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Agribusiness Management Damodar
Agribusiness Management Damodar
Lectures on:
AGRIBUSINESS MANAGEMENT
B.Sc. Agriculture, 7th Semester
Course Code: AEC 405
Credit Hours: 3 (2+1)
Lecturer
Damodar Gautam
Technical Officer (T-6)
National Maize Research Program (NMRP), Rampur, Chitwan 1
May, 2021
Course syllabus
A. Lectures
S.N Topics No. of lectures
1. Concept, definition and scope of agribusiness management in Nepal 2
2. Basic concept and definition of firms, plant, industry and their interrelationship with 1
respect to agricultural production
3. Agribusiness environment and management systems 2
Total 30
2
Course syllabus (contd….)
B. Practical
S.N Topics No. of lectures
1. Review of organization and management structure in different agro-industries 1
9. Visit to an agribusiness unit for the analysis of problems, performance and prospects- A 1
case study
10. Value chain mapping of major agricultural sub-sectors 2
Total 15
3
1. Concept, definition and scope of agribusiness management in
Nepal
Outline
• Introduction
• What is Agribusiness?
• What is Agribusiness Management?
• Objective of Agribusiness Management
• The Agribusiness system
• Major areas of agribusiness
• Dimensions of agribusiness
• Why Agribusiness is unique than other business
• Scope and importance of Agribusiness in Nepal
• Conclusion 4
Introduction
• Agribusiness is one of the most challenging businesses today. Agribusiness
has held up a large share of business niche. The volume of agribusiness is
flourishing day-by-day.
• Agribusiness include not only that productive piece of land but also the people and firms
that provide the inputs (i.e. Seed, chemicals, credit etc.), process the output (i.e. Milk,
grain, meat etc.), manufacture the food products (i.e. ice cream, bread, breakfast cereals
etc.), and transport and sell the food products to consumers (i.e. restaurants, supermarkets
etc.).
• Agribusiness is not mere a business rather it is an useful tool for ensuring food security
throughout the world. In near future agribusiness will be the central metaphor of business
Dr. Ray A. Goldberg: Father
system for not only in our country but also to the whole world. of Agribusiness
5
• Concept of Agribusiness: ―The sum of all operations
involved in manufacture and distribution of farm
supplies, production operations on the farm, and the
storage, processing, and distribution of farm
commodities.‖ (Davis & Goldberg)
6
What is Agribusiness Management?
Crop production
Fruits and Vegetable
Floriculture
• Agricultural
Livestock production
Fisheries
Agro-forestry
Medicinal and aromatics
Bio-fuels and fibers
• Business
marketing and distribution of
goods and services with the
objective of earning profit by
providing satisfaction to the
consumer
ro
f (Planning, Organizing, Staffing,
directing, coordinating, controlling,
communicating, motivating)
The key functions of management
2. Growth and development How much and how fast should growth be?
5. Public responsibility and What kind of business the company does in view
relationships of the citizens/public want to be?
9
The Agribusiness system
System: Interrelated set of business procedure/components used within one business unit,
working together for some purposes.
Service sector
10
Interdependent subsystems…
Input sub-system Farm production sub-system
Support sub-system
11
Input Sub system
Working
environments
Production Sub-
system
Marketing Sub-
system
Affecting
factors
Final Consumer
12
Input sector
• This sector is responsible for providing the thousands of different inputs — both products
and services — to production agriculture.
• Improvements in the quality of purchased inputs have been a large source of efficiency
gains for the entire system.
13
We can categorized the farm input
supply sector into three areas:
• Manufacturing: John Deere, Syngenta, Pfizer Animal Health, and
Monsanto are just a handful of examples of large organizations that spend
millions of dollars annually in research and development to bring improved
products to the producer. Livestock and poultry products include feed, feed
supplements, and health products which are required in the production of
meat, milk, and fiber products such as wool. Seed, fertilizer, irrigation
industries are other example of manufacturing sectors.
15
Product sector
(Storage, processing, marketing)
• Employs millions of people in a variety of businesses ranging from grain
elevators to fruit and vegetable- processing plants to supermarkets to
fast food restaurants.
16
Service sectors
• All organizations, institutions and other entities directly and
indirectly affecting the agribusiness system through provision
of services, logistics and coordination of services from
technology, information's, programs and incentives to the
system.
17
Specialization areas of agribusiness
18
Agribusiness management is broad field of study….
21
7. Decision making: Agricultural operation decisions are taken by families i.e.
husbands and wives are often heavily involved in decision- makings.
10. Vagaries of nature: Agribusiness deals with vagaries of nature viz; drought,
flood, insects, diseases etc. and everyone from producer, banker and
manufactures is concerned with the weather.
11. Govt. programmes and policy: Govt. programmes and policies have direct
impact on agribusiness. Many agricultural products are directly influenced by
govt. programmes and regulations.
22
Scope and importance of agribusiness in Nepal
• Agriculture is the backbone of Nepalese economy – drives GDP growth, employment and
inclusive development.
• Gradual change from subsistence to commercial farming driven by – (a) increased government
support to improve productivity of the sector, and (b) improved farm-to-market linkages.
• Significant demand-supply gap exists in the agricultural sector; providing an opportunity for
greater private sector activity.
• More agribusiness activity can be seen in seeds, dairy, fruits processing, medicinal and aromatic
plants, spices, and tea sub-sectors.
• Regulatory regime presents a mixed bag across sub-sectors, having most positive impact on tea
and spices; and least on seeds and dairy.
• International demand for lifestyle products from Nepal like herbal food supplements and
cosmetics and premium tea is growing 23
• Government is supportive of Foreign Direct Investments in agriculture, with
100% foreign shareholding allowed in most agribusinesses.
24
• Growing demand for agricultural inputs (Feed and fodder, inorganic fertilizers,
bio-fertilizers).
• Organic farming
25
26
Conclusion
• Agribusiness is a highly diverse segment and a most important industry in the
Nepal. It includes all economic activity in the food and fiber system, which
encompasses the input supply industries, agricultural production and post-
harvest value-added activities, such as commodity processing, food
manufacturing, and food distribution.
30
Concept and definition of Plant
• Is a particular facility that is used to manufacture a product for a
company or business
• Plants are the input of firm and by using this input the firm
produce certain output and this summation gives industry output