XII Maths Lab Activities & Projects

Activities for
Class XII
The basic principles of learning mathematics are :
(a) learning should be related to each child individually
(b) the need for mathematics should develop from an
intimate acquaintance with the environment (c) the child
should be active and interested, (d) concrete material and
wide variety of illustrations are needed to aid the learning
process (e) understanding should be encouraged at each
stage of acquiring a particular skill (f) content should be
broadly based with adequate appreciation of the links
between the various branches of mathematics, (g) correct
mathematical usage should be encouraged at all stages.
– Ronwill
Activity 1
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To verify that the relation R in the set A piece of plywood, some pieces of
L of all lines in a plane, defined by wires (8), nails, white paper, glue etc.
R = {(l, m) : l ⊥ m} is symmetric but
neither reflexive nor transitive.
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
Take a piece of plywood and paste a white paper on it. Fix the wires randomly
on the plywood with the help of nails such that some of them are parallel,
some are perpendicular to each other and some are inclined as shown in
Fig.1.
DEMONSTRATION
1. Let the wires represent the lines l1, l2, ..., l8.
2. l1 is perpendicular to each of the lines l2, l3, l4. [see Fig. 1]
3. l6 is perpendicular to l7.
4. l2 is parallel to l3, l3 is parallel to l4 and l5 is parallel to l8.
5. (l1, l2), (l1, l3), (l1, l4), (l6, l7) ∈ R
OBSERVATION
1. In Fig. 1, no line is perpendicular to itself, so the relation
R = {( l, m) : l ⊥ m} ______ reflexive (is/is not).
2. In Fig. 1, l1 ⊥ l2 . Is l2 ⊥ l1 ? ______ (Yes/No)
∴ ( l1, l2) ∈ R ⇒ ( l2, l1) ______ R (∉/∈)
Similarly, l3 ⊥ l1 . Is l1 ⊥ l3? _______ (Yes/No)
∴ ( l3, l1) ∈ R ⇒ ( l1, l3) ______ R (∉/∈)
Also, l6 ⊥ l7. Is l7 ⊥ l6? _______ (Yes/No)
∴ ( l6, l7) ∈ R ⇒ ( l7, l6) ______ R (∉/∈)
∴ The relation R .... symmetric (is/is not)

3. In Fig. 1, l2 ⊥ l1 and l1⊥ l3 . Is l2 ⊥ l3? ... (Yes/No)
i.e., (l2, l1) ∈ R and (l1 , l3) ∈ R ⇒ (l2, l3) ______ R (∉/∈)
∴ The relation R .... transitive (is/is not).
APPLICATION NOTE
This activity can be used to check whether a 1. In this case, the relation is
given relation is an equivalence relation or not an equivalence relation.
not. 2. The activity can be repeated
by taking some more wire in
different positions.
102 Laboratory Manual

Activity 2
To verify that the relation R in the set A piece of plywood, some pieces of
L of all lines in a plane, defined by wire (8), plywood, nails, white paper,
R = {( l, m) : l || m} is an equivalence glue.
relation.
Take a piece of plywood of convenient size and paste a white paper on it. Fix
the wires randomly on the plywood with the help of nails such that some of
them are parallel, some are perpendicular to each other and some are inclined
as shown in Fig. 2.
DEMONSTRATION
1. Let the wires represent the lines l1, l2, ..., l8.
2. l1 is perpendicular to each of the lines l2, l3, l4 (see Fig. 2).
3. l6 is perpendicular to l7.
4. l2 is parallel to l3, l3 is parallel to l4 and l5 is parallel to l8.
5. (l2, l3), (l3, l4), (l5, l8), ∈ R
OBSERVATION
1. In Fig. 2, every line is parallel to itself. So the relation R = {( l, m) : l || m}
.... reflexive relation (is/is not)
2. In Fig. 2, observe that l2 l3 . Is l3 ... l2? (|| / || )
So, (l2, l3) ∈ R ⇒ (l3, l2) ... R (∉/∈)
Similarly, l3 || l4. Is l4 ...l3? (|| / || )
So, (l3, l4) ∈ R ⇒ (l4, l3) ... R (∉/∈)
and (l5, l8) ∈ R ⇒ (l8, l5) ... R (∉/∈)
∴ The relation R ... symmetric relation (is/is not)

3. In Fig. 2, observe that l2 || l3 and l3 || l4. Is l2 ... l4 ? (|| / || )
So, (l2, l3) ∈ R and (l3, l4) ∈ R ⇒ (l2, l4) ... R (∈/∉)
Similarly, l3 || l4 and l4 || l2. Is l3 ... l2 ? (|| / || )

So, (l3, l4) ∈ R, (l4, l2) ∈ R ⇒ (l3, l2) ... R (∈,∉)
Thus, the relation R ... transitive relation (is/is not)
Hence, the relation R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. So, R is an
equivalence relation.
APPLICATION NOTE
This activity is useful in understanding the This activity can be repeated
concept of an equivalence relation. by taking some more wires
in different positions.

Activity 3
To demonstrate a function which is Cardboard, nails, strings, adhesive
not one-one but is onto. and plastic strips.
1. Paste a plastic strip on the left hand side of the cardboard and fix three nails
on it as shown in the Fig.3.1. Name the nails on the strip as 1, 2 and 3.
2. Paste another strip on the right hand side of the cardboard and fix two nails in
the plastic strip as shown in Fig.3.2. Name the nails on the strip as a and b.
3. Join nails on the left strip to the nails on the right strip as shown in Fig. 3.3.
DEMONSTRATION
1. Take the set X = {1, 2, 3}
2. Take the set Y = {a, b}
3. Join (correspondence) elements of X to the elements of Y as shown in Fig. 3.3
OBSERVATION
1. The image of the element 1 of X in Y is __________.
The image of the element 2 of X in Y is __________.
The image of the element 3 of X in Y is __________.
So, Fig. 3.3 represents a __________ .

2. Every element in X has a _________ image in Y. So, the function is
_________(one-one/not one-one).
3. The pre-image of each element of Y in X _________ (exists/does not exist).
So, the function is ________ (onto/not onto).
APPLICATION NOTE
Demonstrate the same
This activity can be used to demonstrate the
activity by changing the
concept of one-one and onto function.
number of the elements of
the sets X and Y.

Activity 4
To demonstrate a function which is Cardboard, nails, strings, adhesive
one-one but not onto. and plastic strips.
1. Paste a plastic strip on the left hand side of the cardboard and fix two nails
in it as shown in the Fig. 4.1. Name the nails as a and b.
2. Paste another strip on the right hand side of the cardboard and fix three
nails on it as shown in the Fig. 4.2. Name the nails on the right strip as
1, 2 and 3.
3. Join nails on the left strip to the nails on the right strip as shown in the Fig. 4.3.
DEMONSTRATION
1. Take the set X = {a, b}
2. Take the set Y = {1, 2, 3}.
3. Join elements of X to the elements of Y as shown in Fig. 4.3.
OBSERVATION
1. The image of the element a of X in Y is ______________.
The image of the element b of X in Y is ______________.
So, the Fig. 4.3 represents a _____________________.

2. Every element in X has a _________ image in Y. So, the function is
_____________ (one-one/not one-one).
3. The pre-image of the element 1 of Y in X __________ (exists/does not
exist). So, the function is __________ (onto/not onto).
Thus, Fig. 4.3 represents a function which is _________ but not onto.
APPLICATION
This activity can be used to demonstrate the concept of one-one but not onto
function.

Activity 5
To draw the graph of sin −1 x , using the Cardboard, white chart paper, ruler,
graph of sin x and demonstrate the coloured pens, adhesive, pencil,
concept of mirror reflection (about eraser, cutter, nails and thin wires.
the line y = x).
1. Take a cardboard of suitable dimensions, say, 30 cm × 30 cm.
2. On the cardboard, paste a white chart paper of size 25 cm × 25 cm (say).
3. On the paper, draw two lines, perpendicular to each other and name them
X′OX and YOY′ as rectangular axes [see Fig. 5].
4. Graduate the axes approximately as shown in Fig. 5.1 by taking unit on
X-axis = 1.25 times the unit of Y-axis.
5. Mark approximately the points
π π π π π π
 ,sin  ,  ,sin  , ... ,  ,sin  in the coordinate plane and at each
6 6 4 4 2 2
point fix a nail.
6. Repeat the above process on the other side of the x-axis, marking the points
 –π –π   –π –π   –π –π 
 ,sin ,  ,sin  , ... ,  ,sin  approximately and fix nails
 6 6   4 4   2 2 
on these points as N1′, N2′, N3′, N4′. Also fix a nail at O.
7. Join the nails with the help of a tight wire on both sides of x-axis to get the
–π π
graph of sin x from to .
2 2
8. Draw the graph of the line y = x (by plotting the points (1,1), (2, 2), (3, 3), ...
etc. and fixing a wire on these points).
9. From the nails N1, N2, N3, N4, draw perpendicular on the line y = x and produce
these lines such that length of perpendicular on both sides of the line y = x
are equal. At these points fix nails, I1,I2,I3,I4.
10. Repeat the above activity on the other side of X- axis and fix nails at I1′,I2′,I3′,I4′.
11. Join the nails on both sides of the line y = x by a tight wire that will show the
graph of y = sin −1 x .
DEMONSTRATION
Put a mirror on the line y = x. The image of the graph of sin x in the mirror will
represent the graph of sin −1 x showing that sin–1 x is mirror reflection of sin x
and vice versa.

