Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs
2022, Volume 6, Number 2, pages 217–231
Original scientific paper
Correlation between Socio-Economic Characteristics
and Housing Quality of Residential Neighbourhoods in
Akure, Southwest Nigeria
*1
Dr. Adewale Mukhtar Olayiwola
1& 2 Department of Geography, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
1 E-mail: amolayiwola@oauife.edu.ng , 2 E-mail: aajala@oauife.edu.ng
ARTICLE INFO:
Article History:
Received: 10 August 2022
Revised: 15 September 2022
Accepted: 28 October 2022
Available online: 8 November 2022
Keywords:
housing quality;
socio-economic characteristics;
residential neighbourhood;
sustainable housing delivery system;
quality of life in Nigerian;
This article is an open-access article distributed
under the terms and conditions of the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY
4.0)
Publisher’s Note:
Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs stays
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1. Introduction
Housing is consumed with some other items which
appear to have no relationship with the land and its
uses; one tends to be independent of another. The
importance of providing adequate and quality
housing in any country cannot be overstressed
(Jiboye, 2010; Zainal et al., 2012; Adeleye et al.,
2014; Haque et al., 2020). However, the re-current
quality of housing requirements and the
interminable craving for good housing appears to
confirm the impression that there may be to cope
satisfactorily with housing requirements (Hsu & Guo,
2006; Owoeye & Ogundiran, 2014; Page & Gordon,
2017; Jochem et al., 2018). Thus, to satisfactorily
How to cite this article:
Olayiwola, A. M., & Ajala, O. A. (2022). Correlation between Socio-Economic Characteristics and Housing Quality of Residential Neighbourhoods in Akure,
Southwest Nigeria. Journal of Contemporary Urban Affairs, 6(2), 217-231. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2022.v6n2-8
, 2 Professor Dr. Olayinka Akinsumbo Ajala
ABSTRACT
There is a general paucity of explanations for the emerging social and spatial
changes in the pattern and socio-economic traits of urban residential housing
units in Nigeria. Hence, this study examined the spatial pattern of residential
neighbourhoods; assessed the quality of residential housing units; and
evaluated the correlation between the socio-economic position of respondents
and housing quality in Akure, Nigeria. Data were derived from the household
questionnaire, remotely sensed data (Landsat 8 OLI/TIR, 2021), a Google
Earth map, a Street Map of Akure Township, and personal observations. The
study adopted a step-wise sampling technique to select 383 samples from
139,069 heads of households in Akure in 2021. Data were analysed using
percentage distribution, Pearson Correlation Coefficient, and t-test. Results
indicated varying housing qualities across three residential zones in Akure,
Nigeria; houses in the low-density residential areas were of better quality than
the other residential zones. The quality of houses occupied was influenced by
the type of occupation, level of education and average annual income of
residents. The study concluded that inadequate housing facilities are
fundamental to the observed deteriorating housing qualities in the study area.
Therefore, the study suggested improvement of the existing infrastructures and
the provision of new ones in the study area. The main contribution of this study
is to proffer solutions for a sustainable housing delivery system to facilitate a
better quality of life in Nigerian urban centres.
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS (2022), 6(2), 217-231.
https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2022.v6n2-8
www.ijcua.com
Copyright © 2022 by Olayiwola, A. M., & Ajala, O. A.
appraise the quality and evaluate the
characteristics of a house, it is important to assess
the sociocultural heterogeneity and economic
status of the individual property owner.
For this study, housing is regarded as dwelling units
occupied by households. From this perspective,
three types of housing can be recognised in urban
centres: self-built housing development, private
developer-led housing and public housing
*Corresponding Author:
Department of Geography, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-
Ife, Nigeria
Email address: amolayiwola@oauife.edu.ng
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 6(2), 217-231/ 2022
development. Whereas self-built housing is a single-
family property, the other two types are owned by
corporate organisations, which could be private or
government. Self-built housing units are the most
predominant type of housing units in developing
countries (Gough & Yankson, 2000; Coker et al.,
2008; Brkanic, 2017). However, they vary greatly
both in characteristics and qualities.
Housing quality can be described as the standard
of the residential environment that provides
residents with sustainable accessibility, healthy, safe
and beautiful accommodation. Housing quality
embraces many factors such as the physical
condition of the building and other facilities and
