is necessary.
a. The adoption of less complex plans without compromising long-term benefits
increases relevance of policies and chance of implementation,
b. Well-trained staff is cost-effective in the long term.
10. Planning policies seen in the light of Federal arrangement envisages appropriate
decentralization at local level and strategic control at the centre.
a. Decentralization without proper empowerment is ineffective,
b. Conducive financial, manpower and institutional frameworks should support
decentralization.
11. Mixed use and social integration promote viability of plans.
a. Mixed use creates cross-subsidy and better resource distribution,
b. Mixed use increases the chance of urban areas to be active throughout the day.
c. Mixed use planning helps the development of socially integrated area.
12. Phased, flexible and targeted development approach increases the viability of urban
plans.
a. Properly phased development creates positive feedback to the system
b. Flexible approaches increase the relevance of plans. However, flexibility should
not be laissez faire.
c. Targeted approach economizes on resource use and promotes measurability of
development policies.
13. Equitable distribution promotes social justice in development.
a. Planning that promotes job creation contributes to the poverty reduction policy.

12
 b. Promoting the participation of inhabitants in economic activities through the
creation of micro and small enterprises increases the production wealth and its
equitable distribution.

2.2 Broad objectives of urban plans and regulations

The general objectives of urban plans fall under the following main issues:
1. To ensure the orderly development of urban areas
2. To provide a good living environment for all by ensuring safety, amenity, accessibility,
energy conservation and environmental protection
3. Providing a safe healthy, useable, serviceable, pleasant and easily maintained
environment for all commercial, industrial, civic, and community land uses. In addition
its aim is preventing disturbance to neighboring environment particularly by the
industrial land uses
4. Ensuring that any conflicting environments of different land uses are reconciled
particularly among mixed land uses,
5. Providing orderly and progressive development of land in urban areas and preserve
amenities on that land as well as promoting environmental control and socio-economic
development,
6. Promoting equity and efficiency in resource use; however difficult this might be.

Section II The planning process

3. The planning process

The planning process consists of actions taken by a planning body and its relation with the
different actors in the process of plan making and implementation of plans. It is the step-by-step
development of planning ideas into action tools and implementation of ideas to achieve a vision.
The planning process lays procedures to accomplish a task; in fact due to the prescriptive nature
of process flows some analysts have designated planning that follows defined procedures by
“procedural planning”. However, urban planning as an organized activity to guide future
development cannot be done on ad hoc basis. However, different planning approaches may
designate stages differently. The following sections describe in detail components of the planning
process.

Components of the planning process

Planning is an activity orientated towards the future. Irrespective of the type of planning approach
adopted by an agency, the view of planning as a process is widely accepted. Most often the
planning process (i.e. plan-making and plan implementation combined) consists of the following
inter-related steps:

1. Initiation for planning and preparing the planning programmed;

2. Determination of current context;
3. Conducting analysis and formulating goals;
4. Developing, evaluating, and adopting plans, and
5. Monitoring implementation.

Planning is an iterative activity; for lack of any other means than sequential description of tasks,
the issues in the different stages of the plan preparation and implementation process are discussed
one by one. Structure Plans and Local Development Plans have variations in their planning
process. The planning processes, unless and otherwise stated explicitly, is considered as being
common to the two plan types.

13
Fig. 3.1 . Components of the planning Process

Initiation for planning

Preparation of policy direction, funding, preparation

Conducting mandatory compliance requirements (environmental Impact

Public participation,(civic societies (CBOs, neigbourhood committees,
professional societies, NGOs), intergovernmental coordination, of work programme, selection of consultants

Assessment, Federal-Regional-Local power relationships)

Determination of current context
Survey existing situation: policies, plans
commitments, land uses, infrastructure, housing,
socio-economic & environmental conditions,

Analysis and formulating goals

Conducting analysis, determination of vision, values,
goals, & objectives, developing plan evaluation criteria

Preparing, evaluating, & adopting plans

Developing alternative plans, policies, and
implementation measures, evaluating plans, public
forums, conducting EIA,

Monitoring implementation
Implementation measures, project finance, phasing,
collecting data for feedback,

3.1. Initiation and Preparing the Planning Programme

The preparatory task for an urban planning exercise starts with the local council (i.e. the
legislative body empowered to plan) adopting policy guidance for the development of an urban
centre. This might be done through consultative meetings with the electorate. An alternative
approach is the formulation of a single purpose statement or complex sets of visions about the
development of an urban centre by a core group and subsequent refinement of the vision through
consultation with stakeholders. Initiation for planning should emanate with the aim of solving
problems faced by an urban community. The democratic rights of people will not be fully
operational without exercising their power to plan; hence planning initiation should emanate from
the people and their delegates; and ideally a guidance system for development should be adopted
in a reasonable time after initiation for planning. Unduly delayed plan adoption affects public and
private investment plans.

3.1.1. Preparation of Terms of Reference

Experts who could interpret the policy guidance given by the local council should do the planning
programme or the terms of reference (TOR) for planning. Successful examples show that, apart
from delimiting what to be done, a work programme for urban plan preparation should include
deadlines for critical components of the planning task, including public participation stages,

14
review periods for draft plans and final plans (Box 1). The time for a planning task depends on
the complexity of issues; the number of professionals for the tasks, availability of data, facilities
for planning, and so on.

Box 3.1.1. Basic Contents of the Terms of Reference

The TOR should contain at least the following main components

1. Who is the employer (local council, zone, regional, or federal institution),
2. What is the problem known so far about the urban centre? And what does the
employer want?
3. Detail frameworks for the baseline study to be conducted, which includes subtasks or
themes,
4. Information on available data, sources of data,
5. Clear professional requirements for the study group (when the study is out-resourced)
6. Evaluation system for output
7. Tasks of Steering Committee, Technical Committee, Counterpart team members (if
private consultant undertakes the study),
8. Public hearings, workshops, etc.
9. Approval system for the planning study,
10. Time frame for the critical parts of the planning study.

In strategic planning terms the initiation stage is called getting ready. A number of issues must
be addressed in assessing readiness of the administration of an urban centre. The following five
tasks must be performed to pave the way for an organized process:
• Identify specific issues or choices that the planning process should address;
• Clarify roles (who does what in the process);
• Create a planning committee (team);
• Develop an organization profile;
• Identify the information that must be collected to help make sound decisions.

The product developed at the end of this step is a work plan.

Points to check:
• Does the public know about the plan preparation project?
• Has the local council held public discussion to identify need for new plan/
• Who is to carry out the planning study?
• Does the Term of Reference describe the task clearly?
• Has the work programme given sufficient time for public participation during the
different stages of plan preparation and evaluation?
• Is there sufficient fund to carry out the study?
• Who will control the work progress of the study team?
• Who will approve the results of the study and final plan?

3.1.2 Manpower Requirements for Plan Preparation

One of the critical issues to consider during the preparation of the Terms of Reference is whether
the planning team of the municipality can undertake the task by itself. There are several
possibilities at organising a planning team:

• The planning department or section of a municipality may have capacity to handle the
tasks
• Project staff could employed on temporary basis to assist or lead the plan preparation,

15
 • Technical staff could come on temporary assignment basis from zones, the region or
from federal level, or
• Staff may be available through cooperation agreements with sister cities, teaching and
research institutes

Planning agencies of various categories may be organised by private firms, federal and regional
governments. With regard to government planning institutions the staff requirement might be
determined on the basis of their role. If they act as advisors to regional and municipal
governments, the staff composition might be few, but of high expertise level. If they are expected
to prepare urban plans then the optimum professional mix for the study should be fulfilled.
Recommended manpower requirement for Structural plan and Local Development Plan
preparation is shown in Table 3.1.2.

The manpower requirement listed in Table 3.1.2 is an ideal composition of an urban planning
agency. In reality tasks may be outsourced to reduce the number of permanent staff. Moreover,
the number of professionals required for a planning agency/department may depend on the
number of tasks it intends to undertake at a time. The minimum manpower and professional mix
required to undertake any planning task is urban planners and economists. In such a case the
planner will handle spatial aspects and some aspects of social issues and the economist will
handle socio-economic aspects. However, an optimum mix of professions shall have the
following core professional.

1. Urban planner 7. Economist

2. Architect/urban 8. Lawyer
designer 9. Civil engineer
3. Ecologist 10. Surveyor
4. Urban Geographer 11. Draftsman/computer graphics
5. Demographer 12. Administrative support
6. Sociologist

The professionals listed in Table 3.1.2 maybe organised into various departments. Planning is an
iterative activity; hence the tasks may not proceed in linear form; as a result the organisation of a
planning agency may be done in different ways depending on the context. In grouping
professionals into departments, the total number of permanent staff should be considered.

16
Table 3.1.2. Ideal manpower requirement for plan preparation

No. Profession category Purpose

• Town/urban planner • Spatial aspects,
• Urban designer • Land use planning,
• Architect • Urban design
1 • Regional planner • Regional socio-spatial issues’
• Urban Geographer • Housing, land
• Historian • Rural-urban linkage
• Sociologist • Social aspects of urban
2 • Demographer development
• Statistician • Population issues
• Urban economics
• Local economic development
• Economist • Economic base
3 • Development cost estimation
• Civil engineer • Infrastructure planning
• Surveyor • Road/street design
• Municipal engineer • Land surveying, plot
4 • Quantity surveyor subdivision, road layout
• Quantity surveying,
• Cost estimation,
• Geologist • Structural Geology
5 • Urban environmentalist • Pollution (earth, water, and air)
• Urban management • Institutional framework
• Lawyer • Governance, institutional
6 relations,
• Legal advising
• Data specialist • Data analysis
7 • GIS specialist • Plotter
• Draftsman • Technical drafting
• Administrator
8 • Secretaries • Support staff
• Drivers

3.2 Determination of Current Context-Baseline studies

Where are we now?
This stage of the plan-making process involves the launching of fact-finding missions to ascertain
existing situations that are the subjects of planning. The issues for consideration vary depending
on the context; however, it is common to determine the conditions of existing land use, natural
environment, infrastructure capacity, existing commitments and policies, population and social
characteristics, housing stock, economic conditions and potentials. Data requirements and sources
should be identified prior to launching fact-finding missions. Appropriate methods should be used
in data collection (refer Appendix 2 Data Collection Methods and Formats). The time required
to conduct survey and collect data may be influenced on whether the urban centre under
consideration has a topographic map or not.

17
Box 3.2.1 Issues for consideration during the determination of current context

SPATIAL ASPECTS
1. Geographical/geological setting of the planning area:
• topographic conditions, soil types, climate, mineral resources, water source and potential
(surface and underground), geological hazard levels, natural and manmade constrains for
expansion,
2. Historical background and development trends of the urban area:
• growth directions, periods of growth, historic sites, monuments and buildings
3. Existing land use,
• distribution of functions, size under each category of land use function,
• characteristics of building structures by use, townscape situation,
• open and built up areas, possible expansion areas,
• Urban land policy, accessibility, tenure types, land development and supply,
• Informal settlements-types, location, extent,
4. Physical infrastructures
• Roads network, types of surface finishes, storm water drainages,
• sewerage system, solid and liquid waste treatment,
• power lines, water supply, telecommunications, postal service,

SOCIAL AND DEMOGRAPHIC ASPECTS

5. Population dynamics,
• structure by age, fertility, mortality, growth rate, population projection,
• Household size, tenure group, marital status, headship,
6. Housing situation;
• Household per housing unit
• Housing stock, housing types, housing by tenure type, housing development modes, housing need
and supply, housing finance,
7. Social infrastructures-
• School distribution, types, quality and quantity of schools, enrolment by gender, participation rate
teacher per section;
• health institutions by hierarchy, distribution, accessibility, physical structure, common incidence
of diseases,
• Distribution of abattoirs, police station, fire brigade, administration, etc.
• Urban transport facilities

LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS

8. Existing urban management, legal and institutional frameworks
• urban governance and community relations that affect urban development
• Institutional capacity to plan and implement plans

ECONOMIC ASPECTS
9. Urban economics and urban-rural linkages
• Municipal finance, economic base,
• financial management,
• Rural-urban and urban-urban linkages
• Industrial production, structure of industries,
• Economic engagement, employment types, income levels, deprivations,

The product of step two include: a database of quality information that can be used to make
decisions and to develop a shared vision and mission; and a list of critical issues which demand a
response from the local authority.

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 3.3. Conducting Analysis and Formulating Vision, Goals, and Objectives
Where do we like to go?
At this stage of the plan preparation process field data is analysed, issues are evaluated,
assumptions are determined, and community vision is formulated. The analysis of field data is
expected to reveal the major issues to be addressed by the development plan. Depending on the
type of data, qualitative or quantitative methods of analysis could be used. The issues for detailed
consideration must have been determined prior to data gathering. The outcome of the analysis
should be presented to the public and professional groups so that it will be enriched. During this
stage the public at large and all stakeholders get together at different forums and develop their
shared vision statements (Box 3.3.2). Vision is statement of intention or condition that a
community would like to achieve. A series of public forums should be created to concretise
results of data analysis before a community vision is formulated, objectives are set and policies
are drafted.

The analysis may follow compulsory planning elements for Structure or Development plan the
main topics for consideration are listed in Box 3.2.1. In line with the data gathered for the
determination of existing condition, analyze the spatial and socio-economic condition of the
planning area. Issues of main considerations include the following:

Box 3.3.1 Issues to e considered during analysis

Spatial aspects:
1. Determine the land needed for different functions based on population and economic growth
projections,
2. Assess the efficiency of land use in relation to its economic potential and capacity of the legal owner
and the users,
3. Analyse the compatibility of existing land uses, and determine the required interventions,
4. Assess the potential of the existing urban area to absorb future developments and identify possible
expansion areas,
5. Analyse housing conditions, physical conditions, availability of facilities, suitability and accessibility
to different income groups
6. Review and assess problems associated with physical infrastructures: physical conditions, design
aspects, conduct demand and supply analysis of water and power supply, communication networks,
road networks, etc.
7. Analyse trip generation pattern of the existing area, modes of transport, relation of the urban centre
with the hinterland;
8. Identify problems related to the existing transportation system, determine future transportation need
based on population and economic interaction projections
Socio-economic aspects
9. Conduct demographic analysis: set scenarios (minimal, optimal, and high growth) and prepare
population projection for the planning period,
10. Analyse supply and demand aspects of housing, and future need based on population projection,
11. Conduct analysis of the problems related with health and education facilities, and other social
services,
12. Analyse the economic performance of urban functions sector by sector, identify the problems related
to each sector, identify the potential of the urban centre and its hinterland and project future
development potential,
13. Identify problems related to institutional set ups for service delivery, and general governance,
14. Assess problems related to public participation in social and economic aspects of the urban centre
15. Analyse tax system, taxable economic base, and efficiency of collection and management of
resources,

Conduct SWOT analysis to identify and analyze the strengths and weaknesses, as well as the
opportunities and threats of the urban centre. The results of the analyses of information gathered
on the internal and external environment should indicate what strategies to adopt to overcome
threats.

19
Strategies, goals, and objectives may come from individual inspiration, group discussion, formal
decision-making techniques, and public discussion and so on; but at the end, the leadership agrees
on how to address the critical issues. In general, strategic objectives are usually designed to seek
to correct the weaknesses, build on strengths, deal with threats, and take advantage of existing
opportunities in order to attain the local authority's vision and mission. It is advisable to shape
objectives in SMART model (Box 3.3.3).

Box 3.3.2 Examples of Vision statements Box 3.3.3 The SMART Model for
objectives

Vision:
• To see a situation where our urban
centre has become a major tourist Specific - to avoid differing interpretations;
hub in the region Measurable - to allow monitoring and
• A safe and healthy physical and evaluation;
social environment is created. Appropriate - to the problems, goals, and
Goals: strategies;
Realistic - achievable, challenging, and
• to create an urban centre where all meaningful;
people of working age have
Time bound - with a specific time period
employment.
for achieving objectives
Objective:
• to reduce poverty level by half by
2015.

Public participation modalities need to be developed so that all affected parties could participate
in the decision to prepare plans. Adopting a system whereby Notice of Preparation could be
given to those who will be affected, in addition to general notification of the public, adds to the
transparency and rationality of the plan preparation process. Presentation of findings should be
clear with little or no technical jargons.
Various professionals should analyze the different data and present their findings to the public.
Sufficient time should be given for public participation. Methods that could be used to promote
public participation include:
• Advertisement using mass media (local news papers, radio, and television)
• Posting posters at public meeting places;
• Sending Notice Of Preparation (NOP) letters to affected parties and person who could
contribute to the plan preparation process;
• Soliciting opinions from knowledgeable persons and professional societies, the elderly,
community representatives, politicians, etc.;

Appropriate methods should be employed to record public opinions. Public participation is

meaningless unless opinions are taken seriously. The goals and objectives formulated after the
public hearings should be made known to the public. The presentation of the vision/s should
show how public opinion has shaped the final scenario. The local council should approve the
vision, goals and objectives and the principal assumptions before the next stage of plan
preparation is carried out. In the case of Local development Plan preparation the vision, goals and
objectives should reinforce those set in the Structure Plan.

3.4 Preparing Plans

What do we want to achieve?
The next in the series of tasks in the preparation of urban plans include development of
alternative plans and their evaluation by the planning team, and the presentation of selected
alternatives for public review. The preparation of alternative plans should concentrates on major

20
issues and it need not be detailed. However, it should deal with major economic, social and
environmental objectives that were set in the earlier stages. Professionals should conduct in-house
evaluation of alternative plans on the basis of criteria developed for the task and general
requirements set by law regarding environmental impact assessment. The draft plan must show
clearly what is intended to be achieved during the plan period. To create transparency in plan
preparation, it is good practice to document the characteristics of alternative plans considered
during plan preparation.

Spatial aspects
1. Develop land use and road network principles on the basis of the spatial and socio-
economic analyses,
2. Prepare/adopt spatial standards for different functions,
3. Prepare conceptual frameworks (scenarios), drafts proposals, and final proposal each
stage being evaluated by in-house discussion of the planning team, and presentation to
the public

Socio-economic aspects
1. Develop service standards and strategies for housing development, physical and social
facilities,
2. Develop mechanisms to promote the economic base, propose linkages of rural-urban and
urban-urban interactions,
3. Develop mechanisms to increase the revenue of the urban administration,
4. Develop institutional set up that promotes development
5. Identify legal gaps and propose possible norms and regulations to be enacted

The plan preparation stage is not linear; it involves developing alternatives, evaluation, and then
refinement. It is after the planning team has exhausted possible development frameworks and
concrete proposals are worked out that the larger public is consulted.

The plan preparation process of Structure Plans and Local Development Plans is similar on
general level. In the case of Structure Plan, the planning issues are more general, hence only
strategic considerations should be regulated. In the case of Local development Plan, the issues are
more concrete and public participation may be high. Since Local Development Plan is prepared
on the basis of approved Structure Plan, there will not be proposal to change institutional set ups.

3.5 Evaluation of plans

One of the major problems in the plan preparation process in Ethiopia is the lack of plan
evaluation before being adopted and implemented. Therefore, there is a need to adopt uniform
evaluation system for plans before they are accepted and approved for implementation. Plan
evaluation is a method of assessing the financial, social and environmental implication of plans
and the level of achievement of the goals established at the outset of the preparation. The
following procedures should be followed in plan evaluation:
• Prior to presentation of draft alternative plans the planning team should review options.
This should include environmental impact assessment.
• The public should review the draft plans thoroughly before the local council decides
which plan should be detailed.
• The allocation of sufficient time for public participation and the adoption of appropriate
methods for participation are two of the critical issues here. It is recommended that about
one month should be given for public review.
• The planning team must consider public opinion in its revision of alternative draft plans.
• Once detailed plans are prepared the legislative body should hold a final public hearing to
ascertain that public comments in the previous stage have been considered in the final
draft.

21
At this stage, the draft plan must have been referred to agencies that are likely to be affected by
the plan. The referral should not be just to inform but for possible synchronization of operations.
New plans and amendments to existing urban plans should be sent to adjoining towns or Regions
which will likely be affected by the plans. The comments of adjoining Regional States, Federal
and Regional agencies should be considered before a legislative body ratifies a draft plan.

3.5.1 Contents and methods of evaluation

Contents of the evaluation
Evaluation criteria of plans should have the following contents
• Each objective should have performance criteria; criteria should be set in measurable
terms.
• Indicator/s should be related to the expected end results of plans
• Goals achievement consideration
• Financial feasibility
• Practicality,
• Social benefit
• Environmental Impact Assessment
Results of the evaluation should be
• Well documented and availed together with the main contents of the Structure Plan for
approval,
• Considered during preparation of detail plans and projects for implementation
Evaluation methodology
• A defined evaluation methodology should be established for plans
• Such evaluation should be made by a respective party which could be member of the plan
preparation institution but consisting of groups that are not involved in plan preparation.
• Define criteria for evaluation based on the objectives and goals of the plans prepared
• Each criterion should have corresponding grade depending on its relevance

3.5.2 Environmental Impact Assessment

This is a special evaluation where all plan proposals have to comply with environmental quality
requirements. Each option should be evaluated for its impact on social, economic and natural
systems. It is mandatory for large projects to present their EIA before approval; but unless EIA is
done at plan preparation level, it might be difficult to fulfill the requirements at project level. The
points to be considered in EIA might differ depending on the local context; however, there are
crosscutting issues which should be observed in all urban areas. The EIA should not be detailed
for all plan proposals at the initial stage; but conducting EIA should be part of the screening
process for plans. The planning team should develop the evaluation criteria and apply it to the
proposed plan; if the alternative scores below what was expected then that proposal should be
dropped.

The following list provides basic issues that an EIA analyst should consider in evaluation; the list
is not exhaustive, appropriate issues for consideration should be developed for each planning
task.

Ecological concerns
• To what extent does the proposed plan affect agricultural land utilization?
• Will the plan affect wild life and plants in the area?
• Will the land conversion rate be sustainable in the long run?
• Will the interaction of human activities and the environmental condition be within
allowable margin of the carrying capacity of the region?

22
Energy supply
• Will there be sufficient energy supply for the planned population size and economic
activities:
• What types of energy sources are recommended for the area, and if that suggestion is
valid,
Pollution control
• What types of pollution will be produced, and if the pollution levels would be within
allowable margins
• Is the water supply area/source safe from contamination?
• Is the land use mix appropriate for healthy living, recreation and working?
• Is the location of solid and liquid waste disposal site appropriate?

Socio-economic impacts
• Does the proposed plan constrain social and economic development?
• Does it provide equal opportunity to all?
• Will the plan bring sufficient and appropriate employment?

3.6 Approval of plans

Ratification of an urban plan at reasonably short time after the preparation of the final draft is a
necessity on grounds that the plan becomes legal and binding. Failure to ratify a plan affects
urban management; distorts public and private investment decisions; increases speculation. A
recommended approach is to ratify a draft plan once it has passed the necessary plan preparation
steps, monitor its effectiveness during implementation and initiate amendments on the basis of
feedback during implementation. However, it is necessary that the legislature fix the time
required to approve plans.
• The SP and LDP should be approved by the relevant and authorized body before
adoption for implementation (relevant body to be defined in the Federal Urban Planning
Law or by regional councils),
• Request for approval shall be made by the plan preparation team or agency,
• Prior to approval the plans should be displayed for public comment and should be
discussed and agreed upon,
• The relevant authority should ensure that public opinion has been incorporated in the
final plan
• The approval of the SP and LDP/s should be announced for all parties through public
media. The documents should also be available for inspection by the public. This could
be done in several ways: publication for sale, depositing in public and educational
libraries. The publications could be in parts or in full.