OBSERVATION
The image of point N1 in the mirror (the line y = x) is _________.
The image of point N1′ in the mirror (the line y = x) is _________.
The image point of N′2 in the mirror (the line y = x) is _________.
The image of the graph of six x in y = x is the graph of _________, and the
image of the graph of sin–1x in y = x is the graph of __________.
APPLICATION
Similar activity can be performed for drawing the graphs of cos –1 x, tan −1 x , etc.
Mathematics 111
Activity 6
To explore the principal value of Cardboard, white chart paper, rails,
the function sin–1x using a unit ruler, adhesive, steel wires and
circle. needle.
1. Take a cardboard of a convenient size and paste a white chart paper on it.
2. Draw a unit circle with centre O on it.
3. Through the centre of the circle, draw two perpendicular lines X′OX and
YOY′ representing x-axis and y-axis, respectively as shown in Fig. 6.1.
4. Mark the points A, C, B and D, where the circle cuts the x-axis and y-axis,
respectively as shown in Fig. 6.1.
5. Fix two rails on opposite
sides of the cardboard
which are parallel to
y-axis. Fix one steel wire
between the rails such
that the wire can be
moved parallel to x-axis
as shown in Fig. 6.2.
6. Take a needle of unit
length. Fix one end of
it at the centre of the
circle and the other
end to move freely
along the circle
Fig. 6.2.
DEMONSTRATION
1. Keep the needle at an
arbitrary angle, say x1
with the positive direction of x-axis. Measure of angle in radian is equal to
the length of intercepted arc of the unit circle.
2. Slide the steel wire between the rails, parallel to x-axis such that the wire
meets with free end of the needle (say P1) (Fig. 6.2).
3. Denote the y-coordinate of the point P1 as y1, where y1 is the perpendicular
distance of steel wire from the x-axis of the unit circle giving y1 = sin x1.
4. Rotate the needle further anticlockwise and keep it at the angle π – x1. Find
the value of y-coordinate of intersecting point P2 with the help of sliding
steel wire. Value of y-coordinate for the points P1 and P2 are same for the
different value of angles, y1 = sinx1 and y1 = sin (π – x1). This demonstrates
that sine function is not one-to-one for angles considered in first and second
quadrants.
5. Keep the needle at angles – x1 and (– π + x1), respectively. By sliding down
the steel wire parallel to x-axis, demonstrate that y-coordinate for the points
P3 and P4 are the same and thus sine function is not one-to-one for points
considered in 3rd and 4th quadrants as shown in Fig. 6.2.
Mathematics 113
6. However, the y-coordinate
of the points P3 and P1 are
different. Move the needle
in anticlockwise direction
π π
starting from − to and
2 2
look at the behaviour of
y-coordinates of points P5,
P6, P7 and P8 by sliding the
steel wire parallel to
x-axis accordingly. y-co-
ordinate of points P5, P6, P7
and P8 are different (see
Fig. 6.3). Hence, sine
function is one-to-one in
 π π
the domian  − ,  and its range lies between – 1 and 1.
 2 2
 π π
7. Keep the needle at any arbitrary angle say θ lying in the interval  − , 
 2 2
and denote the y-coordi-
nate of the intersecting
point P9 as y. (see Fig. 6.4).
Then y = sin θ or θ = arc
sin–1y) as sine function is
one-one and onto in the
 π π
domain  − 2 , 2  and
range [–1, 1]. So, its
inverse arc sine function
exist. The domain of arc
sine function is [–1, 1] and
Fig. 6.4

 π π
range is  − ,  . This range is called the principal value of arc sine
 2 2
function (or sin–1 function).
OBSERVATION
1. sine function is non-negative in _________ and __________ quadrants.
2. For the quadrants 3rd and 4th, sine function is _________.
π
3. θ = arc sin y ⇒ y = ________ θ where − ≤ θ ≤ ________.
2
4. The other domains of sine function on which it is one-one and onto provides
_________ for arc sine function.
APPLICATION
This activity can be used for finding the principal value of arc cosine function
(cos –1y).
Mathematics 115
Activity 7
To sketch the graphs of ax and logax, Drawing board, geometrical instru-
a > 0, a ≠ 1 and to examine that they ments, drawing pins, thin wires,
are mirror images of each other. sketch pens, thick white paper,
adhesive, pencil, eraser, a plane
mirror, squared paper.
1. On the drawing board, fix a thick paper sheet of convenient size 20 cm × 20 cm
(say) with adhesive.
Fig. 7
2. On the sheet, take two perpendicular lines XOX′ and YOY′, depicting
coordinate axes.
3. Mark graduations on the two axes as shown in the Fig. 7.
4. Find some ordered pairs satisfying y = ax and y = logax. Plot these points
corresponding to the ordered pairs and join them by free hand curves in
both the cases. Fix thin wires along these curves using drawing pins.
5. Draw the graph of y = x, and fix a wire along the graph, using drawing pins.
DEMONSTRATION
1. For ax, take a = 2 (say), and find ordered pairs satisfying it as
1 1
x 0 1 –1 2 –2 3 –3 – 4
2 2
1 1
2x 1 2 0.5 4 8 1.4 0.7 16
4 8
and plot these ordered pairs on the squared paper and fix a drawing pin at
each point.
2. Join the bases of drawing pins with a thin wire. This will represent the graph
of 2x.
3. log2x = y gives x = 2 y . Some ordered pairs satisfying it are:
1 1 1
x 1 2 4 8
2 4 8
y 0 1 –1 2 –2 3 –3
Plot these ordered pairs on the squared paper (graph paper) and fix a drawing
pin at each plotted point. Join the bases of the drawing pins with a thin wire.
This will represent the graph of log2x.
Mathematics 117
4. Draw the graph of line y = x on the sheet.
5. Place a mirror along the wire representing y = x. It can be seen that the two
graphs of the given functions are mirror images of each other in the line y = x.
OBSERVATION
1. Image of ordered pair (1, 2) on the graph of y = 2x in y = x is ______. It lies
on the graph of y = _______.
2. Image of the point (4, 2) on the graph y = log2x in y = x is _________ which
lies on the graph of y = _______.
Repeat this process for some more points lying on the two graphs.
APPLICATION
This activity is useful in understanding the concept of (exponential and
logarithmic functions) which are mirror images of each other in y = x.

Activity 8
To establish a relationship between Hardboard, white sheet, graph
common logarithm (to the base 10) paper, pencil, scale, log tables or
and natural logarithm (to the base e) calculator (graphic/scientific).
of the number x.
1. Paste a graph paper on a white sheet and fix the sheet on the hardboard.
2. Find some ordered pairs satisfying the function y = log10x. Using log tables/
calculator and draw the graph of the function on the graph paper (see Fig. 8)
X¢
1
O 1 2
e
3 4 5 6 7
}
y
}
8
y¢
y¢ = loge x
y = log10 x
9 10
X
Y¢
Fig. 8
3. Similarly, draw the graph of y′ = logex on the same graph paper as shown in
the figure (using log table/calculator).
DEMONSTRATION
1. Take any point on the positive direction of x-axis, and note its x-coordinate.
2. For this value of x, find the value of y-coordinates for both the graphs of
y = log10x and y′ = logex by actual measurement, using a scale, and record
them as y and y′, respectively.
y
3. Find the ratio .
y′
4. Repeat the above steps for some more points on the x-axis (with different
values) and find the corresponding ratios of the ordinates as in Step 3.
5. Each of these ratios will nearly be the same and equal to 0.4, which is
1
approximately equal to log 10 .
e
OBSERVATION
y
S.No. Points on y = log10 x y ′ = log e x Ratio y ′
the x-axis (approximate)
1. x1= _____ y1 = _____ y′1 = _____ __________
2. x 2 =_____ y2 = _____ y′2 = _____ __________
3. x 3 =_____ y3 = _____ y′3 = _____ __________
4. x 4 =_____ y4 = _____ y′4 = _____ __________
5. x 5 =_____ y5 = _____ y′5 = _____ __________
6. x 6 =_____ y6 = _____ y6′ = _____ __________

y
2. The value of for each point x is equal to _________ approximately.
y′
y
3. The observed value of ′ in each case is approximately equal to the value of
y
1
log e 10 . (Yes/No)
4. Therefore, log10 x = .
log e 10
APPLICATION
This activity is useful in converting log of a number in one given base to log of
that number in another base.
NOTE
Let, y = log10x, i.e., x = 10y.
Taking logarithm to base e on both the sides, we get log e x = y log e 10
1
or y =
log e 10
(loge x)
log10 x 1
⇒ =
log e x log e 10 = 0.434294 (using log tables/calculator).
Mathematics 121
Activity 9
To find analytically the limit of a Paper, pencil, calculator.
function f (x) at x = c and also to check
the continuity of the function at that
point.
 x 2 – 16 
 , x ≠ 4
1. Consider the function given by f ( x) =  x – 4 
 10, x = 4 

2. Take some points on the left and some points on the right side of c (= 4)
which are very near to c.
3. Find the corresponding values of f (x) for each of the points considered in
step 2 above.
4. Record the values of points on the left and right side of c as x and the
corresponding values of f (x) in a form of a table.
DEMONSTRATION
1. The values of x and f (x) are recorded as follows:
Table 1 : For points on the left of c (= 4).
x 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999 3.99999 3.999999 3.9999999
f (x) 7.9 7.99 7.999 7.9999 7.99999 7.999999 7.9999999

2. Table 2: For points on the right of c (= 4).
x 4.1 4.01 4.001 4.0001 4.00001 4.000001 4.0000001

f (x) 8.1 8.01 8.001 8.0001 8.00001 8.000001 8.0000001
OBSERVATION
1. The value of f (x) is approaching to ________, as x → 4 from the left.
2. The value of f (x) is approaching to ________, as x → 4 from the right.
3. So, lim f ( x ) = ________ and lim+ f ( x ) = ________.

x→ 4 x →4
4. Therefore, lim f ( x ) = ________ , f (4) = ________.

x →4
5. Is lim f ( x ) = f (4) ________ ? (Yes/No)

x →4
6. Since f ( c ) ≠ lim f ( x) , so, the function is ________ at x = 4 (continuous/

x →c
not continuous).
APPLICATION
This activity is useful in understanding the concept of limit and continuity of a
function at a point.
Mathematics 123
Activity 10
To verify that for a function f to be Hardboard, white sheets, pencil,
continuous at given point x0, scale, calculator, adhesive.
∆y = f ( x0 + ∆x ) – f ( x0 ) is
arbitrarily small provided. ∆x is
sufficiently small.
1. Paste a white sheet on the hardboard.
2. Draw the curve of the given continuous function as represented in the Fig. 10.
3. Take any point A (x0, 0) on the positive side of x-axis and corresponding to
this point, mark the point P (x0, y0) on the curve.
Y
N1
N2
Dy4
D x4 P Dy3 Dy2 Dy1
T2 T1
X¢ A
(x0 – D x4 ) M4 x0 M (x + D x3) M2(x0 + D x2) M1(x0 + D x1) X
D x3 D x3 0
2
D x1
Y¢
Fig. 10
DEMONSTRATION
1. Take one more point M1 (x0 + ∆x1, 0) to the right of A, where ∆x1 is an
increment in x.
2. Draw the perpendicular from M1 to meet the curve at N1. Let the coordinates
of N1 be (x0 + ∆x1, y0 + ∆y1)
3. Draw a perpendicular from the point P (x0, y0) to meet N1M1 at T1.
4. Now measure AM1 = ∆ x1 (say) and record it and also measure N1T1 = ∆y1 and
record it.
5. Reduce the increment in x to ∆x2 (i.e., ∆x2 < ∆x1) to get another point
M2 ( x0 + ∆x2 ,0 ) . Get the corresponding point N2 on the curve
6. Let the perpendicular PT1 intersects N2M2 at T2.
7. Again measure AM 2 = ∆x2 and record it.
Measure N 2T2 = ∆y2 and record it.
8. Repeat the above steps for some more points so that ∆x becomes smaller
and smaller.
OBSERVATION
S.No. Value of increment Corresponding

in x0 increment in y
1. ∆x1 = ∆y1 =
2. ∆x2 = ∆y2 =
3. ∆x3 = ∆y3 =
4. ∆x4 = ∆y4 =
5. ∆x5 = ∆y5 =
Mathematics 125
06. ∆x6 = ∆y6 =
07. ∆x7 = ∆y7 =
08. ∆x8 = ∆y8 =
09. ∆x9 = ∆y9 =
2. So, ∆y becomes _________ when ∆x becomes smaller.
3. Thus ∆lim
x→0
∆y = 0 for a continuous function.
APPLICATION
This activity is helpful in explaining the concept of derivative (left hand or right
hand) at any point on the curve corresponding to a function.