services that make living in a particular area
conducive. Fakunle et al. (2018) corroborated by
Wimalasena et al. (2022) submitted that the quality
of housing within any neighbourhood should be
such that satisfies minimum health and good living
standards. Such houses are also required to be
affordable to all categories of households. Studies
have found that there exists a direct relationship
between housing quality and quality of life
(Zhonghua & Xuejun, 2015; Fakunle et al., 2018).
Therefore, good housing quality is a basic
requirement to guarantee stable communities and
social inclusion (Konadu-Agyemang, 2001;
Wimalasena et al., 2022).
Housing is regarded as one of the major factors
determining the form of cities. Hence, a major
concern in spatial analysis is the geographical
distribution and pattern of housing within cities.
Residential housing pattern has been the subject of
considerable research for many years. The spatial
arrangement of housing units in urban environments
has been explained in some theoretical frameworks
(Burgess, 1925; Hoyt, 1939; Harris & Ullman, 1945).
Burgess (1925) developed the concentric zone
model as the first theory to describe the internal
structure of a city. The central thesis embedded in
Burgess’s model is that urban residence conforms to
a zonal pattern. Hoyt (1939) proposed the sector
theory wherein he considered direction and
distance to explain the outward extension of the
residential areas along district radii with new
growths on the outer arc of the sector. Harris &
Ullmann (1945) provided an innovative description
that analyses the spatial structure of urban areas in
the multiple-nuclei theory.
Many studies have been carried out on urban
housing in both the developed and developing
worlds. For instance, in recent times there has been
an extraordinary revival of interest in the spatial
preferences of households in choosing a residential
location, especially in the urban area. In the more
advanced countries of America, the United
Kingdom and the eastern part of the world, several
studies have examined the changes in the pattern
of residential houses (Kearney, 2006; Kurniati &
Dr. Adewale Mukhtar Olayiwola and Professor Dr. Olayinka Akinsumbo Ajala 218
Erlambang, 2015; Gnatiuk & Kryvets, 2018; Premier,
2021). Also, studies have been conducted to
unravel the spatial dimensions of neighbourhood
housing quality (Myung-Jin, 2013; Haque et al.,
2020). Furthermore, some studies have been
conducted to examine the factors influencing
housing quality (Sweis et al., 2014; Rajaei &
Mansourian, 2017; Ren et al., 2019). Besides, there
are quite ample studies on liveability in residential
neighbourhoods (Streimikiene, 2015; Zhonghua &
Xuejun, 2015; Satu & Chiu, 2019).
In the developing world, particularly, Nigeria,
several studies have been carried out on urban
housing (Gough, 2000; Arku et al., 2011; Filali, 2012;
Baer, 2014; Adedire & Adegbile, 2017; Ezeanah,
2020). In recent times, there is a revitalisation of
interest in the spatial preferences of households in
choosing residential locations within an urban
environment (Fakunle et al., 2018). Moreover,
studies have shown that residential neighbourhoods
exist in different patterns (Fasakin, 2018).
Furthermore, studies have revealed that there are
gross inequalities in the quality of residential housing
units (Ogu, 2002; Morenikeji et al., 2017; Thomas &
Hassan, 2018; Ezeanah, 2020). There are many
studies on the poor environmental and health
condition of slum areas and squatter settlements
(Fadairo & Ganiyu, 2010; Omole, 2010; Babalola et
al., 2016). In addition, studies have been
conducted on factors influencing housing quality
(Yoade et al., 2015; Yoade et al., 2018). Also, several
efforts have been made at documenting the
characteristics and conditions of residential housing
units in Nigerian urban centres (Salami, 2016). There
are scanty studies on urban housing in Akure, where
the present study was conducted. Omole (2010)
assessed housing conditions and socio-economic
lifestyles of slum dwellers in Akure, Nigeria. In
another study, Fasakin et al. (2018) focused on the
impacts of land pricing on the pattern of residential
density in Akure.
From the foregoing, it is obvious that while most of
these studies only provided general views on
housing, some others focused on just one particular
aspect of urban housing. In other words, none of the
existing studies on Akure has combined themes of
urban housing quality and characteristics with the
pattern of the residential neighbourhood. Yet, this is
a major policy issue that should not be
underemphasised. Therefore, this study seeks to fill
the gap in the emerging social-spatial
transformations by advancing knowledge on the
physical structure and socio-economic
characteristics of urban residential housing units in
developing countries using Akure, Ondo State,
Nigeria as a case study. Thus, this study assessed the
relationship between housing quality and the socio-
economic characteristics of residents in the study
area. Also, the study examined environmental issues
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 6(2), 217-231/ 2022