3.7 Plan Implementation

How do we get there?
The planning process is incomplete without plans being implemented. Each provision in the
planning policy should have a corresponding means of implementation. The institution which
prepared the plan need not be necessarily the implementer nor to become the monitor of
implementation. However, there should be a body that facilitates the implementation and a means
to realise plans. Monitoring of plan implementation is a means for the collection of time-series
data for the next round of planning. Development control departments involved in plan
implementation should have a section that deals with monitoring of plan implementation (for
more details refer Part II of this Manual).

3.8 Plan Revision

Plans have validity periods at the time of preparation. Service levels, space reserves and
technologies have to be projected for a specified population and time span. Hence, plans have to

23
be revised periodically; however, there are times when a plan may not serve for the whole
planning period. Conditions that oblige plan revision include the following:
• When space reserve for the different urban functions are depleted,
• When major new functions, which were not considered before, arise, (such as airports,
industries, universities, etc.)
• When the local economic base of an urban area changes thereby requiring different
institutions and land use changes,
• When change of technology is radical and accommodating the changes within the
existing plan is difficult or impossible,

24
 Section III Contents of Urban Plans

This section deals with the mandatory elements of urban development plans. The description of
elements is limited to basic characteristics of each plan type.

4. Contents of Structure Plans

The Structure Plan must contain necessary elements that are sufficient to guide the orderly
development of a planning area. These elements are legal and binding; hence they must be clear
for interpretation in law courts. As per the draft Federal Urban Planning Law the following
elements are earmarked as mandatory for each Structure Plan of an urban area.

1. General Land Use,

2. Infrastructure and circulation;
3. Open Space and environmental aspects;
4. Housing

Though elements are mandatory, provisions of two or more elements maybe merged together
depending on the complexity of the issues under each element. Each of these elements is
elaborated below.

4.1 General Land Use Element

The General Land Use Element is the basis for the integrated development of an urban area. The
land use plan must deal with relevant physical development issues of the community and the
planning areas. Its objectives, policies and projects must be consistent with that of the other
mandatory elements. The General Land Use Element must indicate the distribution and extent of
land use categories and be sufficiently descriptive to distinguish between levels of intensity and
allowable uses.

Land is one of the basic resources that need to be planned for better utilization. One of the spatial
planning methods is of land is zoning. Zoning is defined as the creation by law of the section or
zones to be used for different urban functions. The regulations prevent misuse of land and
building and limit their height and density of populations according to the use class. Zoning is the
main tool of planning, it prevent encroachment of incompatible uses on to other use classes. It
also helps to coordinate the provision of various public amenities like water supply drainage,
electricity, and transport. There are different classifications of zoning, Use zoning, Height zoning
and Density zoning.

4.1.1 Height zoning

Based on the use of the land, topography, soil type, surrounding built up area it is necessary to
control the height and volume of the buildings. The height zoning helps to Prevent height
disparity in neighbouring buildings; it also helps to establish minimum standard in terms of light,
air and open space thereby creating healthy conditions. The height zoning helps to create a
harmonious effect on the aesthetics quality of the built environment. In the determination of
height zones the factors to be considered included:

• Centrality or demand pressure for land,

• The carrying capacity of land (taking into consideration geological conditions, allowable
construction methods),
• Height limiting factors such as aerodrome field, historic sites, visual lines to important
buildings and sites, technology used (presence of lifts), etc.
• Functional considerations to suit work flow
The height zones should be provided in ranges for all areas. The ranges could be in increments of
one to three storey’s for the lower zones and in increments of five to seven storey’s for the next
higher buildings and in increments of ten storey’s thereafter. Hence all building having one to

25
three storeys could be in one zone, 4 to 6 storeys in the next zone, 7 to 12 in the next, 13 to 20 in
the next, and so on. In existing areas, care should be taken to allow for sufficient light and air if
low structures have to be retained from the previous development period. Height zones have
important implications on the provision of open spaces. The planner has to balance between
height regulations and open space standards so that the gross density of buildings and population
is optimised.

4.1.2 Density zoning

One of the key objectives of planning is to optimise on the use of resources. The use of land has
to be maximised to the appropriate level. Density zoning does just that. In density zoning the built
up space per unit area of land and the served population size are the two measures. Density of
buildings is measured through Building Area Ratio (BAR) and Floor Area Ratio (FAR). The first
refers to the land coverage per unit plot whereas the second refers to the total area of floors in all
storeys per unit area of a given plot. Set-back regulations could affect these measures. In setting
BAR and FAR the planner has to determine the required set-back, the size of individual plots, and
the optimum floor space requirement for the use class under consideration.

The population per unit area is defined as density of population. The density could either be gross
or net density. The gross density is the average density of population per unit area of residential
zone including open spaces and area under non-residential units such as, schools, road, shops and
other public institutions. The net density is the average density per unit housing area including
local roads only. Population density indicates the degree of overcrowding hence it has an
important place in every planning. The urban plan out put has to fix certain standards of gross and
net densities for various areas. The following factors need to be included in the urban plan:

• The minimum size of plots.

• The number of buildings (houses) per unit area.
• The ratio of total plot area to the total built up area (BAR)
• The ratio of total floor area to total plot area (FAR).

4.1.3 Use zoning

Use zoning refers to the allocation of land to different urban functions. The process of use zoning
follows the identification of distinct use classes, determining the land area requirement for each
function, and determination of the compatibility and allowable mix of functions. In use zoning
the planner has to consider most of the following factors.

• Determine the total planning area for an urban centre (total land bank),
• Conduct suitability analysis (slope, environmental considerations such as hazards, natural
resources, and forests, etc.)
• Survey the existing structures and determine the dominant function of an area,
• Conduct projection of land requirement for the planning period,
• Conduct compatibility analysis,
• Determine the optimum location of different functions.

Usually a mix of functions might be possible. The main guiding principle is to determine those
functions that should not be placed close together. In the output format functions are categorised
into three: permitted, limited and prohibited.
The use zoning type and the level of flexibility, however, might depend on the type and level of
the town. Under the use zoning an urban centre may be divided in to various sections or zones for
specific purposes. Land use plans of different urban centres may not have similar use classes,
however, the following land use classes, where they exist, should be shown distinctly:

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Table 4.1 Common land use categories

Residential Central area

1. Pure residential 1. Administration
• High, middle and low 2. Commercial
income areas 3. business
• By house type: Apartments, 4. cultural
villas, row houses
2. mixed
Green areas and open spaces Social and municipal facilities
1. Sport facilities, 1. Education
2. Children playgrounds/residential 2. health
open spaces 3. market (guilt, livestock,)
3. public squares 4. slaughter house
4. road medians and rights-of- ways 5. worshiping places
5. Parks 6. postal services
6. Forest 7. waste disposal (sanitary landfill,
7. Urban agriculture treatment plant, public/communal
toilets, public baths, etc.)
Manufacturing and storage Transportation terminals
1. Industrial parks 1. Bus stops
2. Workshops, small scale industries 2. Taxi stops
3. warehouses, depot, storage, silos 3. Train stations
4. Airports
Natural hazard areas Special function areas
1. Land slide areas, 1. Archaeological sites
2. faults, 2. Military zones
3. wetlands, 3. Scenic landscapes, cultural sites

The General Land Use Element must be clear for interpretation. Provisions regarding adjacency
and extent of land use classes over which a policy is applicable should be clear from the land use
plan. In the determination of adjacency of land uses proper consideration must be given to safety,
noise level, and conservation of natural scenic areas, cultural landscapes, and historical heritages.
However, the Structure Plan should not be required to be a parcel specific plan. A Structure Plan
should indicate building intensity and population density of each category of land use class. A
building intensity provision should specify using appropriate standards for each land use classes.
For example, number of dwellings per acre is a good indicator for residential use, floor area ratio
is appropriate for business, commercial and industrial uses; a combination of maximum plot
coverage and maximum building height is appropriate for open space and agricultural uses.

4.2 Infrastructure, and circulation element

This component of the structure plan must address the requirement for utilities (energy, water,
sewage, storm water, communication), and circulation of people and goods. The provisions of
this element should be in keeping with the land use element. It should also be consistent with the
housing, open space and environment and conservation elements. Policies and regulations on
infrastructure and circulation affect the performance of an urban area. The Infrastructure and
Circulation element of the structure plan must address the following main issues:

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Table 4.2 Infrastructure Components
1. Public utilities 4. Transportation systems
• water supply, • Public and private transport
• sewage system, system
• electric supply, • Motorised and non-motorised
• telecommunication; systems (vehicular,
2. Hierarchy of circulation networks pedestrian, bicycles, animal
• Major thoroughfares: highways, drawn carts);
Access roads, • Train services,
• Paths: pedestrian, bicycle lanes • Tram services
• Navigable waterways • Air transport
• Railway lines 5. Transportation system management
3. Terminals for major transportation • Traffic management
exchange centres, • Safety measures
• Regional and local bus • Vehicle standards,
terminals, • Parking facilities.
• Railway stations 6. Air pollution from vehicles
• Taxi centres • Pollution standards
• Airports and Sea ports • Measures to control pollution

Box 4.2. Importance of proper Infrastructure and Circulation

Social aspects: Level of infrastructure provision influences the services that inhabitants get in an area. It
may even be an indicator of who inhabits a certain area. The circulation system influences the way
people and goods move within the urban area. It should be accessible to all people-the elderly,
handicapped, the poor, and the young.

Economic aspects: Accessibility of urban areas affects value of properties. The convenience provided by
infrastructure and circulation systems makes an area to develop or to decline. Urban areas must be
properly provided with necessary utilities and circulation facilities.

Physical aspects: Circulation space is the major form-giver for urban areas. The different circulation
systems and the transportation exchange centres provide paths and nodes for urban areas. Proper
combination of these elements promotes the hierarchical development of urban areas.

4.3 Open space and environmental aspects element

Open space is any land or water area that is unimproved and left open. The open-space and
environmental aspect plan of the structure plan aims at guiding the comprehensive and long-term
conservation of open spaces and environmentally sensitive areas. The open space and
environmental aspects element overlaps with most other elements: land use, housing, and
conservation. The plan for open space should indicate clearly what is allowed and what is not
allowed as a land use. Relevant issues that should be considered include, but are not limited to the
following:

Requirements for open spaces and environmental aspects should be developed in consultation
with institutions responsible for agriculture, fisheries, wildlife, recreation, tourism, disaster
management, water and mineral resource development. The provisions should be based on data
from relevant institutions. Policies for open spaces should have implementation measures at
municipal level and subject-specific institutions. At urban level the policy and the action
programme should aim to maximise accessibility of existing open spaces to the population in
need of open space.

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Box 4.3 Common Open Space Categories

1. Open space for outdoor recreation
• Parks, sports fields, lakes and lake shores, beaches,
rivers, streams, mountains, corridors that link open
space reserves such as trails along river banks and
railway/highway lines;
• Areas of outstanding scenic, historic and cultural
value including open landscapes and agricultural
fields.
3. Open space for the managed production of
resources
• Forestlands, agricultural lands, areas for the
production of goods of economic importance
(lumber, firewood, berries, gum, etc.);
• Open area required to recharge ground water
basins,
• River basins, lakes and estuaries needed for the
management of commercial fisheries;
• Areas containing important mineral resources
including building materials.
5. Open space for future expansion
• Area reserve for projected expansion of urban uses
• Space reserve for the development of public
facilities in the future
• Right-of-ways reserves for future upgrading of road
size.
7. Open space required for solid and liquid waste
disposal and treatment
• Landfill sites for solid waste disposal
• Liquid waste treatment plant location
2. Open space necessary for the preservation
of natural resources
• Wildlife retreats (animals, fish), and plant
niches;
• Areas for scientific studies of natural
settings or ecological footprints, rivers,
coastal areas, watersheds,
4. Open space reserved for public safety
against risks from environmental
elements
• Earthquake prone areas, unstable lands,
floodplains, watersheds,
• Areas reserved to ensure water quality and
air quality;
• Areas required to stop the spread of
wildfire, buffer zone for sandstorm;
6. Urban agriculture and horticulture
• Open areas awaiting development,
• Areas that are steep for normal building,
• Areas near or on environmentally
unsuitable areas for building (wetlands,
river banks, etc.)
8. Open space for future expansion
• Space for different functions
• Buffer zone
• Allowed temporary uses

4.4 Housing element

Housing is an important urban land use class. Housing issues are of paramount importance to all
citizens, hence housing was made a compulsory element in the structure plan. Apart from the land
use component, the housing element must include the following items.

Structure plans must quantify the existing and projected housing needs of all income levels;
1. Programmes for the fulfilment of the requirements;
2. provision of adequate site for housing,
3. Applicable building and population density,
4. Allowable space standards and facilities,
5. Necessary mix of income groups in housing developments;
6. Tenure types and rights associated with each type;
7. Preservation of housing (Control of conversion of use of low income housing)
8. Construction standards and safety
9. Energy conservation strategy
10. Strategy for the development of housing for low and medium income households;
Housing
11. Finance and subsidy mechanisms for low-income households

The housing element of structure plans must be reviewed and revised in shorter time spans than
the other elements. This is because housing requirements are dynamic and they should be

29
fulfilled. Normally the housing element must be revised at about five years interval. The review
and revision of the housing element must consider the drawbacks of the earlier policy on housing
goals, objectives, and means for the attainment of these goals.

The review must clarify the difference between what was projected and the reality; what extent of
the plan was achieved. Moreover, the revised must show how to achieve goals and objectives
better than the previous housing element of the structure Plan.

A housing policy must provide means for the development of adequate housing. The means
include among other options, the adoption of various housing development modalities (Box
4.4.1), tenure variations, proper loan finance, and access to land.

Box 4.4.1 Nomenclature of housing development systems

Pure Self-help system: individuals develop their own houses through partial labour contribution. Self-
help implies some kind of low cost means for the development of housing. Pure self-help could
be either on individual basis or through cooperatives.
Aided self-help: Government or NGO assisted self-help housing.
Individual housing: Houses developed for individuals on private plots. The mode of development
could be using loan finance and through contractor.
Cooperative Housing: houses developed for a group. There could be common parts (such as open
spaces, communal centre, etc.). The cooperative society may retain the title deed for land and
housing while the members own inalienable rights over their housing unit. The privatisation of
cooperative houses is peculiar to Ethiopia.
Real estate developed houses: Housing units developed on commercial basis for sale or rent. The
developer holds the property as inventory item, a property for sale.
Institutional homes: Housing units for temporary accommodation such as hospitals, homes for the
aged, the handicapped, hotels hostels.
Condominiums: Housing units where there are shared facilities; the structural elements are owned in
common but individuals have inalienable rights over specific parts of a building. Individual
housing units are privately owned unlike in apartments and cooperative housing.

5. Contents of Local Development Plans

The sphere of operation that should be dealt within a planning exercise is identified at the time of
planning brief preparation for a local development plan (LDP). The contents of LDPs must be
consistent with the provisions of the structure plan (SP). The LDP may not encompass the whole
of the planning area of the structure plan. However, each area covered under the structure plan
should be provided with clear policies for an orderly development of the area under
consideration. In general the contents of the local development plan are elaborations of the
provisions of the structure plan. There should be provisions for all elements depicted in the
structure plan. A local development plan stands between structure plan and project plan. Project
planning is the most specific and concrete form of planning. It is the smallest unit at which
development planning is organised. All planning exercises are expected to result in an urban
project; whatever the projects might be.

The following fields of planning constitute the main planning spheres at LDP level: land use
planning; urban design; conservation area planning, landscape planning, housing: new
developments, upgrading and redevelopment planning; infrastructure planning; and
transportation planning. The contents of local development plans for each of these spheres of
operation differ depending on the context. The following sections provide guidelines for the
necessary issues that should be included in local development plans. The contents follow those of
the structure plan. It is to be emphasised that each component should have a regulation and
implementation mechanisms.

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5.1 General Principles and Land sub-division Guidelines
Land use plans contain assessment of land resource and allocation of land budget to main
functional units either exclusively or in a mixed-use provision. Land use planning is the
traditional core of urban planning as all other development plans had to be coordinated in spatial
framework. The main procedures used to fix land uses are:

1. carryout inventory of land resources;

2. identify activities that require land in the local context (the usual land use classes are
housing, commerce, business, administration, industrial, recreation and restricted or
environmental sensitive areas);
3. project land requirement for each land use class and allocate land in relation to the
available land resource;
4. carryout compatibility analysis (tolerance level of land use classes);
5. define the relative proximity of different land use classes.
6. prepare zoning and subdivision regulations

Local development plans and Action Plans1 define how we get to where we want to go, the steps
required to reach the strategic goals include:
1. identification of actors,
2. identification of interest groups who might support or oppose the plan
3. time frame for the actions
4. spatial delimitation of the actions

Once goals, strategies, objectives and programs are defined, planners can prepare estimate of the
revenues and expense entailed by the entire package of strategies. This detailed estimates or long-
term budget is the financial plan. The following issues should be considered while developing
the financial plan:

• Analyse current and potential sources of revenue;

• Make a conservative estimate of the revenue to be received during the period for which
the plan is being made;
• Analyse current and potential expense for the strategies chosen;
• Make a conservative estimate of the expenses that will be incurred;
• Calculate to see whether the anticipated revenues will cover the expense;
• Revise strategies and activities as necessary to ensure the financial health of the program;
• Prepare detailed year-by-year estimates of revenues and expenses.

Density
Encourage high density at strategic points (like public transport stops, adjacent to higher amenity
areas) the high density would provide the economy of scale to support the facilities and/ or
transport services.

Diversity (mixity)
Different land use functions should be mixed when parcellation plan is thought of. Mixity has
dual purpose, it keeps the area to remain active at all times and it creates good economic activities
for that area as a result of the presence of various functions.

1
Action Plans are understood to mean plans for immediate application; they maybe project plans that are
more detailed than higher level plans. In the international literature there is no assumption that Action Plans
do not emanate from comprehensive/or structure plans. However, the understanding in Ethiopian planning
practice up to now is that Action Plans are temporary actions just to relieve municipalities of their
immediate concerns. This means Action Plans could be prepared (and have been prepared) without the
existence of higher level plans.

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Housing typologies
The housing typology is determined depending on the following factors:
• The dwelling type and how it will be used by household members
• Context or setting of the household including relations with various social group,
neighbourhood, etc.

Natural features
• Topography: Topography becomes the major determinant for a site plan; as it influences
the type and cost of the building, control the direction and rate of water runoff.
• Climate
• Soil condition: Soil conditions have effects on foundations. The soil type that requires
costly foundation solutions is not preferable for land sub division.
• Plant cover (green area): It is important to retain much of the green existing in the site
during land parcellations and to plan new space for the green cover.

Block size arrangement

The sub division of settlement into a specific block type has an impact on the movement of
circulation system within the settlement. In the area of low car ownership fairly short blocks of
approximately 100-150 m long is most appropriate. As the block length decrease the number of
through connection increases for pedestrian movement. However it implies more roads to be
constructed. The scaling down of large blocks could be beneficiaries in creating a sense of
belongingness especially for the children and aged people. The housing type or land use generally
determines the dimensions and the extent of the required blocks.

Land utilization

In order to assess the efficiency of land utilization within the proposed block sub division the
following methods are used.
• Building unit ratio: it measures the length of road network in relation to the plot area,
• Building density measured in BAR and FAR.
The land use plan must contain, depending on the local context, sufficient land at appropriate
locations and in keeping with compatibility factors. The following components constitute the core
of land use classes of most urban plans:
• urban centres plan
• strategic investment areas plan
• residential areas
• public facilities
• historical heritage/conservation plan
• building height plan
• urban design plan
• industrial area plan
• green areas plan

For efficient and proper use of land, the following main principles should be considered when
land is sub-divided for different uses.

5.2 Urban centres plan

An urban centre plan shows how the commercial and business district of a town will develop in
the future. It must show allowable mix of functions and intensity of uses. The performance of the
urban centre will determine whether an urban area will develop or decline. The urban centre plan
must indicate hierarchy of centres and the possible mix of functions so that the centres will be
active throughout a 24 hour day cycle and all year round. The urban centre plan must be
consistent with the strategic investment areas plan, building height plan; urban design plan,

32
transportation plan and the facilities plan. Guiding principles for the determination of urban
centres include:

1. historical continuity of a centre

2. opportunity for maximising existing resources (buildings, infrastructure, etc.)
3. ease of accessibility by different means of transport,
4. possibility to expand (suitability of land for intensive use),
5. compatibility of the uses with the surrounding land uses

An urban centre plan must include policies for development, parking standards, preservation of
public spaces, pedestrian safety, and other issues as the case maybe.

5.3 Strategic investment areas plan

The local development plan must identify strategic investment areas and devise means for their
development. Strategic investment areas could be identified through analyses of stakeholders’
interests and projection of infrastructure developments. Planning should be proactive. Phasing
plans, investment plans and capital development programmes should support the development of
locations designated as strategic investment areas. The guiding principles for determining
strategic investment areas include:
• focused, targeted and scaled development,
• efficient re-utilisation of land and other resources,
• maximising the output from the potential of areas and development with multiplier effect,
• bringing about better urban quality (social and physical).

5.4 Residential areas

Local development plans must indicate appropriate subdivision standards, allowable mix of uses,
level of housing accessibility to different income groups, number and quality of dwellings needed
in a development area and the possibility to provide adequate houses. It is necessary to promote
mixed use in residential areas; however, the types of allowable functions should not be
detrimental to descent living in environmental, cultural, and property value issues.
• Promote mixed-income group housing,
• Promote safety in residential areas,
• Mix different age groups
• Promote mixed use development.

5.5 Conservation areas plan

A conservation plan deals with those areas that have architectural or environmental quality worth
conserving. These days the idea of monuments has been widened to include not only individual
objects of art but also sites of historical significance. The planning of such areas may involve
listing of objects and sites for conservation, strategies for maintenance and adaptive reuse. The
main inventory of cultural heritage may lie with the ministry and Regional bureaux dedicated to
culture, but the planning department of Regional States and municipal administrations should
work together with that ministry in the identification of conservation areas and incorporate it with
the local development plan of the area.

5.6 Landscape plans

Landscape planning is an area of operation with the aim of integrating natural and man-made
features. Its outputs include identification of environmentally sensitive landscapes, means of
conserving them; methods of enhancing visual quality of open spaces and built-up urban areas. A
landscape plan for an urban area should identify restricted and buildable areas; indicate
sustainable uses for public areas; and integrate landscape requirements with land use classes. A
landscape plan should incorporate methods for the conservation of possible fauna and flora that
are found in the area.