Activity 11
To verify Rolle’s Theorem. A piece of plywood, wires of
different lengths, white paper,
sketch pen.
1. Take a cardboard of a convenient size and paste a white paper on it.
2. Take two wires of convenient size and fix them on the white paper pasted on
the plywood to represent x-axis and y-axis (see Fig. 11).
3. Take a piece of wire of 15 cm length and bend it in the shape of a curve and
fix it on the plywood as shown in the figure.
4. Take two straight wires of the same length and fix them in such way that
they are perpendicular to x-axis at the points A and B and meeting the curve
at the points C and D (see Fig.11).
DEMONSTRATION
1. In the figure, let the curve represent the function y = f (x). Let OA = a units
and OB = b units.
2. The coordinates of the points A and B are (a, 0) and (b, 0), respectively.
3. There is no break in the curve in the interval [a, b]. So, the function f is
continuous on [a, b].
4. The curve is smooth between x = a and x = b which means that at each point,
a tangent can be drawn which in turn gives that the function f is differentiable
in the interval (a, b).
5. As the wires at A and B are of equal lengths, i.e., AC = BD, so f (a) = f (b).
6. In view of steps (3), (4) and (5), conditions of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied.
From Fig.11, we observe that tangents at P as well as Q are parallel to
x-axis, therefore, f ′ (x) at P and also at Q are zero.
Thus, there exists at least one value c of x in (a,b) such that f ′ (c) = 0.
Hence, the Rolle's theorem is verified.
OBSERVATION
From Fig. 11.
a = ______________, b = _____________
f (a) = ____________, f (b) = _________ Is f (a) = f (b) ? (Yes/No)
Slope of tangent at P = __________, so, f (x) (at P) =
APPLICATION
This theorem may be used to find the roots of an equation.

Activity 12
To verify Lagrange’s Mean Value A piece of plywood, wires, white
Theorem. paper, sketch pens, wires.
1. Take a piece of plywood and paste a white paper on it.
2. Take two wires of convenient size and fix them on the white paper pasted on
the plywood to represent x-axis and y-axis (see Fig. 12).
3. Take a piece of wire of about 10 cm length and bend it in the shape of a
curve as shown in the figure. Fix this curved wire on the white paper pasted
on the plywood.
4. Take two straight wires of lengths 10 cm and 13 cm and fix them at two
different points of the curve parallel to y-axis and their feet touching the
x-axis. Join the two points, where the two vertical wires meet the curve,
using another wire.
5. Take one more wire of a suitable length and fix it in such a way that it is
tangential to the curve and is parallel to the wire joining the two points on
the curve (see Fig. 12).
DEMONSTRATION
1. Let the curve represent the function y = f (x). In the figure, let OA = a units
and OB = b units.
2. The coordinates of A and B are (a, 0) and (b, 0), respectively.
3. MN is a chord joining the points M (a, f (a) and N (b, f (b)).
4. PQ represents a tangent to the curve at the point R (c, f (c)), in the interval
(a, b).
5. f ′(c) is the slope of the tangent PQ at x = c.
f (b ) – f ( a )
6. is the slope of the chord MN.
b–a
f (b ) – f ( a )
7. MN is parallel to PQ, therefore, f ′ ( c ) = . Thus, the
b–a
Langrange’s Mean Value Theorem is verified.
OBSERVATION
1. a = __________, b = ______________,
f (a) = ________, f (b)= ____________.

2. f (a) – f (b) = ________,
b – a = ________,

f (b) – f (a)
3. = ________ = Slope of MN.
b–a
f (a) − f (a)
4. Since PQ || MN ⇒ Slope of PQ = f ′(c) = .
b−a
APPLICATION
Langrange’s Mean Value Theorem has significant applications in calculus.
For example this theorem is used to explain concavity of the graph.
Mathematics 131
Activity 13
To understand the concepts of Pieces of wire of different lengths,
decreasing and increasing functions. piece of plywood of suitable size,
white paper, adhesive, geometry
box, trigonometric tables.
1. Take a piece of plywood of a convenient size and paste a white paper on it.
2. Take two pieces of wires of length say 20 cm each and fix them on the white
paper to represent x-axis and y-axis.
3. Take two more pieces of wire each of suitable length and bend them in the
shape of curves representing two functions and fix them on the paper as
shown in the Fig. 13.
4. Take two straight wires each of suitable length for the purpose of showing
tangents to the curves at different points on them.
DEMONSTRATION
1. Take one straight wire and place it on the curve (on the left) such that it is
tangent to the curve at the point say P1 and making an angle α1 with the
positive direction of x-axis.
2. α1 is an obtuse angle, so tanα1 is negative, i.e., the slope of the tangent at P1
(derivative of the function at P1) is negative.
3. Take another two points say P2 and P3 on the same curve, and make tangents,
using the same wire, at P2 and P3 making angles α2 and α3, respectively with
the positive direction of x-axis.
4. Here again α2 and α3 are obtuse angles and therefore slopes of the tangents
tan α2 and tan α3 are both negative, i.e., derivatives of the function at P2 and
P3 are negative.
5. The function given by the curve (on the left) is a decreasing function.
6. On the curve (on the right), take three point Q1, Q2, Q3, and using the other
straight wires, form tangents at each of these points making angles β1, β2,
β3, respectively with the positive direction of x-axis, as shown in the figure.
β1, β2, β3 are all acute angles.
So, the derivatives of the function at these points are positive. Thus, the
function given by this curve (on the right) is an increasing function.
OBSERVATION
1. α1 = _______ , > 90° α2 = _______ > _______, α3 = _______> _______,
tan α1 = _______, (negative) tan α2 = _______, ( _______ ), tan α3 =
_______, ( _______). Thus the function is _______.
2. β1 = _______< 90°, β2 = _______, < _______, β3 = _______ , < _______
tan β1 = _______ , (positive), tan β2 = _______, ( _______ ), tan β3 =

_______( _______ ). Thus, the function is _______.
APPLICATION
This activity may be useful in explaining the concepts of decreasing and
increasing functions.
Mathematics 133
Activity 14
To understand the concepts of local A piece of plywood, wires,
maxima, local minima and point of adhesive, white paper.
inflection.
1. Take a piece of plywood of a convenient size and paste a white paper on it.
2. Take two pieces of wires each of length 40 cm and fix them on the paper on
plywood in the form of x-axis and y-axis.
3. Take another wire of suitable length and bend it in the shape of curve. Fix
this curved wire on the white paper pasted on plywood, as shown in Fig. 14.
4. Take five more wires each of length say 2 cm and fix them at the points A, C,
B, P and D as shown in figure.
DEMONSTRATION
1. In the figure, wires at the points A, B, C and D represent tangents to the
curve and are parallel to the axis. The slopes of tangents at these points are
zero, i.e., the value of the first derivative at these points is zero. The tangent
at P intersects the curve.
2. At the points A and B, sign of the first derivative changes from negative to
positive. So, they are the points of local minima.
3. At the point C and D, sign of the first derivative changes from positive to
negative. So, they are the points of local maxima.
4. At the point P, sign of first derivative does not change. So, it is a point of
inflection.
OBSERVATION
1. Sign of the slope of the tangent (first derivative) at a point on the curve to
the immediate left of A is _______.
2. Sign of the slope of the tangent (first derivative) at a point on the curve to
the immediate right of A is_______.
3. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate left
of B is _______.
4. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate right
of B is _______.
of C is _______.
of C is _______.
of D is _______.
Mathematics 135
of D is _______.
9. Sign of the first derivative at a point immediate left of P is _______ and
immediate right of P is_______.
10. A and B are points of local _______.
11. C and D are points of local _______.
12. P is a point of _______.
APPLICATION
1. This activity may help in explaining the concepts of points of local maxima,
local minima and inflection.
2. The concepts of maxima/minima are useful in problems of daily life such
as making of packages of maximum capacity at minimum cost.

Activity 15
To understand the concepts of Drawing board, white chart paper,
absolute maximum and minimum adhesive, geometry box, pencil and
values of a function in a given closed eraser, sketch pens, ruler, calculator.
interval through its graph.
Y
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
¢ 1.27
X X
2 3 1 1 O 1 1 3 2
2 2 2 2 2
4
¢
Y
Fig 15
1. Fix a white chart paper of convenient size on a drawing board using adhesive.
2. Draw two perpendicular lines on the squared paper as the two rectangular axes.
3. Graduate the two axes as shown in Fig.15.
4. Let the given function be f (x) = (4x2 – 9) (x2 – 1) in the interval [–2, 2].
5. Taking different values of x in [–2, 2], find the values of f (x) and plot the
ordered pairs (x, f (x)).
6. Obtain the graph of the function by joining the plotted points by a free hand
curve as shown in the figure.
DEMONSTRATION
1. Some ordered pairs satisfying f (x) are as follows:
x 0 ± 0.5 ± 1.0 1.25 1.27 ± 1.5 ±2
f (x) 9 6 0 – 1.55 –1.56 0 21
2. Plotting these points on the chart paper and joining the points by a free hand
curve, the curve obtained is shown in the figure.
OBSERVATION
1. The absolute maximum value of f (x) is ________ at x = ________.
2. Absolute minimum value of f (x) is ________ at x = _________.
APPLICATION
The activity is useful in explaining the concepts of absolute maximum / minimum
value of a function graphically.

NOTE
Consider f (x) = (4x2 – 9) (x2 – 1)
3
f (x) = 0 gives the values of x as ± and ±1 . Both these values of x lie in the
2
given closed interval [–2, 2].
f ′ (x) = (4x2 – 9) 2x + 8x (x2 – 1) = 16x3 – 26x = 2x (8x2 – 13)
13
f ′ (x) = 0 gives x = 0, x = ± = ± 1.27 . These two values of x lie in [–2, 2].
8
The function has local maxima/minima at x = 0 and x = ± 1.27, respectively.
Mathematics 139
Activity 16
To construct an open box of maximum Chart papers, scissors, cellotape,
volume from a given rectangular sheet calculator.
by cutting equal squares from each
corner.
1. Take a rectangular chart paper of size 20 cm × 10 cm and name it as ABCD.
2. Cut four equal squares each of side x cm from each corner A, B, C and D.
3. Repeat the process by taking the same size of chart papers and different
values of x.
4. Make an open box by folding its flaps using cellotape/adhesive.
DEMONSTRATION
1. When x = 1, Volume of the box = 144 cm3
2. When x = 1.5, Volume of the box = 178.5 cm3
3. When x = 1.8, Volume of the box = 188.9 cm3.
4. When x = 2, Volume of the box = 192 cm3.
8. When x = 3, Volume of the box = 168 cm3.
Clearly, volume of the box is maximum when x = 2.1.
OBSERVATION
1. V1 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 1.6) = .................
3. V = Volume of the open box ( when x = 2.1) = .................
7. Volume V1 is ____________ than volume V.
So, Volume of the open box is maximum when x = ________.
APPLICATION
This activity is useful in explaining the concepts of maxima/minima of functions.
It is also useful in making packages of maximum volume with minimum cost.
Mathematics 141
NOTE
Let V denote the volume of the box.
Now V = (20 – 2x) (10 – 2x) x
or V = 200x – 60x2 + 4x3
dV
= 200 –120 x +12 x 2 . For maxima or minima, we have,
dx
dV
= 0 , i.e., 3x2 – 30x + 50 = 0
dx
30 ± 900 – 600
i.e., x = = 7.9 or 2.1
6
Reject x = 7.9.
d 2V
= –120 + 24 x
dx2
d 2V
When x = 2.1, is negative.
dx 2
Hence, V should be maximum at x = 2.1.