associated with people living in the study area.
Furthermore, the study evaluated the resulting
pattern of the residential neighbourhood in the
study area. These were with the view of offering
explanations for sustainable housing delivery
systems to improve living conditions in Nigerian
urban centres.
2. The Study Area
The study was carried out in Akure, Ondo State,
Nigeria. It lies between latitudes 7°07'N and 7°37'N
and longitudes 5°06'E and 5°38'E (Figure 1). Akure,
with a land area of approximately 991km², is the
capital city of Ondo State with two Local
Government Areas (LGA); Akure South and Akure
North LGAs (Ibitoye et al., 2017). The aboriginal
people are of the Yoruba tribe, though there are
other tribes such as Igbira, Igbo, Edo and Hausa,
among others. Major economic activities include
farming, trading, tourism, and civil service. Also, the
inhabitants of Akure engage in scale indigenous
industrial works such as cloth weaving, gaari
production, block and bakery activities (Eades,
1980; Daniel, 2015; Ondo State Ministry of
Agriculture and Natural Resources, OSMANR, 2015;
Ibitoye et al., 2017).

Figure 1. The Study Area.

Sources: Landsat 8 OLI/TIR, 2021; Google Earth map, 2021
Town Planning Division of Akure South Local Government Area.

According to the National Population Commission
of Nigeria (NPC), the population of Akure in the last
national headcount conducted in 2006 was 353,211
(NPC, 2006). Based on this census result, the
population of the study area for the current year of
study, 2021, was estimated using an official annual
growth rate of 3.2% for urban centres in Nigeria
(Nigeria Bureau of Statistics, NBS, 2021). However,
because the population is compounded annually,
the addition of annual growth rate (r) and 1 (a
constant that denotes the inclusion of the current
year in the calculation) was raised to a power of the
number of years for which the population was
projected (t) and multiplied by the population of
the base year (Po). The formula is given as follows
(Equation 1):
𝑃0 (1+𝑟)𝑡
𝑃1 = (Eq. 1)
100
Dr. Adewale Mukhtar Olayiwola and Professor Dr. Olayinka Akinsumbo Ajala 219
Due to its latitudinal location, Akure experiences a
tropical humid climate with two distinct seasons;
wet and dry seasons. The wet season starts in April
and ends in October, spanning over seven months.
The total annual rainfall ranges between 1300mm
and 1650mm (Asiwaju-Bello et al, 2013; OSMANR,
2015). Temperature is generally high during the day,
especially in March and April. The annual mean
temperature is 29°C. While evaporation is usually
low from June to September (3.3mm to 4.0mm per
day), relative humidity ranges between 5% and
90%, between the seasons (Asiwaju-Bello et al,
2013). The vegetation of Akure is rain forest
consisting of valuable trees used for timber products
such as Mahogany, Obeche, Iroko, and Afara.
However, the area is fast becoming a derived forest
zone due to persistent clearance of the vegetation.
The study area contains lowlands and rugged hills
(between 315m and 402m above the mean sea
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 6(2), 217-231/ 2022

level). While the northeastern part consists of 3. Materials and Methods

basement complex rocks, the southern section
comprises sand ridges, lagoons, swamps, and
creeks. The soils are mostly tropical ferruginous with
varied textures and gravel content (Ibitoye et al.,
2017).
3.1. Data Sources
Data for the study were extracted from Landsat 8
OLI/TIR, Google Earth map, Street Map of Akure,
and household questionnaire (Table 1). Also,
detailed personal observations were carried out
using handheld GPS for recording the location
attributes of major landmarks in the study area.

Table 1. Characteristics and Sources of Data.

Data Year Resolution Path/Row Source
Questionnaire 2021 N/A N/A Field Survey
Township Map of Akure 2016 N/A N/A Town Planning, Akure South LGA
Shapefiles of:
Nigeria 2021 N/A N/A AFRIGIST, O.A.U. Ile-Ife
Ondo State 2021 N/A N/A AFRIGIST, O.A.U. Ile-Ife
Akure 2021 N/A N/A AFRIGIST, O.A.U. Ile-Ife
Landsat 8 OLI/TIR March 6, 2021 28.5m 190/055 http;//glcf.umiacs.umd.edu
GoogleEarth map, Akure Accessed: N/A
September 10, 2021
Population data 2006 N/A N/A NPC, Nigeria
GPS Coordinate 2021 N/A N/A Ground Truthing
Notes:
N/A: Not Applicable
AFRIGIST: African Regional Institute for Geospatial Information Science and Technology
O.A.U.: Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife

The sample frame for this study includes all heads of i. High-Density Residential Zone (HRZ)
households in the study area. In 2006 there were ii. Medium-Density Residential Zone (MRZ)
89,263 households in Akure (NPC, 2006). However, iii. Low-Density Residential Zone (LRZ)
there has not been another national headcount in Furthermore, using the online calculator with
Nigeria since 2006, therefore, the study used an particular consideration for the differences in
estimated number of households based on the building clusters, the 383 samples were distributed
official annual growth rate of 3% for urban centres among the three residential zones (Table 2).
in Nigeria (FBS, 2021). The compound interest
formula was used to calculate the number of Table 2. Distribution of Samples in the Study Area.
households for the current year of study, 2021, as S/N Zone Number of Sample Size
Households
contained in Equation 2.
1. High (HRZ) 50,417 195
2. Medium (MRZ) 45,021 119
𝑟 𝑛𝑡
𝐴 = 𝑃 (1 + ) (Eq. 2) 3. Low (LRZ) 39,581 69
𝑛
Total 135, 019 383

Where: 3.2. Data Analysis

A = number of households for the current year, 2021.
P = number of households in the last headcount,
2006 (= 89,263).
r = annual rate of increase (FBS, 2021) = 3% (0.03).
n = number of times the increase is compounded
per year (= 1).
t = number of years between the last headcount
and the current year (=15 years)
Applying the formula, the number of households in
Akure in 2021 was 139,069. The appropriate sample
for this study was determined using an online
calculator (Creative Research Systems - Sample
Size Calculator). Thus, 383 out of the total 139,069
households in Akure in 2021 were selected for this
study. A stratified sampling technique was adopted
in the selection of residential housing units for the
study. However, noting that there were variations in
the quantity and concentration of buildings, the
study area was categorised into three strata:
Dr. Adewale Mukhtar Olayiwola and Professor Dr. Olayinka Akinsumbo Ajala 220
The study adopted a combined process of visual
image interpretation and digital image processing
to identify similar clusters of pixels that characterise
the land use class of interest. Thus, following the
supervised image classification procedure by
adopting the maximum likelihood algorithm, the
area was classified into two broad land
uses/covers:
i. Built-up area: all areas containing building
structures.
ii. Non-built-up area: this included vegetation,
water body, and bare surfaces.
The spatial accuracy assessment utilised included
producer accuracy (PA), user’s accuracy (OA),
and overall accuracy (OA) indices (Table 3). Also,
KAPPA analysis was performed to ascertain the
level of accuracy of image classification. Moreover,
z statistics were calculated to validate the reliability
of the imagery accuracy assessment (Sinha, 2016).
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 6(2), 217-231/ 2022

Table 3. Distribution of Validation Points (by LULC).