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5.7 Urban design plan
An urban design plan consists of schemes for the integration of social, economic and spatial
aspects in urban development. Urban design plan is usually prepared for a distinct urban block;
however, urban areas should be planned in an integrated way so that the whole and the parts form
a unified architecture: the architecture of the city. Urban design aims to plan the city without
designing individual buildings. Each block and each neighbourhood should have an urban design
plan prior to plan approval for the development of projects. The most common aspects to be
guided by an urban design plan include
• functional mixes in a project,
• townscape requirements (scale, mass, texture, materials and styles),
• network of accesses and
• modes of transport such as the mix of pedestrian, bicycle, animal-drawn carts, tram and
vehicular lanes.

5.8 Upgrading
It is natural that urban areas develop, grow to an optimal level and decline in importance.
However, unlike natural organisms, the death and life of urban areas is in the hands of urban
administrations: policies may assist the revival or the death of urban areas. An upgrading work is
customarily associated with dilapidated areas where the urban poor reside and most often with a
humanitarian agency assisting the population to improve physical, economic and social
conditions. However, upgrading need not be an NGO affair. Urban administrations ought to plan
how residents could improve their environments by providing incentives and mechanisms
(including the use of NGOs) for the maintenance of infrastructure and dwellings and the
improvement of overall incomes. Upgrading should not be a means to freeze urban areas and
aspirations of the community. A comprehensive exercise should be launched to determine what to
upgrade and what to redevelop.

5.9 Redevelopment plan

Redevelopment planning is a sphere whereby the present capacity of an urban area and the
opportunities in the near future are studied and proper project planning is suggested. It is part and
parcel of the urban upgrading study. In redevelopment planning the main issue is how to balance
what an urban area could gain in total with the loss that individual members of society may incur
as a result of redevelopment. The assessment should include all possible costs and benefits at
individual and urban level. Development should be community-oriented; the major criticism of
traditional redevelopment of inner city areas is the relocation of masses of people to the periphery
areas. However, different mechanisms could be employed to accommodate households within
project areas or provide means for residents to choose from. Land pooling has proved to be a
good tool to redevelop urban areas in countries where land is privately owned. The system works
because landholders agree to pool together their small parcels. A subdivision plan will be
prepared for the area and infrastructure will be provided. Shareholders will get their share minus
sufficient plots, the sale of which will cover the cost of planning and developing infrastructure.
This system could be adapted to fit a public ownership of land system. Even if individuals do not
own land they have the right to dwell somewhere; therefore, once households have secured a
footing in an area their right for a place of residence (not ownership) should be respected. This
implies residences could be built within the same project area or in its vicinity and the former
residents given priority to rent.

In redevelopment planning due consideration must be given to compensation and rehabilitation of

former land users. The compensation should consider not only the value of capital goods but also
the social costs that household incur as a result of relocation. Proper rehabilitation programmes
should be designed and implemented so that relocated households re-establish themselves and
maintain at least the living standard that they had prior to relocation. Expropriation,
compensation, relocation, and rehabilitation measures should consider appropriate policies and
regulations pertinent to the issues.

34
Urban redevelopment planning should consider at least the following Criteria.
1. The potential of the area is higher than its current use (rent gap theory),
2. An area is blighted, i.e. buildings are unsafe and/or unsanitary to occupy; inadequate or
overcrowded condition, lacking proper ventilation, open space, access roads, making the
area uneconomical or socially undesirable,
3. That the level of blight is beyond repair; that keeping the existing situation would further
depreciate property value and the social and economic well being of inhabitants,
4. That there is serious lack of public facilities, housing or other public functions at
particular areas and there is no land for the development of such functions at appropriate
locations,
5. that the redevelopment could be carried out with minimum relocation of current
inhabitants,

5.10 Integration plans

Urban planning is not limited in scope to spatial aspects; development plans in other sectors of
the economy should be integral parts of urban plans. The availability of land for different uses (in
time, size and location) has economic, social and legal implications. Sectoral planning is
necessary so that each sector gets due considerations but urban development works as an
integrated complex system where components have to be right; linkages have to be timely and at
appropriate levels. Moreover, system administration should be of appropriate hierarchy
(centralised-decentralised). In addition to that, institutions at different levels should be provided
with proper staff and finance.

5.11 Infrastructure and circulation

The local development plan must guide the orderly development of infrastructure and circulation
system. This will be possible only if the regulations are clear, consistent, and appropriate. The
following issues should be addressed by the infrastructure and circulation component of the local
development plan.

5.11.1 Road network plan

Road network plan is the basis for an urban structure. In fact in a minimalist approach no
settlement should develop without prior determination and setting out of road network. The road
network plan should provide hierarchy of accesses, standards of carriageway, right-of-way,
recommended level of surface finish, and geometry for curves. Depending on the intensity of use
the road network maybe planned in different grades/levels to minimise conflict between traffic;
both human-motor and motor-motor interaction. Access and circulation plans should consider
requirements for car parking.

5.11.2 Storm water drainage system

All road networks should be provided with appropriate storm water drainage system. The storm
water drainage system should consider the topography of areas, annual and seasonal rainfall data
in the determination of drainage size, slope, and surface finish material. Storm water drainage
system must lay principles for the conduct of property owners with regard to surface water
drainage from compounds. No storm water drainage system could be successful in isolation. The
drainage system for surface water and sewage for toilet waste should not be mixed. However, in
situations where sewage system does not exist, it is possible to combine sullage drain with storm
water drain It is advisable to promote the provision of mechanisms that help surface water to sink
and replenish the ground water. Options for storm water drainage include the following:
• open channel drainage networks.
• road as drain
• buried pipelines

The choice of a storm water drainage system depends on the cost of development, suitability of
the system for the area (density of use, slope site, etc.), and cost of maintenance and management.

35
For detailed standards of storm water drainages system refer the Norms and Standards part of this
Manual.

5.11.3 Sewerage system

Where possible a sewer system should be provided to drain waste from toilets and sullage (liquid
waste from domestic use). Such a system must be designed to run along appropriate lines. The
choice of a sewerage system in comparison to septic tank system of liquid waste disposal should
take in to consideration the availability of water, the economy of scale, and cost of laying and
maintaining the system. Appropriate mechanisms for the treatment of sewers should be drawn.

5.11.4 Solid waste management plan

The solid waste management plan must address the following interrelated factors;
• storage of waste in household or communal containers,
• method of collection of the waste from the storage containers,
• frequency of collection of waste,
• transfer of waste from smaller containers to larger containers and finally to landfill sites,
• location and management of landfill sites.

In the determination of container sizes and hygienic issues, the type, volume, and characteristics
of the solid waste must be identified. It is also necessary to institute public awareness programme
regarding solid waste management. Devising public/private sector involvement in solid waste
management is a necessary component of the solid waste management plan.

5.11.5 Transportation plan

The need for public transport should be studied and appropriate strategies should be devised.
Private sector participation should be encouraged. The transport plan should consider the
following main points.
• Identify the number and the needs of people who depend on public transport,
• Assess the transportation needs of special groups (the handicapped, the elderly, etc.) and
how they are being catered for now,
• Investigate the adequacy of transit routes, future trends and needs; identify services and
facilities, and the need for expansion,
• Dedicated bus lanes, park and ride policies,
• Locational suitability of bus stations, taxi terminals and car parking spaces, adequacy of
spaces,
• Assess private bus/minibus services, private car ownership,
• Determine truck route, future changes needed,
• Assess facilities for pedestrian and bicycle users, assess trend of bicycle ownership,
problems with pedestrian and bicycle safety,
• Traffic accidents, main causes, and remedies,
• Adequacy and safety of airports, safety hazards from land uses near airports,
• Assess existing policies regarding navigable waterways (lakes, rivers), assess future
demand for the services, review plans for improvements,

5.11.6 Public facilities plan

This plan should provide appropriate guidance with regard to the location and standard of public
facilities appropriate for the grade of town at urban level and to the population size at
neighbourhood level. Service areas and population sizes for different public facilities should be
based on research at the planning stage. Planning parameters must give due heed to scales of
economy in the determination of size and location of educational, health, cultural and
administrative institutions.

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5.12 Open space and environmental aspects
The “Open Space and Environment” component of the local development plan must be prepared
in sufficient detail so that open space and environmental issues are properly dealt with, controlled
and preserved. This section has strong link with all other components, hence the open space and
environmental plan should be an integral part of other local development plans. However, the
following issues should be clearly spelt out in the plans.

5.12.1 Environmental conservation plan

Sensitive areas should be identified and means for their conservation should be outlined in the
local development plan. Areas such as, steep slopes, unstable lands, scenic areas, ground water
replenishing areas, areas for wild life protection and forest land for the preservation of genetic
diversity should be protected. Criteria for the safe level of use/ or exploitation of such areas
should be identified and all projects should submit environmental impact assessment report.

5.12.2 Residential open spaces

Residential areas should be provided with ample open space for children play ground. The
residential open space plan must indicate standards for open spaces, maintenance and upkeep
mechanisms, and allowable uses. List of functions that require temporary structures on open
spaces should be provided. Residential open spaces should be accessible to all residents of an
area; there should not be limitation on access and location of open spaces should be appropriate
to promote accessibility.

Points for consideration

• optimum size of residential open spaces,
• distance between two open spaces
• expected population to be served
• physical structures in open spaces
• system of open spaces
• management of open spaces
• allowable functions (noise level for nearby residences).

5.13 Housing
Housing is a major land use in urban areas. Apart from the land use component aspects, housing
deserves special considerations with regard to securing decent shelter for all. In urban planning
the issues of housing are dealt under several sections: land delivery; subdivision planning; density
(houses and people); housing finance; housing tenure; housing development methods; and so on.

The housing and upgrading component of urban plans deals with means of promoting new
housing development and the upgrading of existing housing stock. The main issues in housing
relate to promoting housing production, increasing accessibility, integration of different income
groups, housing finance and methods for assisting low-income households. An urban plan may
include policies for the redevelopment of areas; however, individual developments should be
planned project by project. Urban managers should consider negotiating with developers to
provide affordable housing against the relaxation of development rights.

Housing development policies must aim for mixed income residences in most neighbourhoods.
Policies for the promotion of housing developments should be designed by taking into
consideration income median of the population and the ratio of income to construction cost. In
the drafting of housing policies in the local development plan, cultural aspects of space usage and
symbolism should be given proper considerations. Housing layouts and standards should consider
climatic conditions of the locality. In the choice of housing typologies, construction materials and
techniques suitable for the local context should be given due attention. Moreover, the
development of housing should be envisaged as part of the employment creation and poverty

37
alleviation strategy of the Federal and Regional Government. Mechanisms, which improve the
contribution of small and micro enterprises, housing cooperatives, and self-help groups, should be
devised. Provisions in the government housing policy should be considered while preparing local
development plans.

38
39
 PARTII Urban Plan Implementation Guidelines

This Section deals with basic provisions to be considered during the implementation of structure
and local development plans. The guideline provides ways and means for plan implementation; it
states general principles as well as step-by- step procedures for effective implementation of plans.

Local governments should prepare the required institutional set up for plan implementation. For
implementing bodies, establishment of proper technical information communication, and setting
up of a suitable channel for following implementation activities to planning bodies and other
stakeholders at different level is essential so as to have a clear vision of implementation tools and
phasing guidelines. The main aim is to bring about sustainable urban development in line with
the objectives of the plan. Plans should have supportive implementation tools and phasing
guidelines. Plan implementation should be undertaken in accordance with relevant regulations,
binding laws and bylaws. Plans should be appropriately approved and have legal backing for
implementation.

Fostering public participation and creating public awareness in plan implementation is also of
paramount importance. Appropriate mechanism should be prepared for evaluation and monitoring
in plan implementation. The required institutional system should be set up for proper
implementation and then the continuum of plan preparation.

1. Components of Implementation Measures

Every level of urban plan (i.e. structure and local development plans and other detail plans) must
have an implementation plan. The following sections will outline basic principles and detailed
points to be considered during plan implementation.

1.1 Guiding Principles for Plan Implementation

The following points state the basic principles of plan implementation and implementation
measures. Implementation measures:

1. Approval

An appropriate body must approve development plans before implementation. Approval of plans
must not be delayed more than necessary after plans are prepared. Implementation of plans that
are not approved leads to non-transparent and non-accountable activities.

2. Development of implementation tools

Implementation tools must be developed before starting implementation. Such tools include rules
and regulations regarding space and service standards, typologies of layouts and buildings;
building bylaws, requirements from applicants for plan approval, regulations providing power
and stating functions of institutes. Rules and regulations should be relevant to the context of
urban centres.

3. Project based implementation

Plans should outline programmes and projects so as to fulfil their objectives. Implementation can
proceed with the preparation of specific projects and their approval. In the programmes, project
priorities should be set; however, there should be flexibility to adjust priorities. Within the overall
programme of actions, projects should be planned on a yearly basis with budgets for the fiscal
year.

40
4. Good Governance

Implementation of urban plans should be based on good governance. To this effect the
implementing body must ensure the following situations:
• Transparency: The public should be notified of any planning and implementation activity
in their town. Working procedures should be clear; requirements from the public to get
specific services should made clear, including the offices which handles cases and the
optimum time required to accomplish the tasks.
• Consistency: decisions should be consistent for all similar cases. If waiver is given to an
applicant on requirements, the waiver should apply to all other similar applicants.
Waivers should be posted so that the public knows about them.
• Accountability: The implementing bodies should be held accountable for their decisions.
Duties and responsibilities should be clearly known ahead of time.
• Public participation: Although the public was consulted during plan preparation, this does
not mean that implementation can proceed simply by interpreting the plan by technicians.
The public should be consulted during each project preparation. Proper mechanisms
should be established to ensure maximum public participation in plan implementation
activities. As part of public participation, the private sector should be encouraged to
actively engage in projects through different participation models.
• Referral system: Mechanisms should be laid to allow inconvenienced parties to appeal
against decision. This procedure builds confidence in the public about the rule of law and
increases transparency, consistency and accountability of the implementing body.

5. Institutional set up

Implementation of plans requires the setting up of proper institutions. Each urban area should
have an institutional se up commensurate with the level of complexities of activities; however,
the following institutions are mandatory for all levels of urban areas:
1. Line Services
• Public works and town planning
• Community development
• Social services (education, health, fire brigade, urban police, etc.)
• Public parks, recreation and culture,
• Revenue collection
2. Support services
• Personnel administration,
• Finance,
• Planning,
• Legal services

6. Clear vision of implementation

The implementing body should have a clear vision of implementation. It is not enough to define
vision at plan preparation stage if it is not influence plan implementation. Having a clear vision
implies, focusing on potentials and exploiting opportunities. Councils and urban managers are
expected to have clear vision for the urban area and constantly inform the public so as to achieve
their visions by implementing plans.

7. Phasing of developments

Urban development takes long period of time, hence the development areas, activities and
services have to be phased properly. The most important point I phasing plan the allocation of
public investment for key areas. Development phasing should show at least the following:
• Sequence of areas to be developed

41
 • Connection of activities
• The finance and other services needed at each stage
• Time schedule of the tasks
• Stakeholders and responsible bodies

8. Performance measures
It is difficult to know whether the objectives of an urban plan are being achieved or not through
the implementation of complex activities. There is a need to have objective performance criteria
to evaluate plan implementation. The evaluation has to be project-wise as well as across
activities.

9. Timely revision

Plans have validity periods; they need to be revised in time. Revisions may not be done all at
once; some amendments should be carried out on yearly basis for planning element. These
amendments could be initiated by individuals or by the planning departments. Amendments
should be discussed by the public and adopted by the ruling council. The overall revision task is
similar to starting the planning process again. Hence it should follow proper procedures of
initiation and approval. The appropriate time for revision is when requests for dispensation and
waiver become frequent, or when the planning department recognises that the existing plan is no
more suitable for the situation.

1.2 Implementation of Structure and Local Development Plans

The sequence of activities in the implementation of plans is as follows.
• Plan approval
• Preparation of regulations, directives, and working procedures,
• Entering agreement with implementing agencies,
• Formulation of projects according to LDPs and operational plans,
• Allocation of budget, manpower, and equipments,
• Valuate, negotiate, fix and compensate landholders, relocate, rehabilitate,
• Site clearing, surveying and localising bench marks and corner stones
• Construct necessary infrastructure
• Allocate land and issue title deeds for potential developers (individual applicants,
investors, or public bodies),
• Issue building permit
• Register the allocated land on cadastral map,
• Monitor and evaluate building development,
• Update SP and LDP as required when modifications are made to local areas.

Implementation of the Structure Plan

The Structure Plan is used in guiding urban development activities as a whole. The contents of
Structure Plan document shall be displayed for the public for at least 2 weeks before approval and
implementation. Large-scale developments for which defined areas are designated on the SP
could be directly implemented. In cases where allowable developments are specified,
implementation could also be undertaken directly, in reference with applicable guidelines,
regulations, norms and standards. In all other cases including development of Strategic
Investment areas, areas designated for urban upgrading and renewal, real estate and other large
scale developments, for the Structure Plan to act as effective implementation document it should
be supported by the required tools and instruments. Two of such tools that are recommended to
be adopted in the planning and implementation process are the Local Development Plans, and
Urban Projects and the accompanying rules, regulations, and guidelines.

42
Decisions in the legal, executive and judicial systems of local governments should be made in
accordance with all applicable plans, laws, bylaws, guidelines, norms and standards. Where there
is difference between or among the Structure Plan, Local Development Plan and/or Projects that
of the most detail should prevail over that general.

Implementation of LDPs and Urban Projects

The framework stipulated in the Structure Plan should guide the preparation of LDP and urban
projects. The contents of the SP with the amendments and justifications shall be prepared and
used as input in the preparation of LDP and projects. Implementation of areas covered by LDP
should be undertaken according to the latter. All concerned bodies should be invited for
discussion in the preparation of LDP. At least a one day presentation and discussion should be
made on contents of LDP. Comments forwarded in such forums should be incorporated in due
course of implementation. LDPs shall be subject for approval by the appropriate institution before
implementation. The LDPs where contents are specific and spatial coverage is less than 5 ha
could be implemented directly. If LDPs are large and planning targets are multiple, urban projects
should be prepared and accordingly realized.

1.3. Development Regulations

Implementation regulations are instruments for the effective guidance of urban development. The
SP and LDP provide the framework while implementation regulations help to synthesise
activities. Issues that require implementation regulations include the following.
1. Expansion area development
2. Intervention programmes (renewal area, upgrading area, mixed intervention area)
3. Informal construction, settlements, activities’ control
4. Hygiene and sanitation control
5. Expropriation, compensation, relocation procedures,
6. Infrastructure and service maintenance procedures,
7. Land allocation, title deeds procedures,
8. Construction permit procedures,
9. Solid and liquid waste collection and disposal systems and procedures
10. Land and property registration and management systems
11. Traffic management regulations
12. Historical sites, monuments and buildings listing, conservation, and restoration
procedures
13. Tax valuation and collection procedures
14. Public hearing procedures

The types and details of the regulations vary depending on local contexts; it is important to
identify the need and prepare the required regulations. Development regulations should be
targeted at achieving sustainable developments in the first place. Sustainability in urban
development could be achieved by providing the right level of infrastructure that meets at least
the minimum required for the specific development project. Establishing optimal limits to
developments of expansion areas in congruence with available and achievable infrastructure is
also essential. Revitalizing infrastructure in core areas is also indispensable approach for renewal
of such areas and their sustainable re/development.

Development regulations should also be targeted at achieving the required level of land use in
urban areas. Developments should be coordinated and integrated. One of the major goals of
development regulations should also be the promotion and eventual realization of equity. To this
end:

• Urban development activities should be prioritised, and accordingly regulated to avoid

scattered and sprawling developments and use resources in a sustainable way

43
 • The local authority has the power to prepare appropriate implementation regulations
• In the implementation of the SP, LDP and projects applicable and relevant development
regulations should be strictly realized
• Local or city government could issue development freeze in selected area/s for different
purposes
• Appropriate direct or indirect land use control methods could be issued for defined
periods to encourage or discourage development of areas by the local government
• Development flexibility could be achieved through Performance Zoning, Cluster Zoning
or Planned Development Units or Development Agreement could be used to regulate
development impacts rather than control land use
• Prevent development without provision of minimum infrastructure
• Regulate the phasing and timing of new re/development based on the availability or
planned availability of adequate facilities and infrastructure
• Prevent land subdivision that results in unusable spaces
• Avoid developments in environmentally sensitive areas prior to conservation actions
being realized
• Development should address the need of the low-income group and the poor
• Enter every land development in a master record system or GIS. Regular updating of
Plans should be undertaken every 2 years for Structure Plan and 6 months for LDPs and
Projects
• There should be a defined Urban Land Registration System for proper land management.
The system should consist of
1. Plot/ Map: showing borders and extents
2. Legal information: ownership, mortgage, collateral, debts, permit to sell
or court order against property transfer
3. Location: Zone/municipality, Kebele, Block, parcel and house number

1.3.1 Phasing of implementation

Urban developments should be prioritised, focused and targeted in accordance with the resources
available. Phasing stipulated in the SP should be adopted in the preparation of LDP and projects.
Clear breakdown of activities and public investment costs should be stated in phasing. Phasing
and corresponding implementation guidelines should be defined.

Development phasing should also show:

• Sequence and connection of activities
• The finance required at each stage of implementation
• Stakeholders and actors
• Phasing stipulated in the SP should be adopted in the preparation of LDP and projects,
• Clear breakdown of activities and public investment costs should be stated in phasing
• Implementation guidelines should be provided respective to the recommended phasing
strategy

1.3.2 Powers and Duties of Local Authorities

Local Authorities have the following major powers and duties. To:
• Prohibit or control the use and development of land
• Prohibit and control the re/subdivision of land
• Review, consider and approve or prohibit application for development activities
• Follow-up and report the proper execution of plans and projects
• Formulate appropriate laws regulations and working procedures
• Protect public land
• Control illegal construction
• To provide and maintain parks, green areas and municipal services
• To identify areas for re/development

44
1.3.3. Administrative steps, procedures and actions
Local governments, in undertaking the major duties and responsibilities presented above, need to
have the required legal backing. In addition to these, transparency and accountability are the most
important points to be considered. The following are the recommended actions required in this
case.
• Procedures and steps and respective offices for undertaking land allocation should be
clearly defined and publicized
• Procedures for issuance of permits for development activities should be clearly spelt out
• Local government has the right to inspect during working hours any development
activities being undertaking by actors within the jurisdiction of its authority
• Notices should be given out in writing about the administrative actions to be taken by the
concerned administrative body
• Public Hearings shall be undertaken for appeals forwarded by those affected due to
development activities
• Objections raised by those to be affected by plans and projects should be accepted and
treated properly through administrative actions and incorporated in due course of plan
updating and revision.