Activity 17
To find the time when the area of a Chart paper, paper cutter, scale,
rectangle of given dimensions become pencil, eraser, cardboard.
maximum, if the length is decreasing
and the breadth is increasing at given
rates.
1. Take a rectangle R1 of dimensions 16 cm × 8 cm.
2. Let the length of the rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 1cm/second and
the breadth is increasing at the rate of 2 cm/second.
3. Cut other rectangle R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, etc. of dimensions 15 cm ×
10 cm, 14 cm × 12 cm, 13 cm × 14 cm, 12 cm × 16 cm, 11 cm × 18 cm,
10 cm × 20 cm, 9 cm × 22 cm, 8 cm × 24 cm (see Fig.17).
4. Paste these rectangles on card board.
DEMONSTRATION
1. Length of the rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 1cm/s and the breadth is
increasing at the rate of 2cm/s.
2. (i) Area of the given rectangle R1 = 16 × 8 = 128 cm2.
(ii) Area of rectangle R2 = 15 × 10 = 150 cm2 (after 1 sec).
(iii) Area of rectangle R3 = 168 cm2 (after 2 sec).
(iv) Area of rectangle R4 = 182 cm2 (after 3 sec).
(v) Area of rectangle R5 = 192 cm2 (after 4 sec).
(vi) Area of rectangle R6 = 198 cm2 (after 5 sec).
(vii) Area of rectangle R7 = 200 cm2 (after 6 sec).
(viii) Area of rectangle R8 = 198 cm2 (after 7 sec) and so on.
Thus the area of the rectangle is maximum after 6 sec.
OBSERVATION
1. Area of the rectangle R2 (after 1 sec) = __________.
7. Rectangle of Maximum area (after ..... seconds) = _______.
8. Area of the rectangle is maximum after _________ sec.
9. Maximum area of the rectangle is _________.

APPLICATION
This activity can be used in explaining the concept of rate of change and
optimisation of a function.
The function has local maxima/minima at x = 0 and x = ± 1.27, respectively.
NOTE
Let the length and breadth of rectangle be a and b.
The length of rectangle after t seconds = a – t.
The breadth of rectangle after t seconds = b + 2t.
Area of the rectangle (after t sec) = A (t) = (a – t) (b + 2t) = ab – bt + 2at – 2t2
A′ (t) = – b + 2a – 4t
For maxima or minima, A′ (t) = 0.
Mathematics 145
2a – b
A ′ (t ) = 0 ⇒ t =
4
A ′′ (t ) = – 4
⎛ 2a – b ⎞
⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
A ′′ ⎜ = – 4 , which is negative
2a – b
Thus, A ( t ) is maximum at t = seconds.
4
Here, a = 16 cm, b = 8 cm.
32 – 8 24
Thus, t = = = 6 seconds
4 4
Hence, after 6 second, the area will become maximum.

Activity 18
To verify that amongst all the rect- Chart paper, paper cutter, scale,
angles of the same perimeter, the pencil, eraser cardboard, glue.
square has the maximum area.
2. Make rectangles each of perimeter say 48 cm on a chart paper. Rectangles
of different dimensions are as follows:
R1 : 16 cm × 8 cm, R2 : 15 cm × 9 cm
R3 : 14 cm × 10 cm, R4 : 13 cm × 11 cm
R5 : 12 cm × 12 cm, R6 : 12.5 cm × 11.5 cm
R7 : 10.5 cm × 13.5 cm
3. Cut out these rectangles and paste them on the white paper on the cardboard
(see Fig. 18 (i) to (vii)).
4. Repeat step 2 for more rectangles of different dimensions each having
perimeter 48 cm.
5. Paste these rectangles on cardboard.
DEMONSTRATION
1. Area of rectangle of R1 = 16 cm × 8 cm = 128 cm2
Area of rectangle R2 = 15 cm × 9 cm = 135 cm2
Area of R3 = 140 cm2
Area of R6 = 143.75 cm2
Area of R7 = 141.75 cm2

2. Perimeter of each rectangle is same but their area are different. Area of
rectangle R5 is the maximum. It is a square of side 12 cm. This can be verified
using theoretical description given in the note.
OBSERVATION
1. Perimeter of each rectangle R1, R2, R3, R4, R4, R6, R7 is _________.
2. Area of the rectangle R3 ________ than the area of rectangle R5.

3. Area of the rectangle R6 _______ than the area of rectangle R5.
4. The rectangle R5 has the diamensions ______ × ______ and hence it is a
________.
5. Of all the rectangles with same perimeter, the ________ has the maximum
area.
APPLICATION
This activity is useful in explaining the idea
of Maximum of a function. The result is also
useful in preparing economical packages.
NOTE
Let the length and breadth of rectangle be x and y.
The perimeter of the rectangle P = 48 cm.
2 (x + y) = 48
or x + y = 24 or y = 24 – x
Let A (x) be the area of rectangle, then
A (x) = xy
= x (24 – x)
= 24x – x2
A′ (x) = 24 – 2x
A′ (x) = ⇒ 24 – 2x = 0 ⇒ x = 12
A′′ (x) = – 2
A′′ (12) = – 2, which is negative
Therefore, area is maximum when x = 12
y = x = 24 – 12 = 12
So, x = y = 12
Hence, amongst all rectangles, the square has the maximum area.
Mathematics 149
Activity 19
To evaluate the definite integral Cardboard, white paper, scale,
b pencil, graph paper
∫a (1 − x 2 ) dx as the limit of a sum and
verify it by actual integration.
2. Draw two perpendicular lines to represent coordinate axes XOX′ and YOY′.
3. Draw a quadrant of a circle with O as centre and radius 1 unit (10 cm) as
shown in Fig.19.
The curve in the 1st quadrant represents the graph of the function 1 − x 2 in the
interval [0, 1].
DEMONSTRATION
1. Let origin O be denoted by P0 and the points where the curve meets the
x-axis and y-axis be denoted by P10 and Q, respectively.
2. Divide P0P10 into 10 equal parts with points of division as, P1, P2, P3, ..., P9.
3. From each of the points, Pi , i = 1, 2, ..., 9 draw perpendiculars on the x-axis
to meet the curve at the points, Q1, Q2, Q3 ,..., Q9. Measure the lengths of
P0Q0, P1 Q1, ..., P9Q9 and call them as y0, y1 , ..., y9 whereas width of each part,
P0P1, P1P2, ..., is 0.1 units.
4. y0 = P0Q0 = 1 units
y1 = P1Q1 = 0.99 units
y2 = P2Q2 = 0.97 units
y3 = P3Q3 = 0.95 units
y4 = P4Q4 = 0.92 units
y5 = P5Q5 = 0.87 units
y6 = P6Q6 = 0.8 units
y7 = P7Q7 = 0.71 units
y8 = P8Q8 = 0.6 units
y9 = P9Q9 = 0.43 units
y10 = P10Q10 = which is very small near to 0.
5. Area of the quadrant of the circle (area bounded by the curve and the two
axis) = sum of the areas of trapeziums.
(1 + 0.99 ) + ( 0.99 + 0.97 ) + ( 0.97 + 0.95 ) + ( 0.95 + 0.92 ) 

1  
= × 0.1  + (0.92 + 0.87) + (0.87 + 0.8) + (0.8 + 0.71) + (0.71+ 0.6) 
2  + (0.6 + 0.43) + (0.43) 
 
Mathematics 151
= 0.1 [0.5 + 0.99 + 0.97 + 0.95 + 0.92 + 0.87 + 0.80 + 0.71 + 0.60 + 0.43]
= 0.1 × 7.74 = 0.774 sq. units.(approx.)

1
6. Definite integral = ∫0 1 – x 2 dx
1
 x 1 – x2 1  1 π 3.14
= + sin −1 x  = × = = 0.785sq.units
 2 2  0 2 2 4
Thus, the area of the quadrant as a limit of a sum is nearly the same as area
obtained by actual integration.
OBSERVATION
1. Function representing the arc of the quadrant of the circle is y = ______.
1
2. Area of the quadrant of a circle with radius 1 unit = ∫ 1– x 2 dx = ________.

0
sq. units
3. Area of the quadrant as a limit of a sum = _______ sq. units.
4. The two areas are nearly _________.
APPLICATION
This activity can be used to demonstrate the
concept of area bounded by a curve. This
activity can also be applied to find the
approximate value of π.
NOTE
Demonstrate the same activity
by drawing the circle x2 + y2 = 9
and find the area between x = 1
and x = 2.

Activity 20
To verify geometrically that Geometry box, cardboard, white
paper, cutter, sketch pen, cellotape.
( )

c× a + b = c× a + c×b
1. Fix a white paper on the cardboard.
2. Draw a line segment OA (= 6 cm, say) and let it represent c .

3. Draw another line segment OB (= 4 cm, say) at an angle (say 60°) with OA.

Let OB = a

4. Draw BC (= 3 cm, say) making an angle (say 30°) with OA . Let BC = b
5. Draw perpendiculars BM, CL and BN.
6. Complete parallelograms OAPC, OAQB and BQPC.
DEMONSTRATION

1. OC = OB +BC = a + b , and let ∠COA = α .
( )

2. c × a + b = c a + b sin α = area of parallelogram OAPC.

3. c × a = area of parallelogram OAQB.

4. c × b = area of parallelogram BQPC.
5. Area of parallelogram OAPC = (OA) (CL)
= (OA) (LN + NC) = (OA) (BM + NC)
= (OA) (BM) + (OA) (NC)
= Area of parallelogram OAQB + Area of parallelogram BQPC

= c+a + c × b

So, c × ( a + b ) = c × b + c × b

Direction of each of these vectors c × (a + b ), c × a and c × b is perpendicular
to the same plane.

So, c × (a + b ) = c × a + c × b.