No. of Points
S/N
LULC Class Topographical GoogleEarth Ground Points
Map Map

1. Built-up 28 46 55
2. Non-built-up 35 55 60
Total 63 101 115

To vividly describe the pattern of the residential
neighbourhood in the study area, features of
interest such as major roads and the built-up area
were digitised in Google Earth and saved as kml files
for further processing in ArcGIS. The converted
layers were then overlaid on a Google Earth map of
Akure where on-screen digitising was employed to
extract the built-up area and streets. Using the
Google Earth map complemented with the
ground-truthing, the densities of the buildings were
digitised to classify the study area into three
residential zones: High-density, Medium-density,
and Low-density residential zones.
The first step in the analysis of data obtained
through the questionnaire involved the
identification of parameters and variables for
assessment. Two parameters were involved in the
analysis; the socio-economic status of respondents
and the quality of buildings (Table 4).

Table 4. Parameters and Variables for Assessment.

S/N Parameters Variables Tag
Age x1
1. Socio-economic (n = x2
Gender
6)
Marital Status x3
Level of Education x4
Occupation x5
Average Income x6
2. Housing Quality (n = House Type y1
11) Floor y2
Wall y3
Painting y4
Roof y5
Ceiling y6
Water y7
Toilet y8
Waste y9
Electricity y10
Fence y11

Data obtained through the questionnaire were socioeconomic status and the quality of buildings in
analysed using percentages and mean which were the study area.
used to assess the socio-economic characteristics
of heads of households in Akure, and to evaluate 𝛴(𝑥𝑖̇ −𝑥̅ )(𝑦𝑖̇ −𝑦̅)
𝑟= (Eq. 3)
the characteristics and quality of housing units in √∑(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥̅ )2 √(𝑦𝑖 −𝑦̅)2
Akure. The relationship between socioeconomic
status and the quality of buildings occupied by Where:
respondents in the study area was determined 𝑥 = socio-economic characteristics of respondents
using Pearson Correlation Coefficient (Equation 3). (𝑥1−6 , Table 4)
The purpose of the Pearson correlation coefficient 𝑦 = the quality of the building (𝑦1−11 , Table 4)
(denoted by r and also known as Pearson product-
moment correlation coefficient) is to determine the In Pearson Correlation Coefficient, the correlation is
relationship between two quantitative variables strong (or high) if r is ±0.50 ≤ ± 1; moderate degree if
and the degree to which the two variables r r is ±0.30 ≤ ± 0.49, and low (or small) correlation
coincide with each another. In this study, the when the value lies below +0.29.
Pearson correlation coefficient was employed to Housing quality was derived by finding the average
measure the linear relationship between of the mean values of 𝑦1−11 (Equation 4).
y = ∑ (𝑦̅1 + 𝑦̅2 + ……. 𝑦̅11)/n (Eq. 4)
Dr. Adewale Mukhtar Olayiwola and Professor Dr. Olayinka Akinsumbo Ajala 221
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 6(2), 217-231/ 2022

Therefore, the variance of housing quality was Table 5. Imagery classification.

derived by finding the average of the variance Class Name Area covered % (of Total
(km²) Land area)
values of 𝑦1−11 (Equation 5).
y = ∑ (𝑣𝑦1 + 𝑣𝑦2 + ……. 𝑣𝑦11)/n (Eq. 5) Built-up 724.42 73.1

Non-built up 266.58 26.9

4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Image Analysis
This section contains the results of image analysis
such as classification into land use/cover classes,
area statistics calculation, accuracy assessment,
and extraction of the built-up class.
4.1.1. General landcover of the study area
For this analysis, the land use and land cover (LULC)
in the study area were classified into two broad
classes; built-up and non-built-up areas (Table 5).
While the non-built-up area covered just about a
quarter of the total land area (26.9%), the built-up
covered 73.1% (Table 5).
Total 991 100
Sources: Landsat OLI/TIRS 2021 (Path 190 Row 55).
Figure 2 shows the spatial occurrence and area
extent of the two classified land covers in Akure in
2021. The built-up was found in almost every part of
the study area. Although the built-up area has
spread to almost every part of Akure, there were still
patches of non-built-up portions in the city. At this
stage, Akure can be described as a fully developed
urban centre in 2021.

Figure 2. General landcover of Akure, 2021.

4.1.2. Results of accuracy assessment
Results of the image classification accuracy
assessment indicate that the producer’s accuracy
(PA) = 97.66, the user's accuracy (UA) = 100.00, and
the overall accuracy (OA) was 99.74% (Table 6).
Kappa analysis was 0.9237 and z statistic yielded
44.08. These values indicate that there were
significant agreements between the validation
points and the extracted classes (Zanon et al.,
2019).

Table 6. Imagery classification and accuracy assessment.

Class Name Land Area % (of Total PA UA
(km²) Land area)
Built-up 724.42 73.1 97.66 100.00
Non-built up 266.58 26.9 93.09 99.87
Total 991 100
Overall Accuracy = 99.74%
Kappa Statistics ( ) = 0.9237
Z statistics = 44.08
Sources: Landsat OLI/TIRS 2021 (Path 190 Row 55)
Note: PA = producer’s accuracy, UA = user’s accuracy, OA = overall accuracy

Dr. Adewale Mukhtar Olayiwola and Professor Dr. Olayinka Akinsumbo Ajala 222
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 6(2), 217-231/ 2022

4.2. The Built-up Area of Akure
The built-up area comprises residential quarters,
business premises, and public utility buildings.
Residential quarters provide accommodation for
the human being; they are where man lives.
Business premises are areas of commerce and
economic activities. The business premises also
include areas of industrial activities, whether local
(indigenous) or modern. Public utility buildings are
such areas that provide a common palace for
community/township activities. Among such public
buildings are the king’s palace, town hall, places of
worship (churches and mosques), all-day open
market system, police station as well as educational
and health institutions. Figure 3 shows the spatial
occurrence and the extent of the built-up area of
Akure in 2021. The built-up area occupied an area
of 724.42 km² (73.11%) spread to every part of the
study area.