1.3.4 Institutional arrangement

The approved SP, LDP and Projects should be availed by the responsible institution for public
consumption. The source for such information and required data should be notified to the public.
The institutional arrangement for plan implementation should be clarified for the public.
Institutional arrangement in local development should be transparent, facilitative and conducive
for investment. For these, duties and responsibilities and also accountability of parties and
professionals should clearly be spelt out. Institutional arrangement should be targeted at

• Technical integration in designing and execution of investment in infrastructure

• Efficiency in the use of resources through good budgeting and program execution
• Financial viability and sound financial management of projects and plans
• Developing the capacity to plan its services ahead or at least in pace with demand
• Sensitivity to the needs of the low-income group and majority groups
• Concern for environmental protection at all levels

1.3.5. Financing
A lump sum financial requirement for the realization of the SP should be stated in the SP
document.

LDPs and Projects should be accompanied with clear and feasible financial sources and financing
mechanisms for proposed developments.

The amount of public investment required and the share of each institution, stakeholders and the
community in such costs should be defined and specified. Cost recovery mechanisms should also
be defined.

1.3.6 Partnership
Plan implementation should foster partnership in supply and Operation and Maintenance of
services and facilities. Partnership could also be employed in preparation of implementation plans
and projects. Local governments should focus on enabling and regulating rather than controlling
activities of the private sector so that both the private sector and the community benefit.
Partnership should be targeted to:
• Facilitate Public Private Partnership (PPP)- based on a win-win scenarios
• Create conducive environment for Participation

45
 • Undertake Integrated & coordinated planning & implementation
• Create well-defined partnership arrangement on selected services
• Local governments should focus on enabling and regulating the private sector so that
both the private sector and the community benefit

1.3.7 Transparency and public participation

The public should be notified of any planning and implementation processes. Representatives of
the public should be consulted on proposed developments and possible consequences. Such
representative groups could include representatives from: residents, renowned personalities,
elders, Idirs and Equibs, social groups, chamber of commerce, trade unions, public institutions,
infrastructure and utility providing authorities. Representative group should have the degree of
the capacity and legitimacy to influence the plan preparation and implementation process and also
determine priorities for development and where investment for infrastructure and land
development should be realized. These representatives should be allowed to present their views
and comments about the draft proposed developments in writing within one month including
approval and disapproval. Such views and ideas should appropriately be treated and agreements
should be reached accordingly and incorporated into proposed plans and implementation plans.

Appropriate local rules and guidelines could be setup for both formal and informal public
partnership. Participation could take any form depending on specific cases. Participation should
eventually help to attract investment by different actors and facilitating urban development in
general. To this end, transparent working procedures and steps should be created. Required
information about plans and regulations should also be availed for public consumption.

1.3.8. Evaluation, Monitoring and Feedbacks

This part reviews the process and concerned bodies, who should do what in the process of
evaluating and monitoring plan implementation process. It is the process of identifying to what
levels plans have been implemented and the problems encountered. It is a learning process, which
should be integrated, in the planning process. A number of monitoring and evaluation of plans
and projects could be undertaken with different perspectives. Monitoring and evaluation should
indicate how and when to evaluate the implementation of the strategic plan and its assumptions
that contribute to the success of the implementation and the risks that bring failure. Main points
that need to be considered in monitoring and evaluation area

1. Time schedule
2. Task accomplishment
3. Indicators
4. Resource utilization and management
5. Achievement of objectives

The following are the main points that should be considered in monitoring and evaluation
• Ensure participation of community
• Prepare and use feedbacks from monitoring and evaluation in the planning
process
• Include representatives from stakeholders in monitoring and evaluation team
• Prepare project implementation and accomplishment report
• Undertake post project evaluation (fulfilment of objectives, level of success in
reaching the target population, economic and environmental impacts,)
• Prepare feedbacks from experiences of all spatial levels of planning
• Incorporate feedbacks in the planning and implementation process

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1.3.9 Plan Amendments
Anyone who is affected by the provisions of a Structure Plan or Local Development Plan may
initiate amendment to the plan. Local councillors must ascertain that the amendment of any
mandatory element promotes public purpose. A local council may not approve amendments to a
Structure Plan more than a certain number of times in one calendar year depending on the
regulations to be issued either by the Regional Council or the city council. Notwithstanding this
provision, amendments may not be withheld if the subject of amendment is:
• Part of a Federal initiative for a comprehensive urban development.
• For the promotion of affordable housing;
• An optional element;
• To comply with court order.

Amendments to structure plans and local development plans must be made public and all
applications after the amendment has been approved should be treated in line with the amended
plan. When there is need for major amendments, then that is the time for overall plan revision
(refer Section 3.8 of this Manual).

PART III Planning Norms and Standards

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

The creation of a livable and environmentally sustainable urban environment requires the use of
certain spatial and socio-economic service standards in plan preparation and implementation.
Spatial planning standards are inscribed in, but not limited to the following:
• Building bye-laws and codes,
• Land use planning (size of space, location, geometry, etc.)
• Sub-division regulations,
• Zoning and development control regulations,
• Densities (buildings and population),
• Occupancy ratios
• Plot coverage, set-back, and floor-space indices,
• Hierarchy of functions,

Norms and standards are also required to guide the provision of utilities, social facilities and
services, environmental hazard prevention, etc.

Planning exercise is very much difficult without the guidance of norms and standards. Norms
and standards are prepared as part of the planning and implementation guidance system.
Standards in physical planning are based on consolidated results of science, technology,
aesthetics, and social studies. They need to be continually up-dated and revised so as to
maintain their validity and to provide practical solutions to urban development in a particular
situation. The setting and adoption of standards is related to principles of modular
coordination, concept of performance standards, trends in building material and construction
technologies, advances in transportation engineering and advances in the social and economic
development of societies.

1.2 Organisation of the Norms and Standards

Planning norms and standards could be grouped into spatial and socio-economic parameters,
or they could be listed using land use classes. The former method dissociates issues while the
later has the advantage of bringing together all issues of a land use class into one basket.
Therefore, the later method is used in this Manual. The land use classes and the standards

47
 related to that described in this part follow the land use categories identified in Part I Urban
Planning Guidelines of this Manual. However, the grouping of standards does not strictly
adhere to the land use classes listed above, however, its main parts are related to this list.

2. Norms and Standards for Zoning and Sub Divisions

2.1 Residential use

Residential activities consist of pure and mixed activities. In the mixed use small business
and manufacturing activities that do not cause nuisance to residents are located within a
predominantly residential areas.

Area determination factors:

• Projected need for housing units (existing backlog and new housing needs);
• Housing typology (apartments, row houses, villas, detached houses, duplex houses);
• Number, type, and size of residential services and activities to be incorporated;
• Educational, health, recreation, and other basic services to be located within residential areas;
• Circulation access need (vehicular and pedestrian pathways);
• Urban land policies and regulations at national and regional state level, respective to the
urban center

The average residential plot area depends on the respective regional state policy and the
housing typology. The area coverage of residential activities can generally range from 40 to
60 percent of the total area of the built-up area of an urban center. However, the proportion
varies following the role of the urban center.

Location
Priority should be given for allocating suitable areas (comparatively gentle slope not more
than 20 percent, provided with or proximity to services, less natural and man-made
constraints, etc.) for residential activities. Soil conditions should also be considered when
selecting expansion areas for urban centers.

Prohibited locations
• Along motorways;
• Adjacent or near to those activities such as industrial activities, warehouses, airports,
waste disposal sites, that cause nuisance and exposure to environmental pollution;
• On restricted and quarry potential areas.

Block Size Arrangement and Sub division

The subdivision of settlement in to specific block type has an impact on the movement of
circulation system within the settlement. In the areas of low car ownership fairly short blocks
of approximately 100-150mt long is most appropriate. As the block length decrease the
number of through connections increases for pedestrian movement, however it implies more
roads to be constructed. The scale down of of large blocks could be beneficiaries in creating
sense of belongingness especially for children and aged people. The housing type and land
use generally determines the dimensions and the existent the required blocks.

2.2 Central Areas

Center refers to that space or portion of an urban center that serves the surrounding areas in
offering essential urban services. Centers are focal points of administration, service,
commercial activities, transport and communications where people gather to get services.
Centers and their hierarchies should be organized depending on the character, role and

48
 topography of the urban center. The norms, standards and guidelines for functions organized
in the center are the following.

2.2.1 Administration and Development Organizations

Administrative services can be categorized into local administration, governmental administration

and non-governmental organizations.

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 Table 2.2.1 Level of Services, Requirement, and Location of Local Administration
S/N Space Catchment Served Population Location
Requirement Area
1 0.1 - 0.5ha Kebele 2000-10,000 • Within or near the catchments area
• Accessible
2 1 - 2.5ha Woreda 60,000-120,000 • Within or near the center of the
catchments area
• Accessible
3 2.4 – 2.8 ha Sub-city or 300,000-600,000 • Within or near the central places of the
urban center catchments area
• Accessible (near mass transport
services)

N.B. The area and location areas required for establishing governmental and non-governmental
institutions should be studied case by case in accordance with the specific nature of each
institution.

Prohibited Uses
Industries and workshops should not be located in proximity with or in the compound of
administrative activities.

2.2.2 Commerce and Trade

Commercial and trade activities that are established in urban centers can fall into four levels in
terms of degree of capacity, catchments area, and served population in which these activities are
located.

Table 2.2.2 Level, Requirement, and Location of Commercial and Trade Activities

S/ Level of Space Catchme Served Typology Location

N Services Requir nt Area Populatio
o ement n
1 Level One • Inside residential area
or 0.25- 0.5-1km 5,000- Open and • Near intersection of residential
Local 0.5ha 15,000 covered roads
Market
2 Level Two Open and • Inside the center of the woreda
or 1-25ha 1-2km 60,000- covered • Near the intersection of collector
Tertiary 200,000 roads
Market • In or around sub-centers
3 Level • In or around sub-centers
Three or • Along major roads and near mass
Secondary 1.2-6ha 2.5-7km 300,000- 1-4 transport system;
market 900,000 storeys • In central place of the K/Ketema
of a city or urban center
4 Level Four City or 2-6 • Inside CBD
or -- national -- storeys • Near major arterials and mass
Primary level transport system
Market
N.B: Sufficient area for parking draft animals and animal drawn carts should be reserved adjacent
or near markets if animals are used frequently in the urban centers.

Prohibited land uses

Industrial activities that generate pollution

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2.3 Green Areas and Open Spaces

2.3.1 Sport Facilities

There are two types of sport facilities: community facilities and formal sport facilities. These
facilities are established at different levels to provide recreational space for people. The
proportion of land used for recreation and sport facilities as proposed in most urban centers of
Ethiopia varies from 3 to 8 percent and it exceeds 10 percent in some urban centers that have
recreation dominating function. Tables 2.3.1A and 2.3.1B provide standards of sport facilities.

Table 2.3.1A Level of Services, Requirements and Locations of Sport Facilities

S/ Level of Sport Space Catchments Served

N Facilities Requireme Area Population Location
nt
1 Play lot Center of catchments area
(Residential 0.1-0.2ha 120m radius 1,250- with in residential areas
cluster) 1,750 Not adjacent to collector
roads
2 Playground 0.3-0.42 ha 400m radius 5,000- Within the catchments
(Residential) 7,500 area in residential areas
Within catchments area
3 Kebele play 2.6 ha 1km radius 5,000 to kebele boundary
field 10,000 Outside centers of urban
centers
4 Woreda level 10ha Woreda 60,000 to Within the woreda
play field 120,000 boundary
5 Zonal/ stadium 11.5ha Administrativ 300,000 to
e zone or 600,000
Sub-city
6 Regional 16ha City and
stadium region --
7 International National and It can be located outside
stadium, 600-810ha international -- the urban boundary
Olympic sport
complex

N.B.
• The area required for play lot can exceed the given figures in residential areas of high
density.
• The area required for playground can exceed the abovementioned figure in high-density
residential areas with gross area ranging from 7-8 m2/inhabitant.
• 1.2-1.6m2 per user is necessary when exceeding in high-density areas for play field at
kebele level.
• 1.6-1.7 m2 per user in high-density areas for play field at woreda level.
• Zonal stadiums are to be established in the capitals of administrative zones or at sub-city
level.
• Regional Stadiums are to be established in capitals or administrative centers of regions
• The wereda, zone and regional space requirements are additional to those required for
each kebele or residential area.

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Table 2.3.1B. Standard of Sport Facilities by Level

No. Type of Level of sport facility and size in m2 Remarks

sport field
Kebele Woreda Zone Region
1 Foot ball 65x100 70x105 70x105 75x110
Reserve 7.6m
field and 12m for
referees and
viewers
respectively
2 Athletics 6 lanes by 8 lanes by 8 lanes by 8 lanes by Provide l lane
100m 400m 400m 400m of 1.22m
between the
foot ball field
and viewers
sites
3 Basket ball 15x28 15x28 15x28 15x28
4 Volley ball 9x18 9x18 9x18 9x18 Additional
5 Hand ball 20x40 20x40 20x40 20x40 area is to be
6 Table Tennis (7x14) X2 (7x14) X4 (7x14) X8 (7x14) X10 reserved for
7 Ground 23.77x10.97 23.77x10.97 23.77x10.97 23.77x10.97 free movement
Tennis
8 Swimming 25x13 by 6 25x13 by 6 25x 25x50 by 8
Pool lanes lanes lanes
9 Gymnasium 36x22.5 36x22.5 36x22.5 36x22.5 Other sport
facilities can
be organized
under
gymnasium
10 Walk way, 10,138 7446 85815 126168
green, and
contingency
11 Total in m2 25654m2 99319 m2 113080 m2 157350 m2
Total in ha. 2.6ha 10ha 11.5ha 16ha
Source: Ministry of Culture, Youth, and Sports

N.B.In all open sport fields the orientation should be preferably kept N-S; however, a maximum
of 100 deviations in either direction is allowable.

2.3.2 Parks, Forests, and Urban Agriculture

The urban area should also be structured with green system at kebele, sub-city and urban levels.
Generally, 12 - 25 percent of an urban centre should be reserved for green and natural open space.

Parks and forests

It includes green areas (formal or informal), green in or along streets or boulevards, pedestrian
lanes, parking areas, parks, wood lands, buffer zones, green areas along gullies and on
preservation areas, protective forests, etc.

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Table 2.3.2. Standards for Green Areas or Parks

S/N Gross Catchment Lists of Green Areas and Parks Remarks

Area Areas
(m2/inhab)
• Green areas and plantation Street walkways
1 2-8 Kebele connected to services, pedestrian should be provided
lanes, parking areas, woodlands, and with at least one tree
green areas along gullies every 10m.
• Formal green areas (recreation The standard is
parks, collector street sides, additional to each
2 < 0.4 Sub-city boulevards, etc.) inhabitant and varies
• Buffer zones between adjoining depending on the
zones intended to reduce pollution presence of hazard
• Protective forest on hazard-prone prone lands
lands (marshy lands, along streams,
etc.)
• Large green areas reserved for The standard is
recreational activities and festivals additional to each
City wide such as parks, zoo, golf sites, inhabitant.
3 < 0.5 botanic gardens, etc. They are mainly
• Green belt encircling the urban area located on hazard-
reserved for different purposes: soil prone lands along
conservation and erosion control, streams/rivers,
maintaining the microclimate, mountainous areas
windbreak, for fuel wood, and crossing the urban
construction. centers.

N.B.It is recommended to identify the type of trees suitable to be planted when it is found
necessary to cover the preservation areas of cultural, historical and archaeological heritages with
plants.

It is necessary to cover hazard-prone lands of urban centers (mountainous and hilly, steep slopes
above 20 percent or over steep slopes, gully sides, streamside, riversides, wet lands, etc. with
plantation in order to protect soil erosion. Similarly it is needed to dedicate peripheral areas to
vegetation and provide them with necessary management on condition that they are not found
useful for other priorities.

Urban agriculture

It includes those areas to be used for agriculture farming and animal rearing such as flower
garden, horticulture, field cropping, livestock fattening, livestock rearing, and other similar
activities in urban areas. The areas to be allocated for urban agriculture are not limited to the
following.
• Located in the peripheries
• Along streams, rivers and the like
• Not to be used preferably for other urban use
• Suitable more for agriculture use.

2.4 Social Services

This sector includes numerous social and cultural facilities and services, municipal services that
are established at different levels in different places of urban areas to provide residents and non-
residents with the necessary services.

53
 Area coverage
The area to be covered by services should always be in any case above 10 percent of the total area
of the urban centers, and this sometimes exceeds 20 percent when urban centers have social
service dominating function.

Location
The selection of the location of each service is made depending on the followings:
• The specific nature and characteristic of service;
• The catchments area for which the service is provided;
• The location area of the users /serviced population;
• The availability of appropriate area of land/site (topography, area).

2.4.1 Educational services

Table 2.4.1 Level, Requirement and Location of Educational Services

S/ Level of Space Catchment Served Location

N Education requirement area Population
1 Pre-primary • Within residential areas center
Nursery (2-3) 70-175 m2 < 400m 1,000- of catchment area
2,500 • Within kindergartens and near
working places
• Center of catchment area
Kindergarten 500-3000 < 1km 1,000- • Within residential area
m2 2,500 • 100m from dumpsters, noise
pollutants, health facilities, etc.
2 Primary 1.5 – 2.5 ha < 3km 12000- • Within residential areas
Education 18,000 • Along residential collector
(A.A) roads
5,000- • 100m far from market areas,
15,000 traffic congestion, dumpsters
noise of industrial activities and
health facilities
• Not or on near hazard-prone
lands.
3 Secondary • Within the catchement area
Education 2.5-6 ha 3-5 km 10,000- • Along main collector roads
15,000 • Near intersection of roads and
mass transport system
• Area provided with
infrastructure services
• Far from dumpsters, hazard-
prone lands, noise and other
pollutant activities.
4 Post-secondary 2.5-6 ha 3-5 km 10,000- • Near mass transport system
Education or 600,000 (within a walking distance from
Specialized transport services)
High Schools • 100m far from major traffic
points.
N.B.
• The area and location for Kes and Kuranic schools should be similar to that of kindergartens
since they can be upgraded to standard kindergartens.

54
 • The area required for all the above pre-primary schools can exceed the above figures by
taking the gross area 0.4 - 1.4 m2/inhab in high-density areas.
• The area and location required for preparatory and vocational schools should be studied on
the basis of the number of students to be enrolled.
• The covered area for primary, secondary, and post secondary schools can be reduced when
there is a possibility to construct multi-storey buildings.
• As specialized schools are very different, the required area and location should be studied
according to the request and need
• Both secondary and post secondary schools are preferably located on the area adjoining to
sport centers.

2.4.2 Health Services

Table 2.4.2. Level of Services, Requirements, and Locations of Health Facilities

S/N Level Space Catchement Served Location

Service Requirement Area Population
(radius)
Center of catchement area, Within
Health 5,000- Residential area; Near intersection of
1 post 0.11ha < 1km 7,000 residential roads; Far from noisy
activities
Within the serviced area ; Accessible
2 Health 0.45 – 0.6 < 2km 25,000 along collector roads; Far from
Center ha dumpsters, noisy activities
Woreda Within catchement area; With in walking
District including 250,000 distance from mass transport system
Hospitals 2 ha rural areas Along collector roads
General 1-1.5 ha Regional 1,000,000 Within catchement area; Within walking
3 (Regional) level distance from mass transport
Hospital Along collector roads
Referral variable National
Hospital

N.B.
• Clinics can fall under health post category but the area required and their location could vary
depending on their level of capacity.
• The area to be covered for health institutions can be reduced when there is a possibility to
install multi-storey buildings.
• All hospitals can be located outside city centers but near secondary centers, 200m from noisy
areas (general market, traffic points and other premises), far farm education facilities, near
mass transport system.

Note that the standards for health and education services are taken from the respective
institutions. The area stipulated is mostly based on the overall context. I.e. area coverage of the
institutions could be vary while considering a more urbanized settlement.

55
2.4.3 Other Social Services

The area and location for other social services such as social care centers orphanage, the
aged, disabled, etc. should be studied case by case in accordance with the specific nature of
each institution.

2.4.4 Cultural Activities

It includes all activities of cultural and social importance such as museum, art galleries,
amusement centers, etc.

Location
Cultural activities are mostly located in or around the centers and sub centers of the urban centers
and also near other related uses.

Area
The area for each cultural activity can be determined according to its specific nature, capacity,
and future requirement for expansion.

2.4.5 Livestock Market

Location
• In the peripheries of towns
• In area where road reach to enable transport the cattle
• Near but not adjacent to the slaughter house
• Following the flow directions of cattle, equines, shouts, etc.

On the other hand, they should not be located near schools, health services, worship places, and
residential areas.

56
 Table 2.4.4. Levels, Requirements, Locations of Livestock Markets

S/N Level of Number of Livestock Area Required in meter squares for Total Area
Service Supply Livestock in Hectare
Cattle Shoats Equine Livestock Circulation Facilities
1 Local < 500 < < 20 2830 290 1040 0.42
1000
2 Tertiary 750- 1500- 30-40 4245- 435-580 1560- 0.62- 0.89
1000 2000 5660 2080
3 Secondary 1500- 2500- 50-60 7950- 815-1050 2922- 1.17- 1.51
2000 3000 10240 3763
4 Primary >3000 >4000 70 14730 1510 5413 2.17

Source: Computed on the basis of the data obtained from FDRE Authority for Livestock Market

N.B.
• The area required to reserve for each cattle is 3.5 m2, for shoat 0.90m2, equines
4.5m2.
• The area required for circulation is nearly 10.25 percent of the total area reserved for
the market.
• The area required to reserve for others include all the area for administrative office,
balance, toilet, incineration of solid waste, reservoirs, etc.

2.4.6 Slaughterhouse

Table 2.4.5 Levels, Areas and, Locations of Slaughterhouses

S/N Level of Daily Urban Required Locations

Services Slaughtering Centers Area (ha)
Capacity
1 15-30 cattle Rural Slaughterhouses should be located:
Level equine centers • In the peripheries of urban centers
One 15-50 goats or & small 0.06-0.09 • On accessible areas with a
sheep sized urban minimum of collector roads;
centers • On areas provided with
30-100 cattle/ infrastructure services (water,
2 Level equines ---- 1.0-1.4 electricity, and drainages), etc.)
Two 50-300 • On areas having a topography
goats/sheep 20 (slope) with about 5 percent
pigs • In areas not subject to frequent
Level 100-200 flooding and free from
3 Three 300-500 ---- 1.5-2.0 objectionable odors of smoke,
20-50 pigs dust or other contaminate
• Far from the air port
Above 200 • Far from extension areas of urban
cattle/equines centers
4 Level Above 500 A.A City above • 2km far from water points
Four shoats 2ha
• 2km far from health, education
Above 50 pigs
institutions and others that should
be far located from those
generating toxic smell

57
 2.4.7 Worship places and Cemeteries

Worship places

The demand for land for worship places is increasing from time to time in Ethiopia. Worship
centers are mushrooming in quiet residential neighborhoods even mixed within a residential
compound causing disturbances. In addition unnecessarily vast land is consumed by certain
worship centers, although there are some others that do not have sufficient space for worship. In
some cases these problems could cause conflicts among different religious followers. It is
necessary to consider at least the following in order to determine the area for worship places.
• Nature of religious activity
• Catchments radius
• Distance between similar worship places
• Number of followers within the catchments areas
• Area for buffer.

Worship places should be located in quiet areas reasonably far from industrial, major commercial,
waste disposal sites and other activities that generate nuisance and pollution.