OBSERVATION

c = OA = OA = _______

a + b = OC = OC = ______
CL = ______

c × ( a + b) = Area of parallelogram OAPC
= (OA) (CL) = _____________ sq. units (i)

c × a = Area of parallelogram OAQB
= (OA) (BM) = _____ × _____ = ______ (ii)

c × b = Area of parallelogram BQPC
= (OA) (CN) = _____ × _____ = ______ (iii)
From (i), (ii) and (iii),
Area of parallelogram OAPC = Area of parallelgram OAQB + Area of

Parallelgram ________.

Thus c × (a + b | = c × a + c × b
( )

c × a, c × b and c × a + b are all in the direction of _______ to the plane
of paper.
( )

Therefore c × a + b = c × a + ________.
Mathematics 155
APPLICATION
Through the activity, distributive property of vector multiplication over addition
can be explained.
NOTE
This activity can also be per-
formed by taking rectangles
instead of parallelograms.

Activity 21
To verify that angle in a semi-circle is Cardboard, white paper, adhesive,
a right angle, using vector method. pens, geometry box, eraser, wires,
paper arrow heads.
1. Take a thick cardboard of size 30 cm × 30 cm.
2. On the cardboard, paste a white paper of the same size using an adhesive.
3. On this paper draw a circle, with centre O and radius 10 cm.
4. Fix nails at the points O, A, B, P and Q. Join OP, OA, OB, AP, AQ, BQ, OQ
and BP using wires.
5. Put arrows on OA, OB, OP, AP, BP, OQ, AQ and BQ to show them as vectors,
using paper arrow heads, as shown in the figure.
DEMONSTRATION

1. Using a protractor, measure the angle between the vectors AP and BP , i.e.,
∠ APB = 90°.

2. Similarly, the angle between the vectors AQ and BQ , i.e., ∠ AQB = 90°.
3. Repeat the above process by taking some more points R, S, T, ... on the
semi-circles, forming vectors AR, BR; AS, BS; AT, BT; ..., etc., i.e., angle
formed between two vectors in a semi-circle is a right angle.
OBSERVATION
By actual measurement.

OP = OA = OB = OQ = r = a = p = _______ ,

AP = _______ , BP = _______, AB = ______

AQ = _______ , BQ = _______
2 2 2 2

AP + BP = ________, AQ + BQ = ________

So, ∠APB = ________ and AP.BP ________ ∠AQB = ________ and

AQ.BP = ________
Similarly, for points R, S, T, ________
∠ARB = ________, ∠ASB = ________, ∠ATB = ________, ________
i.e., angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
APPLICATION
This activity can be used to explain the
concepts of
(i) opposite vectors

(ii) vectors of equal magnitude

(iii) perpendicular vectors
(iv) Dot product of two vectors.
NOTE
Let OA = OB = a = OP = p

OA = – a , OB = a , OP = p

AP = – OA + OP = a + p ., BP = p – a .
2 2
AP. BP =( p + a ) .( p – a ) = p – a = 0
.
( 2
since p = a )

So, the angle APB between the vectors AP and

BP is a right angle.

Similarly, AQ. BQ = 0 , so, ∠AQB = 90° and so on.
Mathematics 159
Activity 22
To locate the points to given Drawing board, geometry box,
coordinates in space, measure the squared paper, nails of different
distance between two points in space lengths, paper arrows.
and then to verify the distance using
distance formula.
Y
Z 6
5 C (4, 1, 3)
(–2,2,2)B 4
3 3 cm
2 cm
N 2
(–2, 2)
1 M
(4, 1)
¢
X X
O
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1 D (3, –5, 4)
A –2
(–2, –3, 1) 1 cm
L 4 cm
(–2, –3) –3
–4
–5 S
(3, –5)
–6
¢
Y
Fig 22
1. Take a drawing board and paste a squared paper on it.
2. Draw two lines X′OX and Y′OY to represent x-axis, y-axis respectively
(see Fig. 22) and take 1 unit = 1 cm.
3. Fix a wire through O, in the vertical direction, representing the z-axis.
4. Fix nails of length 1 cm, 2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm, etc. at different points on the
squared paper (say at L (–2, –3), N (–2, 2), M (4, 1), S (3, –5)), etc.
Now the upper tips of these nails represent the points (say A, B, C, D) in the
space.
DEMONSTRATION
1. Coordinates of the point A = (–2, –3, 1).
2. Coordinates of the point B = (–2, 2, 2).
3. Similarly find the coordinates of the point C and D.
4. By actual measurement (using a scale) distance AB = 5.1 cm.
5. By distance formula, AB= (–2 + 2)2 + (–3 – 2)2 + (1 – 2)2 = 26 = 5.099.

Thus, the distance AB, obtained by actual measurement is approximately same
as the distance obtained by using the distance formula.
Same can be verified for other pairs of points A, C; B, C; A, D; C, D; B, D.
OBSERVATION
Coordinates of the point C = ________.
Coordinates of the point D = ________.
On actual measurement :
AC = ________, BC = _________.
AD = ________, CD = _________, BD = __________.
Mathematics 161
Using distance formula; AC = ________, BC = ________, AD = ________
CD = ________, BD = ________.
Thus, the distance between two points in space obtained on actual measurement
and by using distance formula is approximately the same.
APPLICATION
1. This activity is useful in visualising the position of different points in space
(coordinates of points).
2. The concept of position vectors can also be explained through this activity.

Activity 23
To demonstrate the equation of a plane Two pieces of plywood of size
in normal form. 10 cm × 12 cm, a thin wooden rod
with nuts and bolts fixed on both
sides, 3 pieces of wires, pen/pencil.
1. Fix the wooden rod in between two wooden pieces with nuts and bolts so
that the rod is perpendicular to the two wooden pieces. So, it represents the
normal to the plane.

2. Take three wires and
fix, them as shown in Fig. 23so that OP represents
the vector a and OA represents r . Then the wire PA represents the vector

r–a.
DEMONSTRATION

1. The wire PA, i.e., the vector ( r – a ) lies on plane 1. On representing n as

normal to plane 1, n is perpendicular to ( r – a ), normal to the plane.
2. Hence ( r – a ) ⋅ n = 0 which gives the equation of plane in the normal form.

OBSERVATION

1. a is the position vector of _________, r is the position vector of
_________ vector n is perpendicular to the vector __________.

2. ( r – a ). nˆ = 0 , is the equation of the plane ________, in _______ form.
APPLICATION
This activity can also be utilised to show the position vector of a point in space

(i.e., a as position vector of O, r the position vector of A).

Activity 24
To verify that the angle between two Plywood pieces, wires, hinges.
planes is the same as the angle between
their normals.
1. Take two pieces of plywood 10 cm × 20 cm and join them with the help of
hinges.
2. Fix two vertical wires on each plane to show normals to the planes.
3. Cut slots in the two planes to fix a third plywood piece showing third plane.
DEMONSTRATION
1. P1 represents the first plane.
2. P2 represents the second plane.
3. Vertical wires l1 and l2 represents normals to the planes P1, P2, respectively.
4. l3 and l4 are the lines of intersections of the planes P3, with P1 and P2,
respectively.
5. Angle between lines l3 and l4 is the angle between the planes. It is same as
the angle between their normals.
OBSERVATION
1. P1 represents the _________.
2. P2 represents the _________.
3. l1 represents the _________.
4. l2 represents the _________.
5. l3 is the line of intersection _________.
6. l4 is the line of intersection _________.
7. Angle between l1 and l2 is equal to _________.
APPLICATION
This model can also be used to find the angle between a line and a plane.

Activity 25
To find the distance of given point (in One cardboard of size 20 cm × 30
space) from a plane (passing through cm and another of size 10 cm × 15
three non-collinear points) by actual cm., a thick sheet of paper of size
measurement and also analytically. 20 cm × 30 cm, nails of varying
lengths with caps on one end,
geometry box, wires.
1. Draw two mutually perpendicular lines X′OX and Y′OY on a thick sheet of
paper representing x-axis, and y-axis, respectively intersecting at O, and
graduate them.
2. Paste this sheet on the cardboard of size 20 cm × 30 cm. Through O, fix a
wire vertically to represent z-axis (see Fig. 25).
3. Fix three nails of heights (say 2 cm, 3 cm and 4 cm) at three different points
on this board (say at (8, –6), (–3, –9) and (–1, –4), respectevely) (Fig. 25).
4. The tips of these nails represent three points A, B and C in space.
5. Now rest a plane KLMN represented by another cardboard on the tips of
these three nails so that the points A, B, C, lie on the plane.
6. Now fix a nail of length 6 cm at some point [say (8, –2)] on the cardboard.The
tip of the nail will represent point P, from where the distance to the plane
KLMN is to be found.
DEMONSTRATION
1. Coordinates of the points A, B and C are (8, –6, 2), (–3, –9, 3), (–1, – 4, 4),
respectively.
2. Coordinates of point P are (8, –2, 6).
3. A set square is placed so that its one side-forming the right angle on the
plane KLMN and the other side in the direction normal to the plane.
4. Place a metre scale along the side of the set square which is in the direction
normal to the plane KLMN and slide both of them until the metre scale
touches the point P.
5. The distance between the point P and the plane in the normal direction is
measured using a metre scale.
6. Equation of the plane passing through the points A, B, C is
x–8 y+6 z –2
–3 – 8 –9 + 6 3 – 2 = 0 which is of the form ax + by + cz + d = 0.
–1 – 8 –4 + 6 4 – 2

7. This distance is also calculated by using the formula
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d

d= .
a 2 + b2 + c2
8. The two distance so obtained are the same.
OBSERVATION
1. The coordinates of A (x1, y1, z1) = _________.
B (x2, y2, z2) = _________.
C (x3, y3, z3) = _________.
Coordinates of point P = _________.
The distance(d) of P from the plane KLMN by actual

measurement =_________.
2. Equation of plane through A, B, C using
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1
x2 – x1 y2 – y1 z2 – z1 = 0
is _________.
x3 – x1 y3 – y1 z3 – z1
The distance of P from this plane (represented by above equation)
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d

using d = = _________.
a 2 + b2 + c2
Thus distance of a point P from a plane by actual measurement
= distance of P through analytical method = __________.
Mathematics 169
APPLICATION
1. With this activity it can be explained that through
(a) one point or through two points, infinite number of planes can pass,
(b) three non-collinear points, a unique plane passes.
2. This activity can also be used in explainiing the concept of distance between
two parallel planes.