Figure 3. The Built-up Area of Akure, 2021.

Source: Landsat 8 OLI/TIR, 2021

4.2.1. Pattern of the Residential Neighbourhood concentration, sporadic developments dotted

The residential neighbourhood includes all areas
occupied by residential buildings. These buildings
were found in every part of the study area;
however, the heaviest density was in the central
part of the study area where the development
impulses were more concentrated. Public utility
buildings like the palace, town hall, many places of
worship (churches and mosques), all-day open
market system and oldest buildings in the city were
found to form circular rings around Arakale, Igisan,
Oba-Adesida Road, and CMS areas of the
settlement (Figure 4). Asides from this
some areas in the northern and eastern parts of the
study area. The pattern exhibited by the built-up
area in the central part was found to be following
the Concentric Zonation pattern identified by
Burgess in 1925 (Figure 4).
Housing developments were found to follow the
axial corridors created by the roads. This is most
noticeable along Akure – Benin, Akure – Ado Ekiti,
Akure – Ondo, and Akure – Ilesa roads (Figure 4).
Thus, this encouraged the development of a linear
pattern of growth similar to Hoyt’s sectorial pattern
(Hoyt, 1939).

Dr. Adewale Mukhtar Olayiwola and Professor Dr. Olayinka Akinsumbo Ajala 223
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 6(2), 217-231/ 2022

Iles
aR
oad

Ado Ekiti Rd
Oye

Ok
mek

e
Benin Rd

Iya
Iworoko d
bu Roa
un

nu

Ijapo Esta
St
Rd
Road

Oke Ije
Ile

gbasa
Oba

Road te
St
Oba Ades
ida Rd
Ondo Road

St
Aro
e
Ok

¯
O
LEGEND da
Ro
ad
Akure
Road
High Density Zone
Medium Density Zone
2.5 1.25 0 2.5 km
Low Density Zone
Figure 4. Pattern of Residential Neighbourhood in Akure.

4.3. Socio-Economic Characteristics of respondents. For instance, whereas primary and

Respondents
The average monthly income of respondents was
based on a threshold of ₦30,000 ($66.67) which was
the minimum labour wage in the country at the time
of this study. Respondents in the area were well-
educated with only 13.8% without any formal
education. Also, the majority of the respondents
were gainfully employed; only 11.5% were either
students or unemployed. However, at the zonal
level of analysis, there were some internal disparities
in the socio-economic characteristics of
secondary education were mostly favoured in the
HRZ, secondary and tertiary education were more
prominent in the other zones. Also, in the HRZ and
MRZ, trading and craftmanship were the major
human occupations, while civil service and trading
were the most attractive occupations in the LRZ.
Though, income distribution appears to be similar
across the three zones; the point of departure was
in the spread of middle-high income (₦200,001;
$444.44 - ₦500,000; $1,111.11); the majority of whom
were found in the LRZ (Table 7).

Table 7. Socio-Economic Characteristics of Respondents.

Tag Residential Zones Total
Characteristics
High Medium Low

N % n % N % N %
X1 Age
18 - 40 years 31 15.9 26 21.8 9 13.1 66 17.2
41 – 65 years 86 44.1 54 45.4 23 33.3 163 42.6
Above 65 78 40.0 39 32.8 37 53.6 154 40.2
Total 195 100 119 100 69 100 383 100
X2 Gender
Male 122 62.6 78 65.5 51 73.9 251 65.5
Female 73 37.4 41 34.5 18 26.1 132 34.5
Total 195 100 119 100 69 100 383 100

X3 Marital Status
Married 88 45.1 76 63.9 36 52.2 200 52.2
Single 36 18.5 20 16.8 27 39.1 83 21.7
Divorced 24 12.3 8 6.7 4 5.8 36 9.4
Widowed 47 24.1 15 12.6 2 2.9 64 16.7
Total 195 100 119 100 69 100 383 100

Dr. Adewale Mukhtar Olayiwola and Professor Dr. Olayinka Akinsumbo Ajala 224
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 6(2), 217-231/ 2022

X4 Level of Education
No Formal Education 32 16.4 13 10.9 8 11.6 53 13.8
Primary Education 51 26.2 28 23.5 4 5.8 83 21.7
Secondary Education 74 37.9 42 35.3 21 30.4 137 35.8
Tertiary Education 38 19.5 36 30.3 36 52.2 110 28.7
Total 195 100 119 100 69 100 383 100

X5 Occupation
Civil Service 14 7.2 21 17.6 31 44.9 66 17.2
Self-employed/Craftsmanship 65 33.3 39 32.8 7 10.1 111 29.0
Trading 72 36.9 30 25.2 12 17.4 114 29.8
Others 21 10.8 16 13.4 11 15.9 48 12.5
Unemployed 23 11.8 13 10.9 8 11.6 44 11.5
Total 195 100 119 100 69 100 383 100
X6 Average Monthly Income
< ₦30,000* (< $66.67**) 48 24.6 34 28.6 10 14.5 92 24.0
₦30,000 ($66.67) - ₦100,000 ($222.22) 82 42.1 31 26.0 8 11.6 121 31.6
₦100,001 ($222.22) - ₦200,000 ($444.44) 34 17.4 22 18.5 21 30.4 77 20.1
₦200,001 ($444.44) - ₦500,000 ($1,111.11) 28 14.4 23 19.3 24 34.8 75 19.6
>₦500,000 (> $1,111.11) 3 1.5 9 7.6 6 8.7 19 4.7
Total 195 100 119 100 69 100 383 100
Source: Field Research, 2021
Notes: *The official minimum wage in Nigeria was ₦30,000 (USD 66.67) per month.
**Conversion was based on a conversion rate of ₦450 to $1 as of September 2021