Cemeteries
Cemeteries are unnecessarily expanding thereby consuming large area of land. Existing
cemeteries are becoming informal; and unplanned cemeteries are causing nuisance and visual
pollution on residential settlements. In addition to that, unnecessary expenses are also wasted on
tombs; these problems need standard and proper regulation for better management.
• The standard cemetery area can be set up on the basis of reserving an area of 2.88m2
for one person.
• Recycling cemeteries should be done on existing cemeteries. With the presence of
relatives the skull of a morgue should be collected and put in a proper place after
seven years of the funeral date.
• Therefore the area could be used for new funeral service.

2.4.7 Postal Service

Table 2.4.7 Level of Services, Requirements and Locations of Postal Services
S/ Level of Areas Catchment Typology Locations
N Service (m2) Area
Small urban • Center of catchment’s area kebele
- -
1 Post-agent center or small urban centers
Departmental
Woreda • Center of catchment’s area woreda
2 Sub-Post 800 1 storey small urban center
center
Office
Permanent Zone
800 - • Within the urban center along major
3 Post Office administrativ 1 storey
1000 roads
e center
• Within or near the central part of the
4 Regional Post 1300 - 1-2 urban center
Region
Office Branch 1800 storeys • Accessible within waking distance
Office from mass transport centre
5 General Post National 1-2 • In the main central part of the city
< 2ha
Office international storeys (CBD)
Location
Central areas of urban centers are the ideal places to locate post offices.

58
2.4.8 Waste disposal methods

Solid Waste Disposal

Types of waste disposal methods that can be realized in the urban centers of Ethiopian are
incineration, sanitary landfill, open dumping, and recycling. It is thus expected to select any of
these methods that suit to the urban centers by comparing the advantages and disadvantages and
depending up on the capacity, resources, level of the technology, etc. these the urban centers.

Table 2.4.8A Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Disposal Methods

S/ Disposal Advantages Disadvantages

N Methods
Open • Inexpensive • Health-hazard-insects
1 Dumping • Simplicity • Damage due to air pollution
• Around water and run-off pollution
• Volume can increase with • Completed landfill areas can settle
2 Sanitary little addition of people and requires maintenance
Landfill equipment • Requires proper planning design,
• Filled land can be reused and operations.
for other community
purposes.
• Requires minimum land • Expensive to build and operate
3 Incinerati • Can be operated in any • High energy requirement
on weather • Requires skilled personnel and
• Produces stable odor-free continuous maintenance
residue • Unsightly –small, waste, vermin
• Refuse volume is reduced
by half
• Key to provide a livable • Expensive; some waste can not be
4 Recyclin environment for the future recycled
g • Technological push needed; and
• Separation of useful material from
waste difficult
Source: Adopted from Internet Hari Syrnvas agdrc.org.

Disposal sites

Waste disposal sites should not trouble the rural settlements when it is disposed in the peripheries
or in the rural areas. Thus, on top of considering the above-mentioned elements for locating the
sanitary landfills, the following should be considered when selecting the sites for waste disposal
in order to avoid externalities on the rural settlements.
• The sites should not be liable to flooding, land slides, etc.
• At least 200m far from any urban or rural residential settlements
• About 1km far from socio-politically sensitive sites such as memorial sites, churches,
schools, etc.
• The prevailing wind direction should be considered.
• Buffer area around the sites.

It is recommended to consult the Civil Aviation Authority about the location of the sites of
sanitary landfills, waste disposal sites, and liquid wastes treatment plants is not threatening to air
safety.

59
Sanitary Landfills

Area
A land having an adequate area and volume to meet projected needs for at least the planning
period should be reserved. The relatively large urban centers having the financial and
technical capacity are advised to use sanitary landfills.

Location
Table 2.4.8b Location Allowed and Prohibited
Locations Allowed Locations Prohibited
Sanitary landfills should be Sanitary landfills should not be located on:
located on: • Hazard-prone lands that contribute to environmental
• Sites that are found at degradation and increased vulnerability to catastrophic
economic travel distance events (mountainous or hilly, steep or overstep slopes
from points of origin of viable to landslides, landslips, slope falls, avalanches, or
waste collection vehicles collapsing soils, etc.); wet lands (swamps and marshy
(30 minute travel); and lands), flood plains or other areas viable to flooding,
• Sites less than 2 km from geologically faulted areas;
a suitable main road; • Areas containing mining working;
• Sites that are found • Designated ground water recharge, surface water
accessible by a competent catchement areas for water supply schemes, high water
paved public road (at table;
least 10 m wide) • Within 200m distance from existing residential, cultural,
• Sites not affected by the and other services development areas;
prevailing wind • Within 200m distance from natural as well as historical
and archaeological preservation sites;
• Within 5 km of an airport way in the direction of
approach and take-off.

Liquid waste disposal

It is necessary to collect and dispose off liquid waste in a sanitary manner. The
appropriateness of a liquid waste disposal system depends on building density, type of sub-
ground situation, and level of investment. Low-density residential areas may use pit latrine
with percolation field to drain the liquid waste. However, in dense conditions septic tank
system is more appropriate.

A sewerage system requires water based sanitation system and a treatment plant. For large
urban centres having high population and building density, sewerage system is the most
appropriate liquid waste disposal system.

For urban centre with large population size and hub of industries treatment plan should be
allocated. The location of the treatment plan should take in to consideration:-
The location of underground water
Settlement area( residential area )
Industrial area location

2.5. Manufacturing and Storage

2.5.1 Industry
Industrial activities consisting of manufacturing and processing plants, handicrafts, mining and
quarrying, workshops and garages, packing and canning plants, etc., can all be grouped under
three levels following their nature, capacity, etc.

60
 Selection of industrial sites
The selections of sites for industries are highly depending on the kind of industries. However
the following points should be taken in to considerations.
• Availability of cheap site, power and all public utility service like water supply,
drainage public transport, telephone etc
• Proximity to the sites where raw materials are available
• Availability of skilled and unskilled labor at moderate rate
• Availability of transport
• Nearness to market and related industrial activities
• Favorable topographic conditions such as leveled and stable soil
• Availability of sufficient land not only for the present requirement but also for the
future expansion
• Facility to dispose wastes
• Wind direction.

Area coverage
The area to be allocated for industry and warehouse in urban centers can range from 3 percent
to 8 percent but the proportion varies greatly depending on the dominating function of the
urban center. It exceeds 9 percent when urban centers are dominantly of industrial function.

Table 2.5.1 Level of Industrial Activities and their Locations

S/N Level of Description Locations

Activities
1 Cottage and Non-motorized, • Within residential and commercial activities
handicraft mixed with • They can also be mixed with residential and
industry residences commercial activities.
2 Small scales Small electric or • Those with no nuisance to residence can be
industry motor capacity located within residential and commercial
(manpower < 10) areas activities
Medium and • In peripheries of urban centers.
large-scale • Near major roads and highways
industry
On the other hand, these industries should not
3 be located without considering:
• The wind direction,
• The direction of surface and underground
water flow especially if they are used for
drinking water for the urban center under
study or other neighboring areas.
• Nor should they be located near residential,
school, health, and other similar activities,
governmental institution, major business
activities.

N.B.
Street layouts that are to be installed in the industrial zones and linking them with other related
functions should be wider.

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2.5.2 Warehouse and Storage

Similar to that of industrial function, three levels can be envisaged from the points of types,
capacity and location of warehouses for production (industry and agriculture) including
construction (building materials) and trade.

Area
The area of each warehouse is determined depending on the capacity needed to store (covered
area), the area required for free movement of trucks, loading and unloading, other facilities,
buffer zone to reduce nuisance to the adjoining uses.

Table 2.5.2 Level and Location of Warehouses

S/N Levels of Description Locations

Warehouse
Warehouses of • Near commercial activities;
1 Warehouses of agricultural products • Near centers/sub centers of urban
small size and industrial products centers;
(textile, sugar, food, • Accessible/adjacent to major collector
etc.) used for collection roads.
or sale
• Semi-peripheral areas or intermediate
2 Warehouses of zones of urban centers
medium size • Accessible or near junctions of
arterials and inner ring roads
•• In the peripheries
3 Warehouses of Such as silos AMC, • Near the junctions of arterials or
large size EDDC radial and ring roads
• In close proximity with medium and
large industrial activities

N.B: The following major criteria for determining the location of warehouses should be strictly
considered:
• Minimization of urban traffic generation;
• Minimization of circulation of costs; and
• Optimum utilization of the transport system of urban centers.

2.6 Special Function

Some functions that are not usually incorporated in all the above categories due in large part to
their distinct nature and characteristics in the development of urban centers are thus recognized
by this special function.

It includes historical, cultural and archeological areas, natural hazard areas, natural preserved
areas, other enclosure areas, restricted areas (military enclosure areas, embassies, international
organizations, etc.), water bodies (rivers, swamps, marchlands, etc.); which do not generally
permit the presence of common urban activities without the consent of the concerned bodies.

2.6.1 Historical, Cultural and Archaeological Areas

It consists of those sites where cultural, historical and archaeological heritages that have been
discovered; palaeonthological; historic and pre-historic archaeological places and recognized as
historical and archaeological places by the Authority for Research of Cultural Heritages

62
(ARCCH) as referred in the proclamation No. 209/2000, Part 1 Art 3 No. 7. “UNESCO 1972
convention concerning the protection of the world cultural and National Heritage defines cultural
property as monuments, groups of buildings, or sites that are universal historical aesthetical,
ethnological, or anthropological value’’. Thus, to be of historical and cultural significance a
structure or an area should have outstanding historical and cultural significance in the nation or in
the region or community. In other words, structures or sites are considered as cultural and
historical if one of the followings elements is observed.
• Historic structures or sites in which the broad cultural, political, economic or social
history of the nations or regions or is best exemplified and from which the visitors
grasp in three-dimensional form.
• Structures or areas that embody the distinguishing characteristics of an architectural
type- specimen inherently valuable for the study period, style or methods of
construction or a notable work of master builder or architects whose individual
genius influenced his ages.
• Structure or sites of archaeological interest that contribute to the history of the
country.

In order to balance urban development and preservation of historical and archaeological sites in
urban centers, it has been necessary to:
• Assess the availability of cultural and historical resources and identify those
recognized by ARCCH and other concerned institutions.
• Carry out inventory on the existing cultural and historical buildings to identify those
to be restored, preserved, etc.
• Delineate the area that contains the abovementioned and related resources.
• Identify and dedicate those places that will be exclusively to preservation and others
for different uses in accordance with the guidelines of ARCCH and UNESCO.
In all cases, it is recommended that the planning bodies consult the ARCCH and other concerned
bodies when planning urban centers endowed with immovable cultural heritages.

Elements to be considered in planning

• Accessibility to the public: the main purpose of reservation of relics is to teach and
show historical past to the new generations therefore planning has to accommodate
by creating accessibility and inviting features.
• Protection from encroachment: historical relics should be well protected as much as
possible from business, industry, housing and traffic encroachment.

Table 2.6.1 Allowed and Prohibited Uses

Allowed Prohibited
Historical and archaeological areas: Historical and archaeological
• Could be used for non-built-up uses such as green areas:
areas, parks, sport facilities etc. provided that they • Should not be used for
do not require construction works (buildings, industrial, high commercial,
vehicular roads, and other ground works). residential and other purposes
• Could be used for greenery (forest, agriculture, that require heavy
etc.) but, as long as they are not affected by deep construction.
roots of certain trees, deep penetration of certain • Vehicular roads especially of
agricultural works that could cause under ground the major ones, parking areas,
ancient remains. and the like should no be
• Could be used for commercial purpose provided located on and adjacent these
that the area does not require heavy buildings such historical places since they
as small open market (but always with the consent could cause irreversible
Note that any constructions (light or heavy) on or adjacent these historical and archaeological
areas should not be performed without the consent of ARCCH and other concerned bodies.

63
2.6.2 Natural Hazard Area

Potential natural hazards are numerous but the followings that among others have appeared in
Ethiopian urban centers and brought about the environmental degradation as well as loss of life
and property. Consequently, they should be considered in planning urban centers to reduce the
damage due from the following natural hazards.
• Seismic
• Fault rupture, ground shaking, lateral spreading, etc
• Geologic/Hydrologic
• Debris avalanches, expansive soils, landslides, rock falls, etc.
• Erosion, river flooding, storm surges, etc
• Volcanic lava flows, mud flows, etc.

Planning measures

The followings should be taken in order to reduce or stop the aggravations of the environmental
degradation and loss of life and property following the inappropriate use of the hazard-prone
lands.
• “Avoid unplanned settlements on hazard-prone lands that are to contribute both
environmental degradation and increase vulnerability to catastrophic events”.
• Delineate all hazard-prone lands that are found in the urban centers for identifying
those to be allocated for preservation to protect them from the coincidence of
potential hazards and those to be used for settlement or other purpose by taking the
necessary environment impact assessment.
• Allocate those areas subject to landslides, slope falls, mudslides, avalanches, rock
falls as closure areas or preservation until the soil gets stabilized and take the
necessary engineering measures to mitigate the situation
• Allocate certain hazard-prone lands such as those wet land areas as parks to provide
for recreation so long as these particular areas and the adjacent land uses area not
affected by human and animal interferences.
• Provide the necessary management controls to prevent incompatible land use and
environmentally destructive activities.
• Provide proper drainage network system for avoiding floods and storm water, which
in all cases aggravate environmental degradation there by catastrophic events.

2.7 Compatibility matrix for use zoning

Table 2. 18. Compatibility Matrix

Residence Commerc Large- Small-scale Social Cultural Admini
e scale Industries Services Center stration
Industries
Mixed a a X a a a a
Center a a X a a a a
Manufact.& X a a a X X X
Storage
Green X a X X X a X
Frame
Services s X X X a a X
Transport X a X a X X s
Centers
N.B.
a denotes compatibility
s denotes partly compatible but to be decided depending on the specific situation
X denotes incompatibility of functions

64
3. Planning Norms and Standards for Road, Transport and Utility Networks

3.1. Road Networks

In general roads have two basic traffic service functions. The foremost one is to provide traffic
mobility while the subsequent one is to release access. These two functions in turn have inverse
relationships. The one with deep and long distance traffic with high and uniform speeds and
uninterrupted traffic flows is directly correlated with mobility. Limited pace and episodic flows
are purposes of roads. There are three levels of access controls:
1. Full access control- except providing access connections with public roads, authority to
access control is given to through traffic
2. Partial access control- provides private access connection in addition to the public ones
3. Unrestricted access control- preference is given to local traffic.

The term road includes any road and street installed or to be installed in the inner or the
peripheries of the urban centers.

Based on this level of access controls, roads can be classified as:

1. Expressway
2. Arterial
3. Collector streets
4. Local streets

It is to be noted that the characteristics of this classification, in addition to level of access

control, are basically in accordance with design speed and ceiling speed.

3.1.1. Road network pattern

Different pattern of roads could be planned, based on the planning concept, existing network and
the topography.

Spider web radial road pattern a, Radial pattern of roads

This kind of pattern tends to channel and concentrate
the traffic movement to a square or a place. In this
pattern importance is given to the place or square
where many roads are converging and most of the
traffic is conveyed to the center. Successive ring
road pattern is overlaid to facilitate the movement
from one radiating road to the others.

Circular radial road pattern
Centres are emphasized in this kind of pattern.
Strong centres could be created in the central areas
and around the squares. The radiating roads could
also create important vistas and axial views,
emphasizing buildings and structures located in the
central area and on the ends of the axial views with a
monumental and grander effect. This kind of pattern
concentrates business and activities in the central
places and squares. Due to these facts traffic flow
might be concentrated on squares or in the central
area and thereby congestion problem might occur
unless alternative linkages are developed. In this
case especially ring roads are important to distribute
the traffic flows.

65
 Oval radial road pattern
Different arrangements of loophole pattern
b, Grid pattern of roads
In this pattern straight and continuous roads are
arranged in a parallel manner with certain spacing,
crossing at 90 degree with another row of parallel
straight and continuous roads. Traffic flow in this
pattern is distributed in every direction.
This pattern is simple and easy to adapt and
implement. As a result, blocks and plot subdivisions
are also simple and efficient in space utilization.
However, this pattern has an effect of monotony and
lack of hierarchical importance. Through traffic
flows (long distance travelers) are encouraged to
pass through local roads causing disturbances on
residential areas. It might also be difficult to
differentiate places (specially for strangers) if proper
signs are not available and buildings are similar.
c, Loophole road pattern
This kind of pattern is used especially when there is
a constraint for expansion like gorges, mountains
etc. on the right and left side of the main road
forcing the city and its road network to follow a
linear pattern of development (like a bay). In this
case loophole road pattern could be convenient to
connect the areas along the sides of the main road.
This kind of pattern is also designed for quiet
residential neighborhoods discouraging through
traffic flows with dead ends treated by cul-de-sacs
and vicious circles road pattern. In this kind of
pattern traffic flow is strictly conveyed to the main
road or the collector street. This kind of pattern is fit
for linear towns and star shaped towns. However
there is a difficulty of getting short-cut paths and
alternative routes.
d, Organic pattern of road
In this pattern of roads are winding forming acute
curves and odd junctions. This kind of pattern is
observed in spontaneously formed and developed
cities and it is usually formed due to unplanned and
haphazard development. This kind of pattern fits
with difficult topographic conditions that oblige the
road network to follow an organic pattern.
Narrow passageways and bottlenecks might occur;
wastage of spaces, costly for infrastructure provision
and congestion could be the disadvantages of such
kind of pattern. It could even be difficult for
vehicular movement unless the curves are
implemented according to standards.
e, Mixed pattern (grid and radial)
66
 Linear town
Star shaped town

3.1.2. Purposes of major street systems

Express way:
It provides for expeditious movement large volumes of through traffic b/n area and across the
city not intending to provide land access

Arterial street
It provides for the through traffic movement b/n areas and across the city and divert access to
the abutting property subject to necessary control of entrance exit and curbs.

Collector street
It provides traffic movement between major arterial and local street system and direct access
to the abutting property.

Local street
It provides direct access to the abutting property.

3.1.3. Major factors for planning road networks

The most important factors for planning road networks of urban centers are the followings:
• Traffic considerations
• Land use features
• Physical and topographic features
• Social and environmental features
• Cost

3.1.4. Road Spacing Standards

Table 3.1.4. Streets and Spacing Standards

No Streets Standard Spacing

Core area Intermediate Expansion
1 Express way 1-1.5km 1.5-2km 2-3km
2 Arterial 0.5-0.8km 0.8-1km 1-1.5km
3 Collector Street 100-500m 200-500m 300-500m
(CS)
4 Local Street (LS) 80-150m 100-150m 100-200m
5 Access roads Depending on the
size of specific
block

67
3.1.5. Road network type, width, design speed and ceiling speed

Table 3.1.6. Road network type, width, design speed and ceiling speed

Class of Road Width (km) Design speed Ceiling speed

(km/hr.) (km/hr.)
Express way: Free ways > 60 100-120 Not applicable
Vehicles only 50 - 60 70 - 100 Not applicable
Mixed usage (high order) 40 - 50 60 - 80 50 - 60
Arterial Mixed usage (middle 25 - 40 40 - 60 30 - 50
order)
Collector streets Mixed usage (low order) 15 - 25 30 20 - 30
Local streets 8 - 15 30 < 20

3.1.6. Road Junctions

Types of Junctions

A junction, or intersection, is the general area where two or more roads join. A disproportionate
amount of traffic accidents occur at junctions, and thus from a traffic safety aspect junctions
require attention and careful design. Good junction design should allow transition from one route
to another or through movement on the main route and intersecting route with minimum delay
and maximum safety. To accomplish this, the layout and operation of the junction should be
obvious to the driver, with good visibility between conflicting movements.

Differing junction types will be appropriate under different circumstances depending on traffic
flows, speeds, and site limitations. Types of junctions include:
• T-Junctions
• Cross-Junctions
• Roundabouts
• Grade-Separated Junction

Design Requirement

The design of junctions must take account of the following basic requirements:
• Safety
• Operational comfort
• Capacity
• Economy

Location of Intersection

The junction should be sited so that the major road approaches are readily visible. On major links
of vehicle only or high order mixed usage streets requires a minimum space of 500m.On local
streets spacing of junctions should be that they are not so close to generate a queue of traffic
extending beyond the next upstream junction.

The followings should be considered when locating intersection of roads.

• Intersections on major links of vehicle only or high order requires a minimum space of
500m mixed usage streets.
• On local streets spacing of intersections should be that they are not so close to generate a
queue of traffic extending beyond the next upstream intersection.

68
 • Generally an intersection should not be located on a curve with a super elevation greater
than 6 percent.
• An intersection should not be located on grades steeper than 3 percent
• Lateral obstruction of sight distance should also be considered when the location of an
intersection is being determined.
• Preferably, roads should meet near or at right angles.
• Angels of skew between 600 and 1200 are desirable for passenger cars.

Selection of Junction Type

The choice of a junction type requires knowledge of traffic demand, intersection performance
and accident prediction. It is often difficult to determine the best intersection type of any
particular situation, taking into account capacity, delay, safety and physical layout factors.
Several alternatives may be possible at a junction.

Priority (T-Junction, Cross-Junction)

For low flows can cause long delays, it requires sufficient stopping sight distance. Delays can
be improved by signal installation.
• T-Junctions
The basic junction layout for urban roads is the T-junction with the major road traffic
having priority over the minor road traffic. Applications of T-junctions include staggered
T-junction, which caters to cross-traffic.

• Cross -Junctions
A cross junction has four legs and is present where two highways cross each other.
Overall principles of design, island arrangements, use of turning lanes, and other
parameters are similar to those used in T-junctions.

Roundabouts
For low to medium flows, minimal delays at lower flows. Shown to be safer than priority
junctions. Requires attention to pedestrian movements and accommodation of slow-moving
traffic.

Grade-Separation
It is used for high flows; it results in minimal delays; but it is expensive.

Experiences in some countries have shown that converting crossroads into roundabouts can
reduce accident costs by more than 80 percent. Where more complex junction layouts
involving the intersection of four or more roads are encountered, these should be simplified
by redesign to two junctions, or a roundabout should be used.

Having selected the basic junction layout, it is necessary to adapt this basic layout in
accordance with the following principles to ensure that a safe, economic and geometrically
satisfactory design will be produced.

a. Roundabouts
A roundabout is a one-way circulatory system around a central island, entry to which is
controlled by markings and signs. Priority is given to traffic already in the roundabout.
Roundabouts provide high capacity and minimal delay. Roundabouts have a good safety
record. The following factors influence the choice of selecting a roundabout over some other
form of intersection control.

• Safety: Roundabouts should not be introduced on urban roads where the design
speeds of adjacent sections are 90 km/h or greater. For design speeds approaching

69
 this value, consideration should be given to the use of rumble strips and warning
signs at the approaches to warn the driver to anticipate the roundabout.
• Traffic Flow: High proportions of turning movements favor roundabouts.
Roundabouts should generally be used if the minor road flow is greater than one third
of the major road flow. Roundabouts are also an advantage where peak flows are 50
percent greater than the average flows. The roundabout shown below is acceptable
for traffic volumes of up to 15,000.
• Site Conditions: Roundabouts generally take up more land than fully canalized
junctions do. The additional land acquisition costs for roundabouts should be
balanced against the increased capacity offered.
• Driver Behavior: Roundabouts regularize traffic flow and should reduce accidents as
well as increase capacity.