Activity 26
To measure the shortest distance A piece of plywood of size
between two skew lines and verify it 30 cm × 20 cm, a squared paper,
analytically. three wooden blocks of size
2cm × 2 cm × 2 cm each and one
wooden block of size 2 cm × 2 cm
× 4 cm, wires of different lengths,
set squares, adhesive, pen/pencil,
etc.
1. Paste a squared paper on a piece of plywood.
2. On the squared paper, draw two lines OA and OB to represent x-axis,
and y-axis, respectively.
3. Name the three blocks of size 2 cm × 2 cm × 2 cm as I, II and III. Name the
other wooden block of size 2 cm × 2 cm × 4 cm as IV.
4. Place blocks I, II, III such that their base centres are at the points
(2, 2), (1, 6) and (7, 6), respectively, and block IV with its base centre at
(6, 2). Other wooden block of size 2 cm × 2 cm × 4 cm as IV.
5. Place a wire joining the points P and Q, the centres of the bases of the
blocks I and III and another wire joining the centres R and S of the tops of
blocks II and IV as shown in Fig. 26.
6. These two wires represent two skew lines.
7. Take a wire and join it perpendicularly with the skew lines and measure the
actual distance.
Fig. 26
DEMONSTRATION
1. A set-square is placed in such a way that its one perpendicular side is along
the wire PQ.
2. Move the set-square along PQ till its other perpendicular side touches the
other wire.
3. Measure the distance between the two lines in this position using set-square.
This is the shortest distance between two skew lines.
4. Analytically, find the equation of line joining P (2, 2, 0) and Q (7, 6, 0) and
other line joining R (1, 6, 2) and S (6, 2, 4) and find S.D. using
( )( )

a2 – a1 ⋅ b1 × b2
. The distance obtained in two cases will be the same.
b1 × b2
OBSERVATION
1. Coordinates of point P are ________.
2. Coordinates of point Q are ________.
3. Coordinates of point R are ________.
4. Coordinates of point S are ________.
5. Equation of line PQ is ________.
6. Equation of line RS is ________.
Shortest distance between PQ and RS analytically = ________.
Shortest distance by actual measurement = ________.
The results so obtained are ________.
APPLICATION
This activity can be used to explain the concept of skew lines and of shortest
distance between two lines in space.
Mathematics 173
Activity 27
To explain the computation of A piece of plywood, white paper
conditional probability of a given pen/pencil, scale, a pair of dice.
event A, when event B has already
occurred, through an example of
throwing a pair of dice.
1. Paste a white paper on a piece of plywood of a convenient size.
2. Make a square and divide it into 36 unit squares of size 1cm each
(see Fig. 27).
3. Write pair of numbers as shown in the figure.
Fig. 27
DEMONSTRATION
1. Fig. 27 gives all possible outcomes of the given experiment. Hence, it
represents the sample space of the experiment.
2. Suppose we have to find the conditional probability of an event A if an event
B has already occurred, where A is the event “a number 4 appears on both
the dice” and B is the event "4 has appeared on at least one of the dice”i.e,
we have to find P(A | B).
3. From Fig. 27 number of outcomes favourable to A = 1
Number of outcomes favourable to B = 11
Number of outcomes favourable to A ∩ B = 1.
NOTE
11
4. (i) P (B) = , 1. You may repeat this activity by
36
taking more events such as the
probability of getting a sum 10 when
1 a doublet has already occurred.
(ii) P (A ∩ Β) =
36 2. Conditional probability
P (A | B) can also be found by first
P(A ∩ B) 1 taking the sample space of event B
(iii) P (A | B) = = . out of the sample space of the
P(B) 11 experiment, and then finding the
probability A from it.
OBSERVATION
1. Outcome(s) favourable to A : _________, n (A) = _________.
2. Outcomes favourable to B : _________, n (B) = _________.
3. Outcomes favourable to A ∩ B : _________, n (A ∩ B) = _________.
4. P (A ∩ B) = _________.
5. P (A | B) = _________ = _________.
APPLICATION
This activity is helpful in understanding the concept of conditional probability,
which is further used in Bayes’ theorem.
Mathematics 175
PROJECTS
Project work in mathematics may be performed individually by a
student or jointly by a group of students. These projects may be in the
form of construction such as curve sketching or drawing of graphs,
etc. It may offer a discussion of a topic from history of mathematics
involving the historical development of particular subject in mathematics/
topics on concepts. Students may be allowed to select the topics of
their own choice for projects in mathematics. The teacher may act as
a fascilitator by creating interest in various topics. Once the topic has
been selected, the student should read as much about the topic as is
available and finally prepare the project.
projects_08_06_09.pmd 180 28-May-2019, 2:26 PM

A RYABHAT – THE M ATHEMATICIAN AND
Project 1 ASTRONOMER
Prior to the first century A.D., there was a lot of development of mathematics in India
but the nomenclature of their contributors is not known presently. One of the Indian
mathematicians of ancient times about which some definite information is available is
Aryabhat, and the name of his creation is Aryabhattiya.
TIME AND PLACE OF BIRTH

Aryabhat has said in his creation Aryabhattiya that he was 23 year old, when
he wrote Aryabhattiya and upto that time 3600 years of Kaliyug (dfy;qx) had
elapsed. This works out that he wrote the manuscript in 499 A.D. and his year
of birth was 476 A.D.
Aryabhat has also said in the manuscript that he has given the knowledge
attained at Kusumpur (Pataliputra) while studying. This gives the impression
that he was born at Pattliputra but according to the views of majority he was
born in South India (in Ashmak district, which is on the bank of river Godavari).
The world famous historian mathematician Dr. Bhou-Daji (Hkkm&nkth ) of
Maharashtra traced the manuscript of Aryabhattiya in 1864 from South India
and published its contents.
Aryabhattiya is in Sanskrit and is divided in four major parts called 'Pads'. The
manuscript contains a total of 153 Shlokas and their distribution is given below:
1. Dashgeetika Pad (n'kxhfrdk ikn) containing 33 shlokas
2. Ganitpad (xf.kr ikn) containing 25 shlokas
3. Kalkriya Pad (dkyfØ;k ikn) containing 25 shlokas
4. Goladhyay (xksykè;k;) containing 50 shlokas
CONTRIBUTION
1. Aryabhat created a new method of enumerating numbers using Sanskrit
alphabets.
Mathematics 181

According to this, he gave the following numerical values to 25 consonants
(o.kZ v{kj)
d % 1] [k % 2] x % 3] ?k % 4] M- % 5] p % 6] N % 7] t % 8] > % 9] ×k %
10] V % 11] B % 12] M % 13] < % 14] .k % 15] r % 16] Fk % 17] n % 18] /
% 19] u % 20] i % 21] iQ % 22] c % 23] Hk % 24] e % 25] ; % 30] j % 40]
y % 50] o % 60] 'k % 70] "k % 80] l % 90] g % 100
He gave the following values to vowels (Loj)
v%1] bZ % 100] Å%10000] ½%1000000] y` % 100000000] ,%10000000000]
,s%1000000000000] vks%100000000000000] vkS%10000000000000000
As an example, Aryabhat says that in a Mahayug (egk;qx), the earth revolves
around the Sun 4320000 times. According to the above numerical system,
Aryabhat has stated it as [kq;q?k`
[kq% 2 × 10000 = 20000
;q% 30 × 10000 = 300000
?k`% 4 × 1000000 = 4000000
[kq;q?k` = 4320000
2. Aryabhat has sumarised important principles of arithmetic, geometry and
algebra in 33 shlokas of Ganitpad only. In these shlokas, he has given
formulae for finding:
• squares and square-roots
• cubes and cube-roots
• area of squares, triangles and circles
• volume of a sphere
His most important contribution was the value of π, the ratio between the
circumference and the diameter of a circle upto four places of decimals
as 3.1416. He stated that it is the approximate value of π. He was the first
Indian mathematician who has stated that it is the approximate value of π.

3. Aryabhat has given methods of drawing a circle, a triangle and quadrilateral
and solving of quadratic equations.
4. He has stated and verified Pythagoras theorem through examples.
5. Another important contribution of Aryabhat has been formation of tables
of sine and cosine functions at intervals of 3°45' each.
6. Aryabhat has also written about astronomy and astrology in his Goladhyay.
He was the first mathematician who declared that the earth revolves about
its axis and the Nakshtras are still, which was against the mythological
statements. He also described about solar and lunar eclipses and reasons
for their occurring.
Mathematics 183

Project 2 SURFACE AREAS AND VOLUMES OF CUBOIDS
BACKGROUND
Cuboidal objects are quite useful in our daily life and often we need to know
their surface areas and volumes for different purposes. Sometimes, it appears
that if there is an increase in the surface area of a cuboid, then its volume will
also increase and vice-versa. The present project is a step towards knowing
the truth about this statement.
OBJECTIVE
To explore the changes in behaviours of surface areas and volumes of cuboids
with respect to each other.
DESCRIPTION
(A) Cuboids with equal volumes
Let us consider some cuboids with equal volumes, having the following
dimensions:
(i) l = 12 cm, b = 6 cm and h = 3 cm
(ii) l = 6 cm, b = 6 cm and h = 6 cm
(iii) l = 9 cm, b = 6 cm and h = 4 cm
(iv) l = 8 cm, b = 6 cm and h = 4.5 cm.
Now, we calculate the surface area of each of the above cuboids, using the
formula
surface area = 2 (lb + bh + hl).
For (i), surface area = 2 (12 × 6 + 6 × 3 + 3 × 12) cm2 = 252 cm2
For (ii), surface area = 2 (6 × 6 + 6 × 6 + 6 × 6) cm2 = 216 cm2 → Minimum
For (iii), surface area = 2 (9 × 6 + 6 × 4 + 4 × 9) cm2 = 228 cm2
For (iv), surface area = 2 (8 × 6 + 6 × 4.5 + 4.5 × 8) cm2 = 222 cm2

We note that volume of each of the above cuboids
= 12 × 6 × 3 cm3 = 6 × 6 × 6 cm3
= 9 × 6 × 4 cm3 = 8 × 6 × 4.5 cm3 = 216 cm3.
We also note that surface area of the cuboid is minimum, in case (ii)
above, when the cuboid is a cube.
(B) Cuboids with equal surface areas
Let us now consider some cuboids with equal surface areas, having the
following dimensions:
(v) l = 14 cm, b = 6 cm and h = 5.4 cm
(vi) l = 10 cm, b = 10 cm and h = 4.6 cm
(vii) l = 8 cm, b = 8 cm and h = 8 cm
(viii) l = 16 cm, b = 6.4 cm and h = 4 cm
Now, we calculate the volume of each of the above cuboids, using the formula
volume = l × b × h
For (v), volume = 14 × 6 × 5.4 cm3 = 453.6 cm3
For (vi), volume = 10 × 10 × 4.6 cm3 = 460 cm3
For (vii), volume = 8 × 8 × 8 cm3 = 512 cm3 → Maximum
For (viii), volume = 16 × 6.4 × 4 cm3 = 409.6 cm3
We note that surface area of each of the above cuboids
= 2 (14 × 6 + 6 × 5.4 + 5.4 × 14) cm2
= 2 (10 × 10 + 10 × 4.6 + 4.6 × 10) cm2
= 2 (8 × 8 +8 × 8 + 8 × 8) cm2
= 2 (16 × 6.4 + 6.4 × 4 + 4 × 16) cm2 = 384 cm2.
We also note that volume of the cuboid is maximum, in case of (vii), when
the cuboid is a cube.
Mathematics 185

CONCLUSION
The statement that if there is an increase in the surface area of cuboid, then
its volume also increases and vice versa is not true. In fact, we have:
(i) Of all the cuboids with equal volumes, the cube has the minimum
surface area.
(ii) Of all the cuboids with equal surface areas, the cube has the
maximum volume.
APPLICATION
Project is useful in preparing packages with maximum capacity at minimum
cost.