4.4. Quality and Characteristics of Residential
Houses
The most common types of residential housing units
in the study area were of the traditional type
(50.1%). Modern flat buildings and duplexes were
more common in the low residential area. Materials
used for flooring indicated that modern techniques
were not yet fully adopted in the study area;
concrete or cement flooring styles still predominates
in Akure at an average of 50.9% with the highest
proportion found in the high-density residential zone
(66.2%). Modern and fashionable flooring styles
were not fully adopted; while only 44.6% were tilled,
just 3.4% used terrazzo materials (Table 8). However,
standard roofing and ceiling materials were being
gradually accepted in the area (asbestos ceiling,
50.1%; plastic P. O. P. 24.5%; carved P. O. P 22.5%).
Results indicated that 67.1% of the sampled houses
were fully plastered. However, internal variations
between the zones reveal that 75.9% in the high-
density zone and 71.0% in the low-density zone were
fully plastered. This contrasted the situation in the
medium-density zone where only 50.4% were fully
plastered; none of the buildings was with mud walls.
(Table 8).

Table 8. Quality and Characteristics of Residential Buildings in Akure.

Tag Residential Zones Total
Materials Used for Construction High Medium Low
n % n % n % N %
Y1 House Type
Traditional compound (Bungalow) 84 43.1 16 13.4 7 10.1 107 27.9
Traditional compound (Storey Building) 43 22.1 27 22.7 15 21.7 85 22.2
Traditional compound (mixed) 9 4.6 5 4.2 0 0.0 14 3.7
Bungalow (flat) 32 16.4 41 34.5 18 26.1 91 23.8
Storey Building (Multi-flat) 21 10.8 16 13.4 6 8.7 43 11.2
Duplex 6 3.1 14 11.8 23 33.3 43 11.2
Total 195 100 119 100 69 100 383 100
Y2 Flooring
Mud or Earth 3 1.5 0 0.0 1 1.4 4 1.0
Concrete/Cement 129 66.2 62 52.1 4 5.8 195 50.9
Tiles 62 31.8 51 42.9 58 84.1 171 44.6
Terrazzo/Granolithic 1 0.5 6 5.0 6 8.7 13 3.4
Total 195 100 119 100 69 100 383 100
Y3 Walling
Mud only 3 1.5 0 0.0 1 1.4 4 1.0
Plastered mud 16 8.2 9 7.6 2 2.9 27 7.0
Clay bricks 7 3.6 16 13.4 12 17.4 35 9.1
Concrete blocks 21 10.8 34 28.6 5 7.2 60 15.7
Plastered concrete blocks 148 75.9 60 50.4 49 71.0 257 67.1
Total 195 100 119 100 69 100 383 100

Dr. Adewale Mukhtar Olayiwola and Professor Dr. Olayinka Akinsumbo Ajala 225
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 6(2), 217-231/ 2022

Y4 Roofing
Asbestos sheets (Addex) 10 5.1 2 1.7 2 2.9 14 3.7
Concrete Deck 8 4.1 13 10.9 7 10.1 28 7.3
Zinc 175 89.7 96 80.7 25 36.2 296 77.3
Roofing Tiles 2 1.0 8 6.7 35 50.7 45 11.7
Total 195 100 119 100 69 100 383 100
Y5 Ceiling Materials
Asbestos 110 56.4 59 49.6 23 33.3 192 50.1
Concrete 8 4.1 3 2.5 0 0.0 11 2.9
Carved P. O. P. 19 9.7 36 30.3 31 44.9 86 22.5
Plastic P. O. P. 58 29.7 21 17.6 15 21.7 94 24.5
Total 195 100 119 100 69 100 383 100
Y6 Painting
Entire Building 76 39.0 52 43.7 42 60.9 170 44.4
Inside only 32 16.4 21 17.6 13 18.8 66 17.2
Outside only 1 0.5 3 2.5 1 1.4 5 1.3
Not painted 64 32.8 41 34.5 9 13.0 114 29.8
Others 22 11.3 2 1.7 4 5.8 28 7.3
Total 195 100 119 100 69 100 383 100
Y7 Water Sources (main source)
Borehole 39 20.0 37 31.1 43 62.3 119 31.1
Well 103 52.8 64 53.8 19 27.5 186 48.6
River/stream 0 0.0 1 0.8 1 1.4 2 0.5
Public water service 53 27.2 17 14.3 6 8.7 76 19.8
Total 195 100 119 100 69 100 383 100
Y8 Toilet facility
Water system 110 56.4 71 59.7 59 85.5 240 62.7
Pit 29 14.9 31 26.0 4 5.8 64 16.7
Bush 0 0.0 0 0.0 4 5.8 4 1.0
River/stream 0 0.0 1 0.8 1 1.4 2 0.5
Public toilet 56 28.7 16 13.4 1 1.4 73 19.1
Total 195 100 119 100 69 100 383 100
Y9 Electricity (main source)
Public 14 7.2 12 10.1 10 14.5 36 9.4
Generator 153 78.5 69 58.0 28 40.6 250 65.3
Solar/inverter 22 11.3 36 30.3 29 42.0 87 22.7
Others (candles, lanterns, rechargeable lamps) 6 3.1 2 1.7 2 10 2.6
Total 195 100 119 100 69 100 383 100
Y9 Security fence
Full 61 31.3 68 57.1 49 71.0 178 46.5
Part 14 7.2 23 19.3 13 18.8 50 13.1
None 120 61.5 28 23.5 7 10.1 155 40.5
Total 195 100 119 100 69 100 383 100
Y10 Waste disposal
Containers/bags 27 13.8 21 17.6 8 11.6 56 14.6
Open dump site 33 16.9 12 10.1 1 1.4 46 12.0
Gutter 7 3.6 1 0.8 2 2.9 10 2.6
Public dust bin 72 36.9 59 49.6 21 30.4 152 39.7
Private collector 31 15.9 14 11.8 27 39.1 72 18.8
Burning 19 9.7 5 4.2 7 10.1 31 8.1
Landfilling 4 2.1 7 5.9 2 2.9 13 3.4
Stream 2 1.0 0 0.0 1 1.4 3 0.8
Total 195 100 119 100 69 100 383 100
Source: Field Research, 2021