General Layout of roundabouts

The general layout of a roundabout should provide for the following:

• Adequate entry widths

• Adequate circulation space compatible with
entry widths
• Central islands of diameter sufficient only to
give drivers guidance on the maneuvers
expected.
• Deflection of the traffic to the right on entry to
promote movement and ensure low traffic
speeds.
• A simple and clear layout
• Suitable visibility at any entry of each adjacent
entry
• Entry and exit deflection angles and central
island radius should prevent through speeds in
excess of 50 km/h. This is accomplished by
maximizing the difference between the shortest
tracks a driver can take through the roundabout,
vs. the straight-line distance from an entry to the
opposite exit. No vehicle path should allow a
vehicle to traverse the roundabout at a radius
greater than 100 meters

b. Grade separated junctions

Grade separated junctions generally fail into four categories depending upon the number of roads
involved and their relative importance. These categories are as follows:
• Three-way junctions;
• Junctions of major/minor roads;
• Junctions of two major roads; and
• Junctions of more than two major roads.

70
 Three-Way Junctions
For some Y-junctions where grade separation of one traffic
stream is required, Layout A may be appropriate. The
movements associated with the missing leg would have to be
channelled to another location. This would only be appropriate
of the traffic volumes on the missing leg were slight and were
LAYOUT A
capable of being served by an at-grade junction elsewhere.
(Layouts A and B are shown below.)

Layout B shows a typical three-leg junction. This configuration

is appropriate for traffic volumes of up to 30,000 AADT on the
four-lane major road (3,000 vehicles per hour). With a single
loop lane, it is appropriate for loop traffic of 1,000 vehicles per
hour. Higher loop traffic would require multiple loop lanes.

LAYOUT B Junctions of Major/Minor Roads

Layouts C and D are the most simple for major/minor road
junctions and both transfer the major traffic conflicts to the
minor road. These configurations are appropriate for traffic
volumes of up to 30,000 AADT on the four-lane major road
(3,000 vehicles per hour), with traffic of up to 10,000 ADT on
the minor road. With a single loop lane, it is appropriate for loop
LAYOUT C traffic of 1,000 vehicles per hour. Higher loop traffic would
require multiple loop lanes. (Layouts C and D)
Layout C shows the ‘half cloverleaf’ type of junction, which has
the advantage of being easily adapted to meet difficult site
conditions. Layout D shows the normal ‘diamond’ junction,
which requires the least land appropriation. The choice between
these options is generally dependent on land requirements.

LAYOUT D
Junctions of Two Major Roads
Layouts E and F show the two basic junction layouts use where
high traffic flows would make the use of simpler layouts
unsatisfactory. They are appropriate for traffic volumes on both
crossing roads of between 10,000 and 30,000 AADT (3,000
vehicles per hour). (Layouts E and F)
Layout E shows a ‘full cloverleaf’ junction involving only one
bridge but requiring a large land appropriation.

Layout F shows a typical roundabout interchange involving two

LAYOUT E bridges. This layout would only be suitable if the secondary road
containing the roundabout was of a low design speed but carried
a comparatively higher volume of traffic.

Junctions of more than two major roads

These junctions are difficult to design, operationally difficult,
occupy large areas of land and, requiring numerous bridges, are
extremely expensive. This type of junction can often be reduced
LAYOUT F
by changes in the major road alignments, which will simplify the
traffic pattern, to a combination of the more simple and
economic layouts described above.

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3.1.7 Parking

Type of parking facilities

There are two types of parking facilities:

• On street facilities: On street curb can be divided into two, unrestricted curb parking and
restricted curb parking. The restricted curb parking could be police controlled (through
enforcing, restriction, posted sign or meter control)
• Off-street parking facilities: There two basic type of off street parking area, surface lots
and multi floor structure.

Parking requirements
Table 3.1.7 Building type and parking requirement standards

Building type Parking requirement

Flats in rental apartments and 1 parking per flat
condominium housing
Offices 1 parking per every 40 m2 floor
space
Supermarkets, Department stores, 1 parking per every 60 m2 floor
trade fares and the like space
Primary and secondary schools 1 parking per 2 class rooms
Universities 1 parking per every 5 employees
Hospitals 1 parking per every 40 m2 floor
space
Museums and libraries 1 parking per every 40 m2 floor
space
Hotels and motels 1 parking per every 5 beds
Theatres and Cinemas 1 parking per every 10 sitting
spaces
Stadiums 1 parking per every 10 spectators
Restaurants, bars, coffee houses, 1 parking per every 10 sitting
pastries etc. spaces
N.B.
Sufficient area for parking for horse drawn carts and for guarding equines (horses, donkeys and
camels) should be reserved in the urban centers where they are frequently used.

3.1.8 Pedestrian ways

Standards for Pedestrian Ways

• Pedestrian ways should be provided on both sides of arterial roads.

• For collector and local streets provision, Local Development Plans, Detail Plans, and
other studies applicable should indicate location and size of pedestrian ways.
• Pedestrian ways should be raised 15-20 cm above the carriageways.
• Minimum drainage slope for such streets should be 2.5 percent.
• The capacity of footways should be 30 to 50 persons per minute per meter width after
deducing approximately 0.9 m dead width in shopping areas and 0.45m elsewhere.
• The gradient of continuous ramps should not be steeper than 10 percent.
• Minimum height of 2.3 m should be provided for pedestrian ways.

In addition to that, pedestrian ways of the following widths should be provided for the following
areas.

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Table 3. 1.8 Pedestrian ways width standards

S/N Street types Average width of pedestrian

1 Urban motorway
2 Sub-arterials
3 Principal arterial
4 Collector streets
5 Local
Ways (m)
No pedestrian ways
2.5-4 both sides 5-8
Should not be less than 3.5m and maximum 5. Both sides
total 7.00 - 10.00m
Should not be less than 2.00m
Should be decided based on local conditions.

3.2. Utilities Network

3.2.1. Norms for utilities network

• Utility facilities are to be accommodated on right-of-ways of roads (underground, surface,

and overhead) and should satisfy the required institutional standard and should not adversely
affect road safety, construction, maintenance, or operation.
• Sidewalks shall be in principle occupied (as in right-of-ways) by all facilities, unless the
occupancy creates problems and obstruction for others, and/or difficulty of excavation.
• Installation should be of minimal obstruction (both visual and physical).
• Right-of-way width for accommodating utility lines should be minimized.
• Safety against damage on utility lines and hazard on the users should be provided.
• In the construction of utility lines, minimum spacing between utility and their respective
depth should be respected and properly executed.
• Storm sewer should be located on opposite side of the street from the water line.
• Utility lines should be located with proper plan to minimize need for latter adjustments.
• Conduits should be provided for utilities like road lighting, traffic signal, etc. at the initial
construction stage.
• Utilities requiring future servicing, such as water supply, gas lines, should be encased or
installed in tunnels for servicing without disrupting traffic flow
• To the extent feasible and practical, utility line crossings of roads should be on a line
generally normal to the road alignment
• The horizontal and vertical location of utility lines within the right-of-way limits should
confirm to the specific conditions of particular road section/s.
• Where it is feasible and reasonable utility lines should be located separately from bridge
structures (attachment to bridge structures should be avoided).
• Power cable/s shall be located so as to reduce possibility of damage by traffic and to prove
safe access for inspection and maintenance of the structure.

3.2.2. Standards for utilities network

Table 3.2.2A Minimum horizontal distance between utility lines (m)

Utilities Water Sewer Power line Telephone Gas line Fuel line
Water - 1.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 1.0
Sewer 1.5 - 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Power line 0.7 1.0 - 0.5 0.5 1.0
Telephone, etc. 0.7 1.0 0.5 - 0.5 1.0
Gas line 0.7 1.0 0.5 0.5 - 1.0
Fuel line 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 -

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Table 3.2.2B Minimum vertical covering above utility lines (m)

Utility Vertical covering

Water 1.5
Sewer 1.5
Power line 0.5
Telephone, telegraph 0.5 (above conduits)
Gas line 1.0
Fuel line 1.0

Utility Lines Arrangement Standard

W T Ts J S W F J Ts T W
P i P

P = power transmission line G = gas line

T = telephone, telegraph, television S = sewer
Ts = traffic signal line F = fuel transmission line
J = inlets and drainage line Wi = irrigation
W = Water

3.2.3. Norms and standards for Drainage, Sanitary and Water Supply Lines

• In no case shall a sanitary sewer be placed above a water main

• A minimum depth of 2 to 2.5m below ground level is sufficient for sanitary sewer in parts of
the city where basements are frequent.
• A depth of 1.25m of sanitary sewer line may be sufficient to provide protection against
superimposed loads.
• Manholes of drainage system are required wherever a drain changes size, slope or alignment
also where a tributary drain joins a main line; and at intervals of not more than 150 m along a
line.
• Fire hydrants should not be more than 150 m apart to avoid excessive head loss in small
diameter hose.
• Minimum design requirement to locate water supply lines is 3 m from the nearest sewer or
gas main.
• Water wells are recommended to be at minimum distances of 15 m from septic tanks and
sewers, 30 m from drainage fields, and 45 m from cesspools.
• Storm sewers should generally be located at one-third the distance from the curb line to the
centerline of the streets.

3.2.4. Norms and standards for clearances of electric lines

The vertical clearance of the overhead current conductor from the surface of the ground shall at
least be
• 450 cm for 0.4 KV bare overhead line
• 400 cm for 0.4 KV aerial bundled conductors
• 600 cm for 15 KV bare overhead line

74
The vertical clearance of the overhead current conductor from growing trees under the line shall
be at least:
• 250 cm for 0.4 KV bare over head line
• 250 cm for 15 KV bare over head line
• In cases where the vertical clearance is lower than the above mentioned figures, the
horizontal clearance shall be at least 400 cm
• When the horizontal clearance of the overhead current conductors of low voltage line
from any part of a building is less than 200 cm, its height above the referred part should
at least be 300 cm.
• When the horizontal clearance of aerial bundled conductors from any part of the building
is less than 50 cm, its height above the referred part should at least be 200 cm.
• The horizontal clearance of a 15 KV over headlines from buildings shall at least be 300
cm.
• The clearance of a dead-ended line to a building i.e. a current conductor from a window
or other similar opening as well as from eaves of roof sloping towards the line shall be (in
the dead-end point of the line) at least:
o 100 cm for 0.4 KV bare overhead line
o 50 cm for 0.4 KV aerial bundled conductors
• It is prohibited to dead end an overhead line below a window intended to be opened, or
other openings.
• The vertical clearance of the overhead current conductor from the surface of a main road
and railways shall at least be:
o 800 cm for 0.4 KV bare overhead line
o 800 cm for 0.4 KV aerial bundled conductors
o 850 cm for 15 KV bare overhead line
• The vertical clearance of the overhead current conductor from the surface of public street
and private driveways shall at least be:
ο 550 cm for 0.4 KV bare overhead line
ο 500 cm for 0.4 KV bundled overhead line
ο 600 cm for 15 KV bare overhead line
• The minimum distance (clearance) of the overhead line with supports or stays shall be 90 cm.
However, when it is possible, distance of 200 cm is recommendable
• When the underground power line is encountered along the pedestrian area, the cable shall be
buried at least to a depth of 100 cm and the horizontal clearance from the edge of a road shall
be 90 cm. Table Of Content When the power cable is crossing the asphalted road, the cable
encased in concrete pipe with a diameter of 20 cm shall be buried at a depth of 100 cm.
• High-tension line leading to 5 MW sub-station requires a corridor of 32 m.

3.2.5. Norms and standards for clearance of telecommunication lines

• The distance between two manholes or hand holes for duct cable installation should not
be more than 200 cm
• Cables shall be placed in chambers or cable vaults/trenches in such a manner that they do
not block vacant ducts and/or restrict the working space.
• Aerial cable shall be regularly suspended at 50 cm from top of each pole.
• The optimum pole span shall be approximately 40 m and shall not exceed 50 m without
any strengthening measure for keeping the specific strength
• The covering depth from the top of PVC ducts to the surface of ground shall be as
follows
o Side-walk, farm land, forest 80 cm or more
o Carriage way 100 cm or more

75
Table 3.2.4 Minimum underground clearance between telephone facilities and other utility lines

Utilities Parallel Crossing

Power lines 45 cm (short span) 45 cm
Water pipes 30 cm 15 cm
Sewerage 30 cm 15 cm

3.3 Transport Use

Bus Terminal

The level of bus terminal depends on many factors of which the number of vehicles to park at
pick hour assigned in a day; the size of urban centres; the importance of the urban centre in
commercial, industrial, or related activities that require numerous passengers; the extent of
connection with important urban centres and level of connecting roads, etc., are the major ones.

Table 3.3.1a Levels, Areas, Preferable Locations of Bus Terminals

Number of vehicles Required

S/ Levels of
area in Locations
N Terminal Small Large
hectares
1 Level One 10- 25 10- 25 0.37- • In centers and sub-centers of the
0.61 urban centers
2 Level Two 26- 50 26- 50 0.63- • On accessible areas along major
1.02 roads, connected with mass
3 Level 51- 100 51- 100 1.04- transport
Three 1.82 • Far from schools, health centers
4 Level Four 101- 150 101- 150 1.86- and other activities/services that
2.67 are affected by noise generated
from the terminals.

N.B.
The area required for bus terminal in an urban center can be determined following the number of
buses (including their size) at peak hours and the size of the administrative blocks and circulation
area for vehicles and pedestrians.

Freight Terminal

Like that of the bus terminals, the level for freight terminals falls into four categories. Similarly,
the area required for freight terminal can be determined depending mainly on the number of
vehicles with or without trailers to park; the size of administrative block to be built, the area
reserved for circulation of vehicles and pedestrians.

Airports

The location and size of airport could be vary depending on the type of airport. (International,
national and local)

The location of airport should consider the following pointes:-

Smoke producing industries should not be located nearby airport
Bird attraction services should not be located near by airport (slaughter house, solid
waste disposal site etc.)

76
 Residential areas should not be located around airport due to the sound produced by air
plane and for safety reasons in case of plane crash.
The selection sites for airports should be done in close collaboration with the civil
aviation authority.

Table 3.3.1b Table shows the levels, areas, and locations of freight terminals

S/N Levels of No. of vehicles per day Required Locations

Terminal Area in
Small Large hectares
1 Level One 10- 25 10- 25 0.48- 0.9 • Near the area where
2 Level Two 26- 50 26- 50 1.03- 1.6 industrial activities and
3 Level 51- 100 51- 100 1.63- warehouses are located
Three 3.00 • Along or near inter regional
4 Level Four 101- 150 101- 150 3.73- highways
4.40 • In the intersection of outer
rings and radial arterials
• Far from residential
services such as schools,
health centers and other
activities that are affected
by noise pollution, etc.

N.B.
The area required for freight terminal in an urban center can be determined following the number
of trucks (including their size) at peak hours and the size of the administrative blocks and
circulation area for vehicles and pedestrians.

77
 APPENDICES

78
79
APPENDIX 1. Issues to be considered in plan preparation

Plan preparation requires knowing where we are now before a road map is selected to arrive at
where we would like to be in the future. Comprehensiveness has been indicated to be one of the
main requirements of plan preparation. There is a need to have a checklist of issues to be
considered and appropriate methods for data collection. The following sections provide a wide
range of subjects that should be addressed in urban plan preparation at structure plan and local
development plan level. Suggestions are given when an issue is specific to a plan type; otherwise,
the issues are relevant for both plan types.

1. Land use
General
In the determination of land use components and issues consider the following general factors.

• Study existing land use pattern and development trend

• Identify the problems associated with land use: shortage, lack, incompatibility, and
imbalance.
• Identify future needs based on socio-economic studies
• Derive assumptions
• Derive land use principles and guidelines
• Develop scenario based on bullets no. 1, 2, 3 and 4 above
• Forward draft proposals
• Based on the results of the above tasks draft the final land use plan

1.1 Land use components of SP and LDP

1.1.1 Residence
• Identify and study problems associated with the location, distribution, structure and
condition of existing residential areas
• Identify and study the extents of shortages and lacks regarding residential and uses
related
• Study existing norms and standards specific to residential and related uses and residential
typologies
• Identify appropriate development patterns and options
• Forward best options and development scenario
• Draft the final residential areas development plan consisting of the location, distribution
of population, residential typologies and services, improvement of housing condition and
settlement structure and densities.

1.1.2 Commerce, business and administrative areas

• Study the general layout and structure of commerce, business and administrative uses
• Identify and study problems associated with the location, distribution, structure and
condition of such uses and the general structures of centrality functions as related with
the settlement structure and development pattern of the urban area
• Identify and study urban economic base resource and productive potentials of the urban
area.
• Identify appropriate development patterns and options of centres
• Draft the final plan consisting of location and distribution of centres, respective
hierarchies and functional mixity and integration.

1.1.3 Services, community facilities and amenities

• Identify and study problems associated with the location, distribution, structure and
condition of services in the city

80
 • Based on population estimation and projection identify and study the extents of shortages
for current population and future needs regarding services
• Study existing specific local, regional and national service norms and standards
• Identify the required services, community facilities, appropriate development patterns
and options
• Forward best options and development scenario
• Draft the final development plan consisting of the location, distribution of development
strategies of services

1.1.4 Industry, warehouses, depots and workshops

• Identify and study problems associated with the location, distribution, structure and
condition of industry, warehouses, depots and workshops
• Identify and study urban economic base, resource and productive potentials of the urban
area; possible industries, warehouses, depots, and workshops which could be developed,.
• Identify appropriate sites, development patterns and options, mechanisms for controlling
adverse effects of such development on surrounding areas in particular and the urban
environment in general
• Draft the final development plan showing the type of industry, warehouses, depots and
workshops to be developed including the recommended development strategies

1.1.5 Special functions, reserved areas, historical sites, archaeological sites

• Identify and locate special functions, reserved areas, historical, and archaeological sites
• Identify problems associated with such functions
• Forward best options for their improvement and preservation
• Identify the need for reserved areas for future development,

1.1.6 Environmental aspects and conservation of fragile areas.

This section refers to Green areas, parks, gardens, playgrounds, Forest areas, Urban agriculture,
Solid waste, Liquid waste, and Quarry sites and conservation areas.

• Identify and study problems associated with urban agriculture, green areas, forest, parks,
gardens, solid and liquid waste management, sanitation, Quarry sites and conservation
areas and fragile areas,
• Identify and analyse problems associated with such functions,
• Identify and study past, and present development trends
• Study future development options and trends
• Identify and study socio-economic growth trends
• Study existing local, regional and national norms and standards specific to solid and
liquid waste management and sanitation
• Forward solutions to the identified problems
• Draft the final development plan consisting of the location and of distribution of solid
and liquid waste services, sanitation strategies including water supply, and also
conservation strategy for fragile areas.

1.1.7 Road network, transportation, utilities and infrastructure

Road network
• Identify and locate all streets in the urban area
• Categorize existing streets into defined hierarchies based on their present uses, location,
condition, distribution, size and material of construction
• Identify and analyse problems associated with streets in the urban area
• Identify and study past, and present development trends
• Study future development options and trends

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 • Identify and study socio-economic growth trends
• Forward proposals
Transportation
• Identify and study past, and present development trends
• Identify and study socio-economic growth trends
• Study future development options and trends
• Identify trip generation patterns in relation with present and future land use and
population distribution patterns
• Forward proposals

Utilities
• Identify and locate all existing utility lines
• Identify and analyse problems associated with utilities
• Identify and study past, and present development trends
• Study future development options and trends
• Identify and study socio-economic growth trends and their service needs
• Forward proposals

1.2 Settlement structure

Study problems related with the order and relationship among urban physical elements and
forward appropriate solutions. The following are the steps to be followed.
• Identify and describe the type of settlement structure in the urban area within the
framework of time and space transformation
• Analyse the underlying reason/s for respective settlement structures and spatial patterns
• Investigate future development trends and options
• Select best development options in relation to land use and prepare the final draft plans
for discussion

2. Detailed list of socio-economic issues for consideration

2.1 Population and Demography

• Analyse the population characteristics: trends in population size; trends in growth rate;
doubling time and household size;
• Analyse the age structure of the population in terms of five years group age classification,
broad age classification, dependency or burden;
• Analyse the sex structure of the population in terms of sex ratio;
• Analyse ethnic diversity and religious affiliation of the population;
• Analyse the major causes of population change (dynamics) and identify the level of
fertility, mortality and migration;
• Forecast the population size for the planning period at different points in time; consider
natural growth and migration,
• Consider sound policy assumptions (population policy, health policy, culture and etc.)
while projecting the population size for the planning period.

2.2. Housing and Related Facilities

• Assess and describe housing stock by tenure group,
• Identify main housing problems;
• Assess the existing condition of housing units;
• Identify the typology of housing units;
• Analyse housing quality in terms of physical condition, construction material, density of
occupation, and housing facilities;

82
 • Analyse housing demand and supply disaggregated into income category;
• Assess housing need;
• Project the required housing units for the planning period;
• Develop strategies for housing development systems
• Develop mechanisms for housing finance;
• Determine methods of housing subsidy for households,
• Assess the level of informal settlements in the town

2.3. Road and Transport

• Review and assess the characteristics of the road network-combinations, quality and
hierarchies, etc.
• Assess the available mode of transport and combinations, (public transport, private,
combinations)
• Propose affordable transport, enhanced access and mobility;

2.3.1 Road network

• Assess the condition of existing road network for suitability in terms of accessibility and
surface condition;
• Identify problems associated with road network,
• Identify the available road length in km by hierarchy;
• Assess development contribution of the sector;
• Analyse the network density;
• Define the hierarchy of road network with appropriate road sections;
• Consider sufficient room for pedestrian walk way and bikeway;
• Consider cattle trekking and important trails for efficient circulation;
• Consider the bus and freight terminals;
• Assess challenges and prospects of the sector;
• Assess the trend of traffic intensity and anticipate for the planning period;
• Analyse the passenger and freight flow;
• Propose efficient road network;

2.3.2 Railway Transport

• Assess the existing condition of rail transport;
• Assess problems and constraints of the development of the sector;
• Assess the location and functional compatibility of the railway service station;
• Analyse the opportunities and threats of the sector;
• Discuss the railway traffic;
• Suggest alternative ideas to improve the service;

2.3.3 Air Transport

• Describe the importance of air transport to the development of the town;
• Assess the problems and constraints of the development of the service;
• Identify air-routes, and discuss the issue of interaction between origin and destinations;
• Assess development contribution of the sector;
• Assess locational compatibility of the airport/air strip;
• Discuss about constraints and prospects of air transport;
• Assess the existing airport or propose the new air port/air strip location in accordance
with the standard airport location factors.