Project 3 GOLDEN RECTANGLE AND GOLDEN RATIO
BACKGROUND
‘Rectangles’ and ‘ratios’ are the two concepts which have great importance in
our day-to-day life. Due to this, they are studied in one form or the other at
every stage of school mathematics. It is also a fact that whenever there is
some discussion on rectangles and ratios, people start recalling something
about ‘Golden rectangle’ and ‘Golden ratio’. Keeping in view the above, it
was felt to know something about these two phrases ‘Golden rectangle’ and
‘Golden ratio’.
OBJECTIVE
To explore the meanings of ‘Golden rectangle’ and ‘Golden ratio’ and their
relationship with some other mathematical concepts.
DESCRIPTION
‘Golden rectangle’ and ‘Golden ratio’ are very closely related concepts.
To understand this, let us first understand the meaning of a golden rectangle.
(A) Golden Rectangle
A rectangle is said to be a golden rectangle, if it can be divided into two parts
such that one part is a square and other part is a rectangle similar to the original
rectangle. In the following figure, rectangle ABCD has been divided into a
square APQD and a rectangle QPBC.
A P B
D Q C
Mathematics 187

If the rectangle QPBC is similar to rectangle ABCD, then we can say that
ABCD is a golden rectangle. Let AB = l and BC = b. Therefore, QP = b.
Now, as ABCD ~ QPBC, we have
AB QP
=
BC PB
l b
or =
b l–b
or l2 – lb = b2
i.e., l2 – lb – b2 = 0
2
⎛l ⎞ l
or ⎜ ⎟ – –1 = 0 (1)
⎝b⎠ b
l
Let =x
b
So, from (1), we have
x2– x – 1 = 0
1 ± (–1) 2 – 4 × (1) (–1) 1± 5

or x = = (Solving the quadratic equation).
2 ×1 2
5 +1
Now, as x cannot be negative, therefore x = .
2
l 5 +1
Thus, =
b 2
i.e., for a rectangle to become a golden rectangle, the ratio of its length and
⎛l⎞ 5 +1
breadth ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ must be .
b 2

5 +1
This ratio is called the golden ratio. Its value is about 1.618.
2
Thus, it can be seen that the golden ratio is the ratio of the sides of a
golden rectangle.
(B) Golden ratio and a continued fraction
Let us consider a continued fraction
1
1+
1
1+
1 + ...
We may note that it is an infinite continued fraction. We may write it as
1
x = 1+
x
So, x2 = x + 1
or, x2 – x – 1 = 0
It is the same quadratic equation as we obtained earlier.
5 +1
So, again we have x = (Ignoring the negative root).
2
Thus, it can be said that the golden ratio is equal to the infinite continued
1
1+
fraction 1 in the limiting form.
1+
1 + ...
(C) Golden Ratio, Continued Fraction and a Sequence
Having seen the relationship between golden ratio and the continued fraction
1
1+
1
1+
1
1+
1 + ...
Mathematics 189

let us examine the value of this fraction at different stages as shown below:
Considering 1, we get the value as 1;
1 2
considering 1+ , we get the value as ;
1 1
1
3
considering 1+ 1 + 1 , we get the value as ;
1 2
1
1+
1 5
1+
considering 1 , we get the value as ;
1+ 3
1
1
1+
1
1+
1 8
considering 1+ , we get the value as ; and so on
1 5
1+
1
Thus, the values obtained at different stages are :
2 3 5 8 13
1, , , , , ,...
1 2 3 5 8
The numerators of these values are 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ...
These values depict the following pattern:
3 = 1 + 2, 5 = 2 + 3, 13 = 5 + 8 and so on
Note that by including 1 in the beginning, it will take the following form:
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ...
This is a famous sequence called the Fibonacci sequence.

It can be found that the n th term of the Fibonacci sequence is
1  5 + 1 5 + 1 
n n

 
5  2  
 2  
 
⎛ 5 + 1⎞
It can also be seen that in the above expression, ⎜⎝ ⎟
2 ⎠ is the golden ratio.
(D) Golden Ratio and Trigonometric Ratios

It can be found that
5 +1
cos 36° = sin 54° =
4
⎛ 5 + 1⎞ ⎛ 5 + 1⎞
That is, 2 cos 36° = 2 sin 54° = 2 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ ⎟ = Golden Ratio
4 2 ⎠
Thus, it can be said that twice the value of cos 36° (or twice the value of
sin 54°) is equal to the golden ratio.
(E) Golden Ratio and Regular Pentagons
We know that a pentagon having all its sides and all its angles equal is called
a regular pentagon. Clearly, each interior angle of a regular pentagon will be
540°
= 108° . Let us now draw any regular pentagon ABCDE and draw all its
5
diagonals AC, AD, BD, BE and CE as shown in the following figure:
A
P Q
E B
T R
S
D C
Mathematics 191
projects_08_06_09.pmd 191 29-May-2019, 9:15 AM

It can be observed that inside this regular pentagon, another pentagon PQRST
is formed.
Further, this pentagon is also a regular pentagon.
AP AP AQ DS 5 +1
It can also be seen that , , , , ... are all equal to .
PQ PT PQ SR 2
That is, the ratio of the length of the part of any diagonal not forming the
side of the new pentagon on one side and the length of a side of the new
pentagon is equal to the golden ratio. (1)
AE AB CD BC
Further, it can also be seen that , , , ,... are all equal to
AP BQ DS CS
5 +1
.
2
That is, the ratio of the length of any side of the given regular pentagon
and that of the part of the diagonal not forming the side of the new
pentagon on one side is equal to the golden ratio. (2)
Combining the above two results (1) and (2), it can be seen that in the above
two regular pentagons ABCDE and PQRST,
2
AB BC ⎛ 5 + 1⎞
= = ... = ⎜⎝ ⎟ , i.e., (Golden Ratio)2
PQ QR 2 ⎠
That is, ratio of the corresponding sides of the two regular pentagons
ABCDE and PQRST is equal to (golden ratio)2.
We also know that the ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is equal to
the square of the ratio of their corresponding sides.
In fact, it is true for all the similar polygons.
Further, all regular polygons are always similar.
So, it can also be said that

ratio of the areas of above pentagons ABCDE and PQRST =
2 2
⎛ AB ⎞ ⎛ BC ⎞
⎜⎝ PQ ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ QR ⎟⎠ = ...
Therefore, ratio of the areas of the above two pentagons =

2 2
2
⎛ AB ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ 5 + 1⎞ ⎤
⎜⎝ ⎟ = ⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ ⎟ ⎥
PQ ⎠ 2 ⎠ ⎦
4
⎛ 5 + 1⎞
= ⎜⎝ ⎟ = (Golden ratio)4
2 ⎠
Thus, areas of the above two regular pentagons is equal to (Golden

ratio) 4.
[Note : The above results relating to trigonometric ratios and regular pentagons can be, in
fact, proved using simple trigonometrical knowledge of Class XI].
CONCLUSION
Golden rectangle and golden ratio are very closely related concepts involving
other mathematical concepts such as fractions, similarity, quadratic equations,
regular pentagons, trigonometry, sequences, etc. After getting some basic
understanding of these at the secondary stage, they may be studied in a little
details in higher classes at appropriate places and time.
APPLICATION
Project is useful in designing buildings, architecture and structural
engineering.
Mathematics 193

Project 4 π - WORLD'S MOST MYSTERIOUS NUMBER
WHAT IS π ?
The symbol π is the 16th letter of Greek alphabets. In the old Greek texts, π
was used to represent the number 80.
Later on, the letter π was chosen by mathematicians to represent a very
important constant value related to a circle. Specifically π was chosen to
represent the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter.
c
Symbolically π = , where c represents the circumference and d represents
d
the length of the diameter of the circle. Since the diameter of a circle is
twice the radius, d = 2r, where r is the radius.
c
So, π = .
2r
Where the symbol π in Mathematics came from?
According to the well-known mathematics historian Florian Cajori
(1859-1930), the symbol π was first used in mathematics by William Oughtred
(1575-1660) in 1652 when he referred to the ratio of the circumference of a
π
circle to its diameter as , where π represented the periphery of a circle and
δ
δ represented the diameter.
In 1706, William Jones (1675-1749) published his book Synopsis
Palmoriorum Matheseos, in which he used π to represent the ratio of the
circumference of a circle to its diameter. This is believed to have been the
first time π was used as it is defined/used today. Among others, Swiss
mathematician Leonhard Euler also began using π to represent the ratio of
circumference of a circle to its diameter.

VALUE OF π
It is said that after a wheel was invented, the circumference was probably
measured for the sake of comparison. Perhaps in the early days, it was
important to measure how far a wheel would travel in one revolution. To
measure this distance, it was convenient to measure it by placing the wheel
on the distance being measured showing that its length is slightly more than
three times the diameter.
This type of activity repeated with different wheels showed that each time the
circumference was just a bit more than three times as long as the diameter.
Fig. 1 AB: Circumference of the wheel
This showed that the value of π is slightly more than 3. Frequent measurement
also showed that the part exceeding three times the diameter was very close
1
to of the diameter.
9
In Rhind Papyrus, written by Ahmes-an Egyptian in
about 1650 B.C., it is said to have been mentioned
that if a square is drawn with a side whose length is
eight-ninths of the diameter of the circle, then the
area of the square so formed and the area of circle
would be the same.
2 2
⎛d ⎞ d
Area of circle = π ⎜ ⎟ = π Fig. 2
⎝ 2⎠ 4
Mathematics 195

2
⎛ 8 ⎞ 64 2
Area of square ABCD = ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ = d
9 81
πd 2 64 2 256
So, = d implies π = = 3.1604938271604938271
4 81 81
This gives a reasonably close approximated value of π
ARCHIMEDES CONTRIBUTIONS
Archimedes, born in Syracuse about 287 B.C. gave the following proposition
regarding the circle that had a role in the historical development of the value
of π.
1. The ratio of the area of a circle to that of a square with side equal to the
circle's diameter is close to 11:14.
Fig. 3
π r 2 11
=
4r 2 14
44 22
i.e., π= =
14 7
This is again a familiar approximation of π which we often use in the
problems related to mensuration.