4.5. Correlation between Socio-Economic
Characteristics and House Quality
Results of coefficients of correlation between socio-
economic characteristics of respondents and
house quality at the level of the residential zone in
Akure, Nigeria indicated that there were high
correlations between house quality and level of
education (r = 0.99) in the high- and medium-
density residential zones (Table 9). In the low-density
residential zone, only occupation had a significant
relationship with housing quality (r = 0.60). There
were inverse correlations between housing quality
and average monthly income (-0.454), and marital
status (-0.689).

Dr. Adewale Mukhtar Olayiwola and Professor Dr. Olayinka Akinsumbo Ajala 226
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 6(2), 217-231/ 2022

Table 9. Correlation between Socio-economic Characteristics and Housing Quality (by Zone).
House Age Gender Level of Education Occupation Average Annual
Marital Status
Quality Income
High-Density Residential Zone

Housing 1.000
Age 0.613 1.000
Gender 0.338 0.796 1.000
Level of Education 0.993 0.871 0.678 1.000
Occupation 0.428 0.813 0.769 0.813 1.000

Average Annual Income 0.978 0.886 0.750 0.919 0.797 1.000

Marital Status 0.868 0.909 0.926 0.805 0.077 0.952 1.000

Medium-Density Residential Zone

Housing 1.000

Age 0.736 1.000

Gender 0.695 0.698 1.000
Level of Education 0.900 0.901 0.767 1.000 0.334
Occupation 0.313 0.924 0.879 0.334 1.000

Average Annual Income -0.454 0.906 0.805 -0.285 -0.904 1.000

Marital Status -0.689 0.898 0.967 -0.909 -0.573 0.374 1.000

Low-Density Residential Zone

Housing 1.000

Age 0.922 1.000

Gender 0.426 0.817 1.000
Level of Education 0.408 0.913 0.678 1.000
Occupation 0.601 0.877 0.769 0.442 1.000

Average Annual Income 0.470 0.968 0.750 0.129 0.508 1.000

Marital Status 0.366 0.997 0.914 0.997 -0.464 -0.154 1.000

Source: Field Research, 2021

At the level of the entire city, results indicate that all respondents. Level of education with a correlation
the socio-economic characteristics considered coefficient of 0.588 has the weakest correlation with
have a high correlation with the quality of housing quality in the study area (Table 10).
residential housing units occupied by the

Table 10. Aggregate Correlation of Housing Quality and Socio-Economic factors.

House Age Gender Level of Occupation Average Annual Marital
Quality Education Income Status
High-Density Residential Zone

Housing 1.000
Age 0.613 1.000
Gender 0.338 0.796 1.000
Level of Education 0.993 0.871 0.678 1.000
Occupation 0.428 0.813 0.769 0.813 1.000