2.3.4 Waterways
• Assess the potential of streams, canals, rivers, and lakes for transportation,

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 • Assess the problems related with transportation on water bodies

2.4. Social and Physical infrastructure

Social infrastructure includes schools of various kinds and levels, health institutions (health posts,
health centres, clinics, general and specialized hospitals, pharmacies, homes for the aged and the
handicapped, etc.), and recreational facilities (indoor and outdoor). Physical infrastructure implies
electricity and water supply, solid and liquid waste disposal. In the planning of locations of social
and physical infrastructure use standards as provided in the Norms and Standards part of the
Manual.

2.4.1.Social Infrastructure:
Schools
• Assess school distribution by hierarchy;
• Assess trends of enrolment;
• Estimate the school age population;
• Assess gender equity;
• Assess origin of students;
• Analyse the participation rate in terms of gross and net enrolment ratio;
• Discuss the ownership status of schools;
• Assess the physical condition and facilities of schools;
• Identify the area occupied against the standard set by the Ministry of Education
• Assess locational compatibility of schools with the adjacent land uses;
• Assess the existing condition of schools in terms of quality expressed by teachers per
section ratio, students per school ratio;
• Suggest means and ways to alleviate the anticipated problems;
• Calculate actual school age bracket;
• Propose future requirement of schools as against the projected school age population

Health Facilities
• Describe distribution of health institutes by hierarchy;
• Assess the distribution of health personnel by qualification;
• Identify the top ten morbidity and mortality cases;
• Identify the origin of patients;
• Assess institutional facilities;
• Describe the type of health service provided;
• Assess the adequacy of health institutes against the size of population of the study town
and its hinterland;
• Analyse intuitional set up, operation modalities (public-private involvement)
Recreational facilities
• Identify types, quantity and quality of existing recreational facilities,
• Assess the optimality of location and service levels
• Identify needs and problems related to the design population,

2.4.2. Physical Infrastructure

Electricity
• Analyse the institutional capacity and working environment of EEPCO;
• Assess electric service coverage;
• Assess the history of electrification and growth trend;
• Identify the available source of power supply;
• Assess the distribution of substations by their installed capacity;
• Identify load variation data;

84
 • Identify supply network with their standard clearance
• Identify distribution network with its standard clearance
• Identify the number of meter connection
• Identify the supply system;
• Assess the challenges and prospects of power service;
• Asses electricity network coverage;
• Forecast future power requirement during the planning period.

Water Supply
• Assess the history of water supply;
• Describe the water supply system;
• Assess trend of meter connections;
• Assess the challenges and constraints water supply;
• Identify water supply;
• Analyse water production and consumption;
• Describe the water supply system;
• Assess trend of meter connections;
• Assess the challenges and constraints water supply;
• Describe the water supply system.
• Assess the water supply service coverage;
• Assess alternative sources of water supply;
• Assess the water quality;
• Analyse the domestic and non-domestic water demand; and loss;
• Forecast future water requirement;
Telecommunication
• Assess history of telecommunication services
• Describe the importance of telecommunication service;
• Identify the type of service station/exchange;
• Identify the transmission link;
• Identify the installed capacity of the exchange;
• Describe the subscribed lines against the population size;
• Identify types of services provided;
• Analyze the institutional set-up of the Ethiopian Telecommunication corporation;
• Assess adequacy of the service;
• Assess challenges and prospects of the service;
• Analyze the location of telecommunication office;
• Forecast the future requirement of the service

Postal Service
• Identify year of establishment of post office;
• Explain the importance of postal service to development;
• Identify the service types provided;
• Identify the type of post office by hierarchy;
• Analyse the location of post office;
• Analyse the organizational set up of the post office
• Analyse the adequacy of postal service;
• Analyse the postal traffic by origin and destination;
• Assess the challenges and prospects of postal service;
• Forecast future growth trend of postal service

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Storm water drainage
• Assess the drainage problem of the town;
• Analyse drainage problem;
• Provide appropriate drainage network design to minimize the problem;
• Propose possible drainage solutions.
Abattoir/slaughter houses
• Assess the level of service by location, capacity, and quality,
• Assess the suitability of existing location, environmental aspects of abattoirs,
• Develop site selection criteria and suggest location for new abattoirs,

2.5. Physical Features and Environment

Physical characteristics
• Explain the location of the town in absolute and relative terms;
• Identify the influence area or planning area;
• Identify the area of the study town;
• Analyse the topography in terms of slope and degree of land degradation;
• Assess the surface water potential;
• Analyse the climatic aspect in terms of rainfall distribution, temperature condition,
prevailing wind direction, sunshine duration, and humidity;
• Analyse the vegetation cover and propose appropriate solution for sustainable
development;

Geological condition
• Assess the mineral potential of the study town and its hinterland;
• Identify sources of geological construction materials;
• Identify geological hazards such as seismic risk, land slide, flood and etc;
• Assess the surface water and ground water potential;
• Propose means and ways for protecting both water supply source from being
polluted;

Environment
• Assess the institutional set up of organizations working on both solid and liquid
waste management;
• Assess sanitation problems;
• Assess the type constituents and volume of solid waste;
• Assess the existing solid and liquid waste management practices;
• Propose appropriate dumping or landfill sites;
• Develop alternative strategy for recycling of wastes;

Parks and residential open spaces

• Identify the location, size, character, ownership and management of open spaces,
• Compare existing open spaces with the demand and against open space standards for
the land use class
• Assess the suitability of open space networks,

2.6. Expansion area delineation

• Identify expansion and infill sites for future development,
• Assess natural factors that could constrain urban development (geological stability,
slope, swamp);
• Assess the man-made factors that restrict urban development (military camp, high
tension line, public preference for scenery, natural resources, etc.)

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 • In view of the above assessment results propose adequate urbanization promotion
area.
• Propose possible phasing of development of the expansion areas.

2.7. Urban Economic base

• Analyse trade, service, manufacturing, construction, and all other economic
activities;
• Analyse the informal sector activities with their associated problems;
• Identify market activities and their contribution to development;
• Identify tourism activities and contribution to local economy;
• Assess and analyse investment activities;
• Assess urban agriculture and its contribution to local economy;
• Assess the current and projected economic base of the study town;

2.8. Municipal Finance

• Assess and analyse municipal revenue;
• Assess current central government’s support
• Assess and analyse municipal expenditure;
• Analyse the institutional capacity of the municipality to collect and administer
finance;
• Assess the technical capacity of the municipality to raise funds;
• Assess the accounting and auditing systems;
• Assess the municipal budget item by item;
• Assess budget performance;
• Identify possible sources of finance for development in the future,

2.9. Local Governance

• Assess the functions and constitutional structure of local government;
• Assess the legal and administrative structure of local governance;
• Assess the impacts of decentralization;
• Analyse the governance structure;
• Analyse the system of institutions in terms of responsibilities, linkages between work
flows, correspondence between organizations,
• Assess the level of public participation in decision making
• Assess public-private partnership models used, if any, and devise mechanisms for
their promotion in the future,
• Assess the number, characteristics and effectiveness of civil society in the planning
area

2.10. Urban- Rural Linkages (SP only)

• Assess and analyse interaction between the town and its hinterland;
• Assess services extended by banks;
• Assess services extended by service cooperatives;
• Assess services extended by service, trade and manufacturing establishment;
• Identify factors affecting urban-rural interaction;
• Identify type of agricultural and natural resources supplied to the urban centres under
consideration;
• Identify woredas that supply agricultural and natural resources to the urban centres;
• Identify means of transport and communication that facilitate linkages;
• Analyse factors increasing urban rural interaction;
• Suggest / recommend means that can facilitate linkages;

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2.11. Urban - Urban linkages (SP only)
• Identify areas of urban-urban linkages;
• Assess factors constraining urban-urban linkages;
• Suggest / recommend means to facilitate urban-urban interaction;

2.12. Regional Settlement Structure (SP only)

• Assess the hierarchy of settlement structures in the region;
• Assess and analyse the pattern of settlement in the region;
• Identify factors affecting settlements;

2.13. Legal issues and policies

• Assess the legal personality and autonomy of towns;
• Assess the duties and responsibilities of the town;
• Assess the constitutional guarantee and protections enacted;
• Identify the availability of municipal courts.
• Assess legal provisions for expropriation, compensation, relocation and rehabilitation
at the time redevelopment or expansion are developments.

2.14 Land and property administration

• Assess the level of registration of land and property,
• Identify property by ownership, location, quality and size (cadastre)
• Identify problems –institutional, technical, or other.

General Remarks
The detailed socio-economic and spatial issues that are listed above are main points to be
considered in most cases. However, the planning team is expected to select and prepare more
detailed lists that are pertinent to the local context and to the plan type under preparation. An
exhaustive list of issues may not be possible to produce, even then such a list will only be an
approximation. Nonetheless, the list has provided sufficient details that could serve most
purposes.

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89
APPENDIX 2. Socio-economic and Spatial data Collection Formats

1. Introduction
In order to have a standard approach for urban plan preparation the adoption of systematic,
comprehensive, and simple spatial and socio economic data collection formats that could be
easily used by planners is of paramount importance. The need for data depends on the type of
plan to be prepared and the time, budget, and manpower available for a project. The existence of
time series data may ease data collection. In any case the data need should be identified at an
early stage of the planning process.

The main objective of this part of the Urban Planning and Implementation Manual is determining
systematic data collection method so as to minimize cost and the time span to collect data, and to
have sufficient and appropriate data that considers the scope and coverage, scale and level, type
and content of the study area.

This part of the Manual is basically organized into two sections: methods and formats for socio-
economic data collection and methods and formats for spatial data collection. Within each of
these two groups there are several sections that elaborate specific data collection formats for
particular aspects of planning information, and provide formats for collection and storage of data.

2. Socio-economic data for Urban Planning

2.1 Data Collection Methods

There are various data collection methods. The planning team is expected to develop appropriate
methods for collection and analysis. The methods will usually be a combination as the data type
will be heterogamous. The most common categories of data collection and analysis are
quantitative and qualitative methods.

Quantitative methods Qualitative methods Integrated

Statistical Data collection methods • In-depth interviews quantitative,
Statistical survey: • Observational qualitative and
• Total data (census survey), where data methods approaches are
collection covers all units of the • Document review integrated
population, Participatory Method
• Sample data (sample survey), where data Beneficiary
are collected from a sample selected Assessment (BA)
from the target population (usually at Participatory Rural
random), Appraisal (PRA)
• Data formed from administrative SARAR: Self-esteem,
registers (administrative records), Associative strength,
• Derived statistical data (derived Resourcefulness, Action
statistical activity), where data have been planning and Responsibility
estimated, modelled or otherwise derived
from existing data pools.
Survey types Structured interviews
• Questionnaire type
• Self administered

Socio-economic data needed for urban planning may differ depending on the grade of the urban
centre and the local context. In general data should be collected on the following issues:
1. Definition of the planning region

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 2. Background of the urban centre,
3. Population characteristics,
4. Economic base
5. Social facilities

2.2 Socio-Economic Data collection instruments and Presentation Format

In this section different formats are presented that can be utilized to present final outputs of some
descriptive data pertaining to the characteristics of the study area and the population. It is
expected that basic indicators of demographic, social and economic situations need not
necessarily be guided with formats. For example; GDP, per capital income, life expectancy of the
population at birth, total fertility rate, do not need to have formats.

Data pertaining to demography, social, and economic situation of a planning region and an urban
centre should be collected from census results, kebeles, municipalities, and households. The
instruments for data collection have to fit the question at hand; each professional is expected to
develop appropriate formats prior to starting data collection. The instruments and formats
provided in this Manual are indicative of what data should be collected and how it could be
presented.

2.2.1 Data collection instrument formats

2.2.1.1 Demographic characteristics

Household level Urban level

2.2.1.1 Data on the following points should be Data on population characteristics at
Demographic collected at household level. town level on the following points
characteristics 1. When was this family formed? should be collected:
2. household members by age and sex 1. time of establishment of the
3. literacy status of adult members urban centre
4. members in economically 2. boundary of the urban area,
productive age 3. total population by age and sex
5. religion of household members 4. annual population growth by
6. sex and marital status of household number and percentage
head, 5. fertility and mortality rates
7. migration status of household 6. migration rate, major area from
head/other members of the household; which migrants come from
if migrant to the urban centre, period of 7. period of maximum migration
migration and any step-wise migration
stopping points, if household head is
periodic migrant
2.2.1.2 1. Main source of income of the
Economic household 1. top five major activities of
Characteristics 2. average monthly total income (cash the town
and in kind) 2. amount of revenue by type of
3. number of employed household activity
members by sex 3. annual income/revenue of the
4. average monthly household town
expenditure 4. annual expenditure
5. average monthly saving disaggregated into expenditure
category
2.2.1.3 1. Tenure of the occupant
Housing (owner/renter) 1. total number of housing
2. if renter, renting from private or units in the town, by function
kebele, amount of monthly rent group (pure residential, mixed –

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 3. Function of the house type of activities)
4. Number of habitable rooms 2. Total area covered by housing
(excluding corridors) 3. number of residential houses
5. Materials of construction (wall, built every year
floor, roof, ceiling 4. percentage growth of
6. Types of facilities (kitchen, toilets, residential house per year
water tap, electricity, telephone) 5. location of informal
7. Type of compound settlements
(shared/separate), area by category, 6. number of informal houses and
households sharing a compound, yearly growth rate per year
tax, 7. major suppliers of housing
8. share of kebele houses from
the total
2.2.1.4 Social 1. Describe the availability of basic
services social facility (schools, clinics, 1. Number of schools by level of
hospitals, etc) education, by ownership type, by
2. describe the quality of service by student enrolment, number of
each category of facility teachers by level of education
3. what facilities are missing
2. Number of health facilities by
type, quality of services, (number
of doctors, nurses, etc., number of
beds, variety of services etc.)

3. number of the social facilities

by category, quality

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 2.2.2 Data output formats
2.2.2.1 Display formats for Socio-economic data
Household level Urban level

1. Household size 1. Population by age and sex

Persons per household No. % Age Male Female Total

1 persons group No % No % No %
2 persons 0-4
3 persons 5-9
4 persons 10-14
5 persons 15-19
6 persons 20-24
7 persons 25-29
8 persons 30-34
9 persons 35-39
10 persons 40-44
10 persons & above 45-49
Total No. of households 50-54
55-59
Note: This format could be used to record number 60-64
of households per each housing unit. For that 65-69
purpose change Number of persons per household 70 +
to No. of households per housing unit and No. of Total
persons to No. of households
Note: Data on population to be tabulated from the
sample survey as well as from the CSA census or
from the municipal census. If the distribution is
not available from the census results, it could be
extrapolated from the sample survey.

2. Migration status of household heads 2. Migration status of households

Migration Male Female Migratio Male Female Total

Status n Status No % No % No %
Migrant Migrant
Non migrant Non
Periodical migrant
migrants Periodic
al
3. Marital status of households (15 years and migrant
over) Total

Marital Male Female 3. Marital status of population (15 years and

status No over)
Single Marital Male Female Total
Married status No % No % No %
Divorced Single
Widowed Married
Total Divorced
Widowed
Collect this information from each household. Total

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4. Educational attainment of household 4. Educational attainment of population (15
members (15 years and above) by sex years and above) by sex

Educational Male Fema Total Educational Male Female Total

level le Level No % No % No %
Illiterate Illiterate
Grade1-3 Grade1-3
Grade 4-8 Grade 4-8
Grade 9-12 Grade 9-12
Vocational/Colle Vocational/Co
ge Training llege Training
Degree and Degree &
above above
Total Total

5. Employment status of household members 5. Employment status of population (15 years

(15 years and over) by sex and over) by sex

Employment Status Male Fema Total Employment Male Female Total

le Status No % No % No %
Government Government
employee employee
Private Private
organization organization
employee employee
Self employed Self
Member of a employed
cooperative Member of a
Unpaid/family cooperative
worker Unpaid
Other family
Unemployed worker
Total Other
Unemployed
6. Household expenditure budget share Total

No Expenditure Birr % 6. Distribution of households by income

. category
1. Food
2 Utilities Income No. of %
(electricity, water, category households
telephone, etc. (income per M % F %
3 Education month)
4 Health 100 Birr or less
5 Transportation 101-300
6 Housing 3001-500
7 Recreation 501-800
8 Clothing 801-1250
9 Other costs 1251-1600
10 Total 1601-2000
2000 and above
Total

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7. Average household saving 7. Annual expenditure by category of service

Saving range No. % Expenditure Type Birr per annum %

No saving Physical infrastructure
100 or less Social infrastructure
101-150 Administrative
151-300 overhead
301-500 Other costs
Etc. Total expenditure
Total

2.2.2.2. Display formats for Physical infrastructure Data

8. Function of houses Note: Collect data per house and aggregate at the
town level by counting each type and then
Function calculating. Sample formats are given below.
Residence only 8. Function of houses
Residence and
business Function No %
Business (state the Residence only
type) Residence and
business
9. Number of rooms per house Business (state the
type)
Ratio No. Total
1 room house
2 room house 9. Number of rooms per house
3 room house
4 room house Ratio No. %
5 room house 1 room house
etc 2 room house
Note: Considers only habitable rooms, i.e, 3 room house
corridors and toilets are not counted 4 room house
10. Construction materials of houses 5 room house
etc
Components Material
Wall 10. Ownership of dwellings
Floor
Ceiling Ownership No. %
Roof Privately owned
Type of structure (load bearing, Rental-kebele
frame, or Rental-Agency for
combination) Rental Housing
etc Owned by other
government body
Owned by private
local agencies
Owned by
international agencies
Others, state

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11. Plot area per house 11. Number of Schools bylevel and ownership

Area in m2 No. School type ownership Total

100 or less Gov’t private
101-150 KG
151-200 Lower primary
201-250 Secondary
251-300 Technical
301-500 College/university
501 and above
Note: it is advisable to record large estate 12. Number of health facilities by level and
separately instead of listing in the format. ownership

12 Availability of utilities Facility ownership Total

Gov’t private
Facility Modality of using Health post
private shared Not Clinic
available Health Centre
Toilet Hospital
kitchen Specialised hospital
water
electricity
telephone

General Formats

The following formats provide samples for gathering information at household and at urban level.
Data at household, or enterprise level should be collected leaving out the percentage. The types of
activities cannot be exhaustive; hence the planner is expected to add or reduce according to the
context.

13. Employed population by sector of industry

Employment Type Male Female Total

No % No % No %
Agriculture
Mining and Quarrying
Manufacturing
Construction
Wholesale and Retail Trade
Hotels, Restaurants and Tourism
Transport, Storage and Communication
Service Providing Businesses, Repair
Real Estate, and Renting
Public Administration and Defence
Education, Health and Social Work
Finance
Research and Development
Other Cultural, Personal And Household
Activities
Multi-national Organizations
Other

96
14. Approved and Commenced Number, Type and Investment Capital By Major Economic
Activities

Industrial Divisions No. of New New Investment Type of New

Investment Projects Capital (000 Investment
Birr)
Approved Comme Forei Local Public Privat
nced gn e
Mining and Quarrying
Manufacturing
Construction
Wholesale and Retail Trade
Hotels, Restaurants and
Tourism
Transport, Storage and
Communication
Service Providing Businesses,
Repair
Real Estate, and Renting
Public Administration and
Defence
Education, Health And Social
Work
Finance
Research and Development
Other Cultural, Personal And
Household Activities
Multi-national Organizations
Other

15. Number of existing establishments by ownership

Major Industrial Divisions Number Of Existing Total

Establishments
Public Private
Mining and Quarrying
Manufacturing
Construction
Wholesale and Retail Trade
Hotels, Restaurants and Tourism
Transport, Storage and Communication
Service Providing Businesses, Repair
Real Estate, and Renting
Public Administration and Defence
Education, Health and Social Work
Finance
Research and Development
Other Cultural, Personal And Household Activities
Multi-national Organizations
Total

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3. Urban Spatial Database and data formats
Spatial data is any type of data, which has direct relation with space. It can be presented in terms
of maps, attribute format, graphs or charts. The development of Geographic Information System
(GIS) has played an important and decisive role on processing, production and integration of
spatial data.

3.1 Types of Spatial Data and their formats for Urban Analysis
There are different types of data that can be acquired from different primary and secondary
sources. The major ones are discussed below.

3.1.1 Maps
Maps are representation of spatial realities on paper. They can be derived or extracted from
ground surveying techniques, aerial photographs, and or satellite images.
Topographic maps
Topographic maps are general-purpose maps representing major topographic features such as
contour lines, vegetation distribution, drainage system, settlements and so on. Topographic maps
are mostly prepared in a national base and can be used as base data for thematic maps and other
spatial and environmental studies. Such maps may be grouped into:
• Line maps
• Orthophoto maps
Scale of topographic maps is very important. The most common scales in urban planning are:
• 1:500 large scale maps, mostly used for site plan at building level and for detailed
cadastre registration purposes
• 1:1000 to 1:2000 scales are used for detailed land use planning at neighbourhood level,
• 1:2000 to 1:5000 scales, are used for cadastre, land use plans, and utilities, at town level
• 1:10,000 or smaller scales are used for large area coverage studies that include suburbs,
• 1:1,000,0000 or smaller scales are used for national urban system analysis and
national/regional level data base
Thematic maps
Thematic maps are specific purpose or specialized maps used to present specific studies. The best
examples are shown below.
• Drainage system maps, • Vegetation distribution maps,
• Population study maps, • Soil map, urban study maps,
• Cadastre maps • Land use/ cover maps,
• Poverty analysis • Land suitability maps,
• EIA maps • Wild life distribution maps,
• Hazard prone areas map • Industrial location maps,
• Utilities maps • Historical sites and archaeological area
• Housing type distribution map maps
• Building density analysis maps • Livestock distribution and etc.

Depending on the objective, such maps could be prepared independently or used as layers to
analyse relationships of different attributes of urban areas.

Global Positioning System (GPS) Surveying

The best alternative to traditional manual digitising to be explored uses GPs survey techniques.
GPS method is faster and cheaper in comparison to the conventional techniques. In this case the
locational of such data ranges from 1 cm to 5 meters. Moreover, no line of sight between survey
points is required for GPS data collection. Obstruction between points such as trees and buildings
do not affect the data collection. It is not immune to bad weather.

98
Aerial Photographs
Aerial photographs are photographs that can be taken by airborne systems. Most of the
photographs are black and white and archived in terms of films or photographic prints. The
present topographic and thematic maps are products of aerial photographs. Therefore, aerial
photographs can be considered as historical records of the earth and its environment. In addition,
old time photographs can be applied for change detection and comparison with the recent satellite
images. That helps to analyse the extent of environmental changes. With the development of
technology, aerial photographs are becoming digital and multi-spectral. Furthermore old photos
can be scanned and digitally processed.