1
2. The circumference of a circle is less than 3 times of its diameter but
7
10 10 1
more than 3 times the diameter, i.e., 3 <π< 3 .
71 71 7
Let us see how Archimedes actually arrived
at this conclusion. What he did was to
inscribe a regular polygon (an equilateral
triangle, a square, a regular pentagon, a
regular hexagon etc.) in a given circle [see
Fig. (4)] and also circumscribe the polygon
about the same circle.
In both the cases, the perimeter of the
polygon gets closer and closer to the Fig. 4
circumference of the circle.
He then repeated this process with 12 sided regular polygon, 24 sided
regular polygon, 48 sided regular polygon, 96 sided regular polygon, each
time getting perimeter closer and closer to circumference of the circle.
10
Archimedes finally concluded that the value of π is more than 3 but
71
1
less than 3 . We know that
7
10
3 = 3.14084507042253521126760563380281690
71
1
and 3 = 3.142857
7
Thus, Archimedes gave the value of π which is consistent with what we
know as the value of π today.
Mathematics 197

CHINESE CONTRIBUTIONS
Liu Hui in 263 also used regular polygons with increasing number of sides to
approximate the circle. He used only inscribed circles while Archimedes
used both inscribed and circumscribed circles. Liu's approximation of π was
3927
= 3.1416
1250
Zu Chongzhi (429-500), a Chinese astronomer and mathematician found that
355
π= = 3 . 141592920353982300884
113
955752212389380530973
451327433628318584070796
460176991150442477876106
1946902654867256637168
CONTRIBUTION BY OTHERS
1. John Wallis (1616-1703), a professor of mathematics at Cambridge and
Oxford Universities gave the following formula for π :
π 2×2 4×4 6×6 2n × 2n

= × × × ... × × ...
2 1× 3 3 × 5 5 × 7 ( 2n – 1)( 2n + 1)
4
2. Brouncker (1620-1684) obtained the following value of :
π
4 12
= 1+
π 32
2+
52
2+
72
2+
92
2+
2 + ...

62832
3. Aryabhata (499) gave the value of π as = 3.14156
20, 000
4. Brahmagupta (640) gave the value of π as 10 = 3.162277

5. Al-Khowarizmi (800) gave the value of π as 3.1416
1
6. Babylonian used the value of π as 3 + = 3.125
8
7. Yasumasa Kanada and his team at University of Tokyo calculated the value
of π to 1.24 trillion decimal places.
8. French mathematician Francois Viete (1540-1603) calculated π correct
to nine decimal places. He calculated the value of π to be between the
numbers 3.1415926535 and 3.1415926537.
192
9. S. Ramanujan (1887-1920) calculated the value of π as 4 92 + =
22
3.14592652 ... which is correct to eight decimal places.
10. Leonhard Euler came up with an interesting expression for obtaining the
value of π as
2 ⎛ 1⎞⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
= ⎜⎝ 1 – ⎟⎠ ⎜1 – ⎟ ⎜1 – ⎟ ⎜⎝1 – ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝1 – ⎟ ...,
π 4 ⎝ 16 ⎠ ⎝ 36 ⎠ 64 100⎠
A π Paradox
Fig. 5
Mathematics 199

In the above figure, perimeter of the semi-circle with diameter
π
AB = (AB)
2
Sum of the perimeters of smallar semi-circles
π a πb πc π d πe π
= + + + + = (a+b+c+d+e)
2 2 2 2 2 2
This may not 'appear' to be true but it is!
Let us now proceed in the following way. Increase the number of smaller
semi-circles along the fixed line segment AB say of 2 units.
Fig. 6 Fig. 7
Fig. 8 Fig. 9
In the above figures, the sum of the lengths of the perimeters of smaller
semicircles "appears" to be approaching the length of the diameter AB
but in fact it is not! because the lengths of the perimeters of the smallar
π ×2
semi-circles is = π while length of AB is 2 units. So, both cannot
2
be the same.

CONCLUSION
π can be seen as a number with unusual properties. It has wide variety of
applications in real life.
APPLICATION
Value of π is used in finding areas and perimeters of designs related to circles
and sector of circles. It has applications in the construction of racetracks and
engineering equipments.
Mathematics 201

LIST OF PROJECTS
1. To develop Heron's formulae for area of a triangle.
2. Story of π.
3. Development of Number Systems with their needs.
4. Chronology of Indian Mathematicians with their contributions.
5. Chronological development of solution of a quadratic equations.
6. Development of Formula for the area of a cyclic quadrilateral.
7. Pythagoras Theorem-Proofs other than given in the present textbook.
8. Extensions of Pythagoras Theorem.
9. With rectangle of given perimeter finding the one with a maximum area
and with rectangle of given area, finding the one with least perimeter.
10. Knowledge and classification of solid figures with respect to surface
areas and volumes.
11. Sum of the exterior angles of a polygon taken in an order.
12. Generation of Pythagorean triplets.
13. Magic squares.
14. With cuboids of given surface area, finding the one with maximum
volume and with cuboids of given volumes finding one with least surface
area.
15. Mathematical designs and patterns.
16. Indian Mathematicians and their contibutions.
17. To prepare a list of quotations on mathematics.
18. Ramanujan number (1729)
19. Mathematical Crosswords
20. Application of Geometry in day-to-day life
21. Application of Algebra in day-to-day life.
22. Application of Mensuration in day-to-day life.

SCHEME OF EVALUATION
The following weightage are assigned for evaluation at Secondary Stage in mathematics:
Theory Examination : 80 marks
Internal Assessment : 20 marks
l. Internal assessment of 20 marks, based on school based examination will have following
break-up:
Year-end assessment of activities : 12 marks
Assessment of Project Work : 5 marks
Viva-voce : 3 marks
• Assessment of Activity Work
(a) Every student will be asked to perform two given activities during the allotted time.
(b) The assessment may be carried out by a team of two mathematics teachers,
including the teacher who is taking practical classes.
(c) The break-up of 12 marks for assessment for a single activity may be as under:
• Statement of objective of the activity : 1 mark
• Material required : 1 mark
• Preparation for the activity : 3 marks
• Conduct of the activity : 3 marks
• Observation and analysis : 3 marks
• Results and Conclusion : 1 mark
Total : 12 marks
(d) The marks for two activities may be added first and then marks calculated out of 12.
(e) Full record of activities may be kept by each student.
• Evaluation of Project Work
(a) Every student will be asked to do at least one project based on the concepts
learnt in the classroom.
(b) The project may be carried out individually (or in a group of two or three students).
(c) The weightage of 5 marks for the project may be as under :
• Identification and statement of the project : 1 mark
• Planning the project : 1 mark
• Procedure adopted : 1 mark
• Observations from data collected : 1 mark
• Interpretation and application of result : 1 mark
Total Score out of 20 : The marks obtained in year-end assessment of activities and
project work be added to the marks in viva-voce to get the total score out of 20.
Note : Every student should be asked to perform at least twenty activities in one academic year.
Mathematics 203


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∴ ( l1, l2) ∈ R ⇒ ( l2, l1) ______ R (∉/∈)

Similarly, l3 ⊥ l1 . Is l1 ⊥ l3? _______ (Yes/No)

∴ ( l3, l1) ∈ R ⇒ ( l1, l3) ______ R (∉/∈)

Also, l6 ⊥ l7. Is l7 ⊥ l6? _______ (Yes/No)

∴ ( l6, l7) ∈ R ⇒ ( l7, l6) ______ R (∉/∈)

∴ The relation R .... symmetric (is/is not)

∴ The relation R .... transitive (is/is not).

102 Laboratory Manual

∴ The relation R ... symmetric relation (is/is not)

Similarly, l3 || l4 and l4 || l2. Is l3 ... l2 ? (|| / || )

104 Laboratory Manual

So, Fig. 3.3 represents a __________ .

106 Laboratory Manual

The image of the element b of X in Y is ______________.

So, the Fig. 4.3 represents a _____________________.

108 Laboratory Manual

110 Laboratory Manual

114 Laboratory Manual

118 Laboratory Manual

the x-axis (approximate)

1. x1= _____ y1 = _____ y′1 = _____ __________

2. x 2 =_____ y2 = _____ y′2 = _____ __________

3. x 3 =_____ y3 = _____ y′3 = _____ __________

4. x 4 =_____ y4 = _____ y′4 = _____ __________

5. x 5 =_____ y5 = _____ y′5 = _____ __________

6. x 6 =_____ y6 = _____ y6′ = _____ __________

120 Laboratory Manual

Taking logarithm to base e on both the sides, we get log e x = y log e 10

Table 1 : For points on the left of c (= 4).

x 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999 3.99999 3.999999 3.9999999

f (x) 7.9 7.99 7.999 7.9999 7.99999 7.999999 7.9999999

x 4.1 4.01 4.001 4.0001 4.00001 4.000001 4.0000001

3. So, lim f ( x ) = ________ and lim+ f ( x ) = ________.

4. Therefore, lim f ( x ) = ________ , f (4) = ________.

5. Is lim f ( x ) = f (4) ________ ? (Yes/No)

6. Since f ( c ) ≠ lim f ( x) , so, the function is ________ at x = 4 (continuous/

S.No. Value of increment Corresponding

07. ∆x7 = ∆y7 =

08. ∆x8 = ∆y8 =

09. ∆x9 = ∆y9 =

2. So, ∆y becomes _________ when ∆x becomes smaller.

126 Laboratory Manual

Hence, the Rolle's theorem is verified.

f (a) = ____________, f (b) = _________ Is f (a) = f (b) ? (Yes/No)

Slope of tangent at P = __________, so, f (x) (at P) =

128 Laboratory Manual

f (a) = ________, f (b)= ____________.

130 Laboratory Manual

tan β1 = _______ , (positive), tan β2 = _______, ( _______ ), tan β3 =

136 Laboratory Manual

x 0 ± 0.5 ± 1.0 1.25 1.27 ± 1.5 ±2

f (x) 9 6 0 – 1.55 –1.56 0 21

138 Laboratory Manual

So, Volume of the open box is maximum when x = ________.

or V = 200x – 60x2 + 4x3

Hence, V should be maximum at x = 2.1.

142 Laboratory Manual

XII Maths Lab Activities & Projects

XII Maths Lab Activities & Projects

XII Maths Lab Activities & Projects

1. x1= ___ y1 = _ y′1 = _ ________

2. x 2 =___ y2 = _ y′2 = _ ________

3. x 3 =___ y3 = _ y′3 = _ ________

4. x 4 =___ y4 = _ y′4 = _ ________

5. x 5 =___ y5 = _ y′5 = _ ________

6. x 6 =___ y6 = _ y6′ = _ ________

3. So, lim f ( x ) = and lim+ f ( x ) = .

4. Therefore, lim f ( x ) = , f (4) = .

f (a) = ____, f (b) = _ Is f (a) = f (b) ? (Yes/No)

f (a) = , f (b)= ____.

tan β1 = ___ , (positive), tan β2 = _, ( _____ ), tan β3 =

= (OA) (BM) = ___ × _ = ____ (ii)

= (OA) (CN) = ___ × _ = ____ (iii)

AD = ____, CD = _, BD = ______.