Average Annual Income 0.978 0.886 0.750 0.919 0.797 1.000

Marital Status 0.868 0.909 0.926 0.805 0.077 0.952 1.000

Source: Field Research, 2021

4.6. Discussion use/cover analysis through Landsat imageries show

The socioeconomic variables considered in this that more than half (55.1%) of the total land in the
study spread across all works of life. The high study area had been built up. Though there were
similarity of some of the socio-economic sporadic developments in other parts, there was a
characteristics considered among the three remarkable expansion of the built-up area in the
residential zones in the study area indicates that the central part. This corroborates the findings of other
population in the study was of homogeneous studies that residential land accounts for the largest
characteristics. Results of the general land proportion of total urban land uses in many African
Dr. Adewale Mukhtar Olayiwola and Professor Dr. Olayinka Akinsumbo Ajala 227
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 6(2), 217-231/ 2022
cities (Coker et al., 2008; Arku et al., 2011; Ezeanah,
2020).
Like Ogu (2002), this study identified three residential
zones in the study area based on building densities
(high-density, medium-density, and high-density
zones). The high-density zone is the core area of the
city where the oldest buildings are found; this is
where the settlement started. The zone lacks
planning controls and there was a very little touch
of modern technology in the housing standards.
However, some of the buildings have been either
renovated or reconstructed, particularly along the
major roads. This zone houses the largest share of
the business and economic activities in the city;
therefore, the area was swarming with a large
population, and of course the attendant noisy
environment.
In the medium-density residential zone, there were
traces of the introduction of new waves of
development. The houses were of better quality
than in the old core of the city. The majority of the
inhabitants of this zone were average-income
earners who were able to own a house or afford to
pay the house rent. This zone contains more roads,
most of which lead outwards from the city. Thus, in
place of the concentric pattern formed in the high-
density zone, foundations for the sectorial pattern
were laid in the medium-density area. The low-
density residential zone was a bit more orderly with
sophisticated building materials than other zones. In
agreement with Jiboye (2010), housing facilities in
this zone were found to be better and more
sufficient than in the other zones. Residential houses
in this zone agree with the description of some
earlier studies that housing is not just a shelter
because it includes all the social services and
utilities that make a neighbourhood a habitable
setting (Kearney, 2006; Adeleye et al., 2014; Brkanic,
2017).
The observed variations in the quality and
characteristics across the different residential zones
in Akure might not be unconnected with the
educational levels and type of occupation of the
inhabitants (see Table 7). Considering the
settlement at large, though mud walls and earth-
surfaced floors are fast disappearings in the study
area, the result indicates that the level of
technology of building construction in the area was
still at a rudimentary level.
5. Conclusion
This study has shed some light on the quality and
condition of residential housing in Akure, especially
in terms of adequacy of basic housing utilities as
well as relationships between the socio-economic
characteristics of residents and the quality of
buildings occupied in Akure, Nigeria. Results of the
study have revealed that there were differential
relationships between house quality and the socio-
Dr. Adewale Mukhtar Olayiwola and Professor Dr. Olayinka Akinsumbo Ajala 228
economic characteristics of respondents across the
three residential zones in Akure, Nigeria. For
instance, there were high correlations between
house quality and level of education in the high-
and medium-density residential zones. In the low-
density residential zone, only occupation had a
noteworthy relationship with housing quality.
However, there were inverse correlations between
housing quality and an average monthly income as
well as marital status in all the zones. Moreover, the
study observed that inadequate housing facilities
are fundamental to the observed deteriorating
housing qualities in the study area. Therefore, the
study recommends as follows.
First, for sustainable housing delivery in the study
area, house owners should be educated on the
relationship between essential housing facilities and
the health of the inhabitants. This will encourage
property owners to accept any byelaws that may
be enacted to induce housing providers to provide
certain basic services in their houses. Second,
noting that poor housing quality is linked with low
income, poverty alleviation programmes should be
improved to reduce the unemployment rate in the
country which will enhance the provision for basic
household facilities and proper maintenance of
buildings. Moreover, there is a need for a renewal
programme through a renovation approach and
the construction of more roads to open the
devastated areas.
Although few concepts of housing quality were
explored in this study, it makes some relevant
contributions to the existing body of knowledge on
housing research. It has shed some light on the
opinions of residents on the quality and condition of
housing in Akure, Nigeria. Also, the study has
successfully employed Remote Sensing and
Geographical Information System techniques to
evaluate the pattern and quality of residential
housing units which did previously not exist in the
study area. In addition to this, the study has
incorporated housing patterns and housing quality
in just one research, which is very infrequent.
Furthermore, the findings of the study, through the
statistical analysis of the correlation between the
socio-economic characteristics of respondents and
house quality, have provided a set of specific
factors influencing house quality and
characteristics in the study area. Nonetheless, one
major policy implication that can be drawn from
the findings of this study is that adequate and
effective measures to ensure residential land use
development control should be introduced.
Therefore, it is hoped that the findings of this study
will provide a sufficient basis for policy attention on
housing improvements in major urban centres in the
country. The evaluated concepts can serve as a
basis for further studies on housing quality
assessment. Also, this study can be used as a
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 6(2), 217-231/ 2022
foundation for the evaluation of other sets of
valuable criteria for analysing the characteristics
and quality of residential housing.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support
from the African Regional Institute for Geospatial
Information Science and Technology (AFRIGIST),
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife for providing
relevant and necessary materials required for
carrying out this study. Also, the author thanks the
anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments
and valuable suggestions.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant
from funding agencies in the public, commercial,
or not-for-profit sectors.
Conflicts of interests
The author declared that there was no conflict of
interest relating to the conduct, outcome, and
publication of this study.
Data availability statement
Raw data were generated from remotely sensed
data. Derived data supporting the findings of this
study are available from the corresponding author
[A.M.] on request.
Ethics statements
Studies involving animal subjects: No animal studies
are presented in this manuscript.
Studies involving human subjects: No human
studies are presented in this manuscript.
Inclusion of identifiable human data: No potentially
identifiable human images or data is presented in
this study.
CRedit author statement
Conceptualization: A.M., O.A. Data curation: A.M.,
O.A. Formal analysis: A.M., O.A. Funding
acquisition: No funding Investigation: A.M., O.A.
Methodology: A.M., O.A. Project administration:
A.M.. Writing—original draft: A.M. Writing—review
and editing: A.M., O.A.. Both authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
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How to cite this article:
Olayiwola, A. M., & Ajala, O. A. (2022). Correlation between Socio-
Economic Characteristics and Housing Quality of Residential
Neighbourhoods in Akure, Southwest Nigeria. Journal of Contemporary
Urban Affairs, 6(2), 217-231. https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2022.v6n2-8