Table-3.1 Comparison of different Sources of Remotely Sensed Data for Natural Resource
Analysis

No Source Advantages Disadvantages

1 Aerial photo High accuracy /resolution
Simplicity of processing
2 Small format -High resolution
aerial -low costs
photography -Low complexity
3 Airborne Radar -No cloud coverage
-Fast coverage
4 Satellite Images -Low cost and fast products
-No security restrict
-Low logistics
-Time series
-Multi-spectral data
-Improving technology
5 Existing paper - Low cost
maps - Readily available
- Variety of scales
- low complexity
Limited multi-temporal data
High costs
Security restrict
Complex logistics
Need ground comfort
Not widely used
Need for GPS
Limited to small
Survey areas
Low resolutions
High costs and complexity
Not yet readily available
- Needs digital
Capacity building specialised
Professionals
-Often out of date

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Table 3.2 Source of information for infrastructure and utility data

No. Type of Information source

information National Regional Zonal Town
1 Rail ways Ethio-Djibouti rail Offices Station office Offices
way corporation
2 Road Ethiopian road Regional Zonal district Road fund agency/
authority district municipality
3 Transportati Road transport Regional Zonal office Road transport
on authority transport office
office
4 Water Water and Water and Water and Water and sewerage
sewerage authority sewerage sewerage authority
office office
5 Electricity Ethiopian electric Ethiopian Ethiopian Ethiopian electric
power authority electric electric power office
power office power office
6 Telecommun Transport and Telecommuni Telecommuni Telephone service
ication communication cation office cation office agency
minister

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 Table 3.3 Land use by area Table 3.4 Unfulfilled infrastructure and facility
by rank

Function Area (ha) Function Availability Rank

Residential
School
• Existing
Worship place
• Proposed
• Special housing
Recreational centres
Commercial Cultural centres
• Shops (libraries, museums,
• Hotels, bars, restaurants art galleries, etc.)
• Banks, insurances Play grounds
• business Sports fields
Services Market places
• Education Cemeteries
• Health Water supply
• Community facilities Electricity supply
Industry Post office
• Manufacturing Telephone lines
• Warehouse/Depot Transport
• workshops Access roads
Special functions
Garbage disposal
• Military sites
Drainage lines
• Historical, archaeological,
• Reserved area Housing
Road, transport and utilities Others
• Road surface Availability could be recorded as:
• Water lines 1-sufficient
• Electricity lines 2-insufficient
• Telecom. Lines 3-None
• Sewerage lines
Open spaces and environmental The facilities could be ranked up to ten
aspects
• Open spaces
• Forest and woodlands
• Urban agriculture
• Quarry and mineral sites
• Solid waste disposal site
• Liquid waste treatment
plant
• Land for future expansion
Others
Total

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Table 3.5 ROAD DATA COLLECTION FORMAT

Classification Length Width Type of road Traffic Drainage line Drainage line by construction material
No. Asphalt Gravel Masonry Earth volume Yes No Open ditch Covered ditch
Masonry Plaste Earth Cement Masonry
red pipe &concrete
cover
1 Express or 60
motor roads
2 Principal 35-40
arterial
3 Motor arterial 25-30
4 Collector 20-25
street
5 Local street 12-15
6 Bicycle streets .8-.9
7 Pedestrian 1.5-3
streets
8 On street 2.5-3.5
parking

9 Off street 2.5-3.5

parking
10 Bus stop 3
11 Taxi station 3
Table 3.6 -Expected Regional Hazards and Spatial Data Acquiring Systems in Urban Areas

NO. Type of Information requirement Type of Spatial data acquiring

Hazard systems
2 Earthquake Demographics, Infrastructure, building Landsat, SAR, Radarsat, Aerial
stock, seismic history, neo tectonics, photographs, topographic maps,
lithology, faults, background
information
3 Fire Infrastructure, Land use-cover, NOAA AVHRR, Radarsat,
topography ATSR-2, Recent aerial
Drainage system, settlement, wildlife, photographs, Meteosat, ADEOS-II
Meteorological data SPOT-4, Landsat,
4 Flood Topographic maps, settlements, NOAA AVHRR, Radarsat,
infrastructure, population, livestock, Landsat, Meteorological data,
land use cover, topographic maps, thematic maps,
5 Landslide Geology, soil, population, drainage High resolution satellite images,
settlement, topography aerial photographs, topographic
maps
5 Volcanoes Topography, drainage, population, High resolution satellite images

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104
 APPENDIX 3. Basket of Service for Urban Areas

1. Introduction
Basket of services implies those physical and social facilities that are required by an urban centre.
The provision of services in a market led economy will be determined by demand and supply
conditions; however, there are services which the government, (federal, regional or municipal) should
provide to address market imperfections. This part of the Urban Planning and Implementation
Manual is designed to show the optimum level of services needed in urban centres. It aims at
establishing urban service hierarchies so that sufficient services are provided for urban settlements
corresponding to their hierarchy in the system. The urban hierarchy shall be determined by each
regional state.

2. Categories of Urban Services

In general, urban services are basic amenities provided to satisfy the needs of urban population. The
main components of these urban services could be grouped into four major categories:
1. Social facilities,
2. Public utilities,
3. Administrative services,
4. Commercial and trade services.

These services have their own hierarchy. For example educational institutions are organized into pre-
school, primary school, secondary school, college/university levels. The same holds true for health
facilities, administrative services, etc. Public utilities and commercial services have to be in
hierarchical order to suit economy of scale. The services implied by each category could be diverse.
The following diagrammatic presentation will clarify the functional classification

• educational
Social Facilities • health
• recreational
• cultural

• Road
• water
• electricity,
Public Utilities • telephone
• transport system
Urban
• waste collection and disposal system
Services

• government institutions at woreda,

Administrative zone and regional level
Services • local/municipal functions- fire
brigade, cemetery, slaughter house
• juridical institutions court, prison

• large scale commercial activities

Commercial & • daily consumable goods shops
Trade Services • general market
• livestock market
• hotels, hostels,
• business offices

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2.1. Hierarchical Classifications of urban services

The number of population that a service facility can serve at a given time basically determines the
need and distribution factor of the services. The number of population is usually proportional to the
development of the urban centre as a whole. A more developed centres calls for large number and
wide-range of services, with increased capacities, with more and more sophistication and complexity.
With this understanding urban centres are categorized into five levels on the basis of population size.

• First level -2,000-4,999

• Second level -5,000-19,999
• Third level -20,000-59,999
• Fourth level -60,000-249,000
• Fifth level -250,000 and above

The experience of other countries shows that urban services are organized by population size and
catchments area. The service providers are also organized into private, public, and different form of
partnership. This same principle is appropriate to identify the needed services for each hierarchy of
urban centres in Ethiopia.

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Table 1:- Classification of Urban Services by Level of Urban Hierarchy

Types of Urban Services Urban Grading (Population Size)

No Fifth level Fourth Third Second First
level level level level
250,000 60,000- 20,000- 5,000- 2,000-
and Above 249,000 59,999 19,999 4,999
1. Educational Facilties
• Crèche(Day care centre), K.G
• Primary School
• Secondary School -
• Special School -
• Technical and Vocational School -
• College - - -
• University - - -
• Research Institute/Centre - - -
2. Health Facilities
• Health Post
• Clinic
• Pharmacy
• Drug Stores -
• Health Centre -
• District Hospital - - - -
• General Hospital/Regional Hospital - - -
• Specialized Hospital - - -
• Referral Hospital - - -
• Laboratory and Research Centre - - -
3 Recreational Facilities
• Play lots/Play spaces/
• Neighbourhood play ground
• Local Sport fields - -
• Swimming Pool -
• Gymnasium -
• Regional Stadium - - - -
• National Stadium - - - -
• Large sport fields (horse race ground, - - - -
golf field,...)
• Olympic Stadium - - - -
• Olympic village - - - -

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 Urban Grading (Population Size)
Types of Urban Services Fifth level Fourth Third Second First
level level level level
250,000 60,000- 20,000- 5,000- 2,000-
and Above 249,000 59,999 19,999 4,999
4 Cultural Facilities
• Assembly Hall
• Local Libraries
• Cinema Hall, theatre -
• Museums -
• National/Central Libraries -
• Children and Youth Centre -
• Festive Places -
• Religious Centres
(Churches/Mosques)
• Circus Centre - - -
• Galleries, exhibition centres - -
• National Museums - - - -
5 • National Cultural Centre - - -
Green Frame
• River Bank Green -
• Road-side Green and Trees -
• Nursery -
• Mountain Green Frames -
• Local Park - - -
• City level Park - -
• Botanical Garden - -
• Zoo - - -
6 Infrastructure Facilities
6.1 Water Supply
• Collective Water Stand Point
• Piped Water network -
6.2. Electricity
• Electric Supply network
• Power substation
6.3 Road Net-work
• Principal Arterial Street
• Collector
• Local

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 Urban Grading (Population Size)
Types of Urban Services Fifth level Fourth Third Second First
level level level level
250,000 60,000- 20,000- 5,000- 2,000-
and Above 249,000 59,999 19,999 4,999
6.4 Sanitation Facilities
• Solid Waste Collection Points
• Waste disposal (landfill) sites
• Communal Toilets, showers
• Public Toilets, showers
• Drainage network - -
• Sewage Network - - -
• Waste treatment plant (solid/liquid) - - - -
• Water reservoir - -
6.5 Urban Transport and
Communication Facilities
6.5.1 Transport Services
• Local Bus Stations -
• Parking and Servicing (garages,...) - -
• Taxi Terminals - -
• Bus Terminals - - -
• Freight terminal - -
• Regional Bus Stations - - -
• Reliable Urban Transport Services - - -
• Airport Facilities - -
6.5.2. Postal Service
• Postal Collection/ Delivery Points
• Post Offices -
• Central Post Offices, headquarters - - - -
6.5.3 Telecommunication Services
• Automatic Telephone Network -
• Public telephone booth
7 Commercial and Trade Services
• All types of Residential Services
• Daily Markets
• Large Variety of Shops -
• Weekly Markets
• Livestock Markets -

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Types of Urban Services Fifth level Fourth Third Second First
level level level level
250,000 60,000- 20,000- 5,000- 2,000-
and Above 249,000 59,999 19,999 4,999
• Financial intermediaries (banks, -
insurances,...)
• Local Hotels -
• Tourist Information Centre - -
• Medium Standard Hotels - - -
• Large Commercial Centres - -
• International Standards accommodations - - - -
(Hotels, restaurants,...)
• National Headquarters( banks, - - - -
insurances,...)
Administrative Services
• Government Offices (different level)
• CBO’s Service Centres
• Cemeteries
• Municipal Offices -
• Municipal services (fire brigade, slaughter - -
house,...)
• Post Offices -
• Police Stations - -
• Fire Stations - - -
• Courts (different level) - - -
• Information Centres
• Prisons - -

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2.2 Additional determinants for Urban Service Hierarchy

Taking the urban service classification other additional factors that will affect the basket of urban
services with regards to the character of the urban centres are as follows:
1. Administrative and political importance of the town
2. Norms and Standards set by individual service giving Institutions.
3. Economic potential of the urban centre
4. Urban-rural ties, and
5. Emerging urban centres

2.2.1 Administrative and political importance

Currently, the Federal Government comprises nine national regional states as well as two special
urban administrations of Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa. The institutional arrangement currently in
place constitutes a four-tiered government structure at the regional, zonal, Woreda and Kebele levels.
The zonal level is established for administrative convenience (most regions except SNNPRS are, in
fact, contemplating to abolish this tier); the Woreda level is considered as a basic unit of elected
government; and Kebeles are the last tier of government closest to the grassroots.
There are significant gaps between and within these regions in terms of the size of area and
population, resources endowments and level of development as well as the institutional and
administrative capacity of the various regions, the amelioration of which would require to put in
place an effective regional planning system. Urban centres having higher administrative status will
need to fulfil the basic administrative services that are required at that specific level of government
even if the urban population size does not require it as such.

2.2.2 Standards set by different institutions

Some institutions have developed their own norms and standards in service provision, namely
Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sport, EEPCO,
Telecommunications Authority, Water and Sewerage Authority, Post Office, Commercial Bank of
Ethiopia, Tourism Commission, Abattoirs Enterprise, Fire Fighting, Ministry of Justice, Ethiopian
Road Authority, Government Administrative Centres (From Woreda to Regional and Federal Affairs
Levels etc), to mention only a few. Similarly, planning and service standards should be appropriate
for the urban centres.

2.2.3 Economic potential of the urban centre

The economic dynamics and the potential growth of an urban centre determine the appropriate basket
of services that should be provided. If the level and quality of urban services cannot accommodate
economic activities and facilitate investment, envisaged development would be curtailed.
Accordingly, the number and mix of commercial and trade facilities of a particular urban area should
be able to reflect the degree of interaction within the given urban economic system as well as propel
the momentum for potential development. With regards to Ethiopian urban centres, major lines of
consideration in this regard could be:
• Agricultural potential- that would enhance the development of a highly commercial, large
trading spaces like a wide general market for grain market, coffee, or other agricultural product.
• Tourist potential- Sites identified as tourist attractions due to the abundance of natural resource
(Park, Water bodies, hot springs sites), or man-made attractions such as Lalibela, Axum, Debre
Damo. Urban areas with similar potentials would call for a major development with regards to
commercial and trade services. In most cases, accommodations fulfilling the standards needed at
national and international level, even if the urban population of the given urban centres does not

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require the services. Efficient transport system is also called upon in most cases to satisfy the demand
of a broader customer than the inhabitants of the town proper.

• Industrial potential- availability of raw material, other factors of production, and proximity to
market make some urban centres conducive for industrial specialization and the ensuing development
brought on by the resultant linkages. This will again require an optimum level of trade and
commercial services

2.2.4 Urban-rural ties

Rural-urban ties are common to most urban centres. While proposing the above service level, special
effort is again needed to take into account the hinterland population that is beneficiary of those
services that are provided in the urban centres. Some services (Market centres, high schools, etc.) by
their nature cannot be restricted to the urban population alone. The weekly market that is a very
common urban service in all centres accommodates a very large number of rural population that
travel long distances to sell their produces there. It is hence very essential to take into account the
similar factors during the planning process.
Similarly, another important issue to be considered in the planning process is the possibilities of
sharing services with adjacent or nearby urban centres. In some cases, some services may not be fully
utilized by one urban centre. Therefore, in the planning process, assumptions should be taken that
two or more adjacent urban centres can share and make use of their services.

2.2.5 Emerging Urban Centres

There are newly emerging rural-urban centres, which are not yet recognized as urban centres by the
general criteria set for urban grading. These emerging urban settlements have less than 2000
inhabitants. Usually in the planning process such small towns are neglected and are not catered for as
they do not fulfil the minimum criteria to be considered urban centres. Such urban centres have
usually a one or two days weekly markets for the selling of agricultural products and the purchasing
of agricultural inputs and daily needs of the rural population. Those centres do not usually have the
right or the legal ground to collect taxes. The woreda revenue officers, either for the regional or the
federal state, collect taxes during market days. As a result they don not have any say on the revenues
collected.
The Ethiopian government has set a policy of assisting newly emerging towns to nurture their growth
in a planned way. In this case zonal urban development departments have responsibilities of backing
up such rural urban settlements.

2.2.6 Concluding Remarks

Urban areas require a complex system of urban services. These services include, education, health,
recreational and cultural facilities, housing, road network drainage, electricity, Telephone, water
supply, sanitation, Administrative and urban Transport services etc. Most of these services require
spaces.
Urban services should be considered in the planning process. Urban services should be hierarchically
classified for efficiency purposes. Hence, addressing problems related to urban services will ha
promote a sustainable urban development in the country. Beyond the provision of the specified
basket of services, major points of attention should address the following related issues:
• ensure equitable spatial distribution of urban services
• give emphasis to the needy, the urban poor, and vulnerable groups
• establish a more efficient working procedures (administrative services specially)
• give importance to the implementation of urban services provision,
• encourage private sector involvement in urban service provision,
• Give priority to broadening access and take into account affordability.

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 APPENDIX 4. Output Formats

This section deals with formats for the output of the planning tasks at different levels. It prescribes
scales for maps and models, letter and graphic codes for maps and contents of reports.

1. General introduction
Output formats are defined as the layout used to represent the final end products of the adopted
planning typologies. The results of the review of local and international planning practices showed
that there is a need for developing standard output formats for the adopted planning typologies:
Structure Plan (SP) and the Local Development Plan (LDP). The level of detail of output formats
depends on the type of planning typology. At LDP level there is a need for presentation of land use,
height and volumetric relationships, and regulations in detail. Output formats should use codes for
classified outputs. Standard urban function classification should be used in all maps, texts and
models, and presentations should be coded.

1.1 Significance of developing output formats

There is a need for having uniform output format within a nation to
• Have standardized outputs
• Have uniform planning types and activities
• Create easy working system for professionals
• Create uniform and easy understanding of classifications to users
• Permit quick access and understanding to data of different natures
• Simplify problem of communication among professionals and also the public
• Help professionals working in different regions and urban areas to adopt easily to the
local working conditions and systems
• Undertake comparative analytical studies and review of development trends

1.2 Approach for developing the format

The type of presentation that can be recognized and presented in map, report and model form
depends on the:
• Type of planning
• Spatial level of planning: the number of land use categories must be minimized at
Structure Plan level and shall be more detail at the LDP level.
• Scale of presentation
• Use of the presentation whether it is for public use and display, technical purposes or for
others. The level of detail required for the former one is low as compared to other one
where details are required for technical purposes. On the other hand, Professionals easily
understand detail land use presentations and classifications easily than the public.
• The urban hierarchy, scale and size.

2. Output formats for Structure Plans

Structure Plans should be presented in diagram form (maps), 3D models and Report. The formats for
each of these outputs are prescribed below.

2.1 Maps
1.Paper sizes
• Standard paper sizes of A0 and A1 should be used to present drawings.
• Paper layout should have standard format of presentation and indexing

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 • The left hand side of the standard paper size maps should be reserved for sequential
presentation of
Name of the region
Name of the urban area, and related information
Legend
The index box consisting of the name of the owner/client; the name of the consultant or professional;
drawing title, date, scale, and drawing number.

2. Scales
The structure Plan should be presented in the following scales for urban areas of the following
sizes.

Size of the Scale of

urban area (ha) presentation
>10000 1: 20000
5000-10000 1:10000
2500-5000 1:5000
Up to 2500 1:2000

Land use classifications and conventional coding

The Structure Plan should focus more on general land use classification and should consist of 7 major
categories, with the contents described below. Conventional coding used for the Structure Plan
should incorporate the following
a. Letter coding
b. Colour coding
c. Black and white coding
Summary of presentation systems and formatting are presented in Table Appendix 4.1.

2.2. Report
Contents of the report
The report should have the following major parts
• Introduction/ Background
• Problem statement
• Methodology
• Scope
• Main body consisting of the analyses and implications
• Proposals
• General recommended development strategies

The report should be written following standard research report writing techniques and formats.

2.3. Models and other presentation

• Land use classification and coding used in labeling models should be similar with that
specified for the maps.
• Models should be presented in appropriate scale, material and colour.

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Table appdx. 4. 1. Major land use classification and coding for land use component of the SP

Land use category Contents of the major Letter Colour Black and white
category
Residence High, medium and low R Yellow Horizontal hatch
density residential areas

Commerce, business Commerce, business and CBA Red Normal square hatch
and administration
administration
Services S Blue 45 hatch

Industry, Industry, manufacturing, P Violet Horizontal hatch:

manufacturing, warehouse, depots and alternating full and
warehouse, depots and workshops broken lines
workshops

Special functions, Special functions, reserved SF Pink Circular dotted

reserved areas, areas, historical and
historical and archaeological
archaeological sites
Open spaces Green areas, open spaces, EA
and Green Square dotted
Environmental aspectssolid and liquid waste
management, sanitation
aspects, conservation areas
Road Transportation, Road Transportation, RTU Grey Lines
utilities and infrastructure and utilities
infrastructure -Water
, Telephone
-
Electricity…………
.

3. Output formats for Local Development Plans (LDP)

3.1. Maps
Scales
• General land use and layout plan should be presented in 1:500 scale
• Detail of areas should be presented in 1:200, and 250 scale.
Paper sizes
• Standard paper sizes of A series (preferably A0 and A1) should be used to present drawings
• Compilation of detail of areas could also be presented in A2 and A3 paper sizes
Use of paper and formatting
• The left hand side of the standard paper size maps should be reserved for the name of the
region, urban area, next to these the legend, and finally the index box.
• The index should have name of the owner/client; the name of the consultant/professional;
drawing title, date, scale, and number

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 Land use classifications and conventional coding
• Land use classification should correspond to the standard specified herewith
• The following conventional colour, black and white and lettering coding systems should be
adopted for presentation

Table Appdx. 4.2 Major land use classification and coding of the LDP

Land use Category Contents of the major category Coding

Letter Colour Black and white
Residence Existing housing R-1 Yellow Horizontal hatch
Proposed housing R-2
Density areas R-3
Special housing R-4
Commerce, Shops, supermarket CBA-1 Red Normal square hatch
business and Hotels, bars, restaurants CBA-2
administration Banks, insurances CBA-3
Business CBA-4
Services Education S-1 Blue 45 hatch
Kindergarten S-11
Primary school S-12
Secondary school S-13
Special school S-14
Technical and Vocational S-15
school S-16
College S-17
University S-18
Research institute
Health S-2
Health post S-21
Health center S-22
District hospital S-23
Regional hospital S-24
Referral hospital S-25
specialized hospital S-26
Community facilities S-3
Sport and recreation S-31
play lot S-311
neighborhood play ground S-312
sport field S-313
swimming pool S-314
gymnasium S-315
stadium S-316
horse race ,golf field S-317
sport center S-318
cultural facilities S-32
library S-321
cinema hall, theatre S-322
museum S-323
children and youth center S-324
cultural center S-325
Municipal services S-4
cemetery S-41
slaughter house S-42

116
Industry, Industry and manufacturing P-1 Violet Horizontal hatch,
manufacturing, Warehouse and depots P-2 alternating full and
warehouse, depots, workshops P-3 broken lines
and workshops
Special functions Military sites SF-1 Pink Circular dotted
Historical and archaeological SF-2
buildings and sites
Reserved areas SF-4
Road, Road RTU-1 Grey
Transportation, principal arterial RTU-11
utilities and collector RTU-12
infrastructure local road RTU-13
Transportation RTU-2
bus station RTU-21
parking and service RTU-22
taxi terminal RTU-23
bus terminal RTU-24
freight terminal RTU-25
regional bus terminal RTU-26
airport RTU-27
Water lines RTU-3
Electric lines RTU-4
Telecom. Lines RTU-5
Sewerage lines RTU-6
Open spaces and Open spaces EA-1 Green Square dotted
Environmental Urban agriculture and horticulture EA-2
aspects Quarry and mineral sites EA-3
Solid waste EA-4
Liquid waste EA-5
Green area EA-6
river bank green EA-61
road side green EA-62
nursery EA-63
mountain green frame EA-64
parks EA-65
botanical garden EA-66
zoo EA-67
Conservation areas EA-7

3.2. Report
Contents of the report
The report should at least have the following major parts
• Introduction/ Background
• Problem statement
• Main body consisting of the analyses and implications
• Proposals/ plans
• General recommended development strategies

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Standard report formatting and presentation
The report should be
• Clear and concise
• Prepared following standard research report writing formats.

3.3. Models
Models should be well labeled and should clearly show
• Existing urban elements to be maintained and those to be introduced
• Land subdivision and re-subdivision
• Plot development options and strategies
• Height and major character of urban elements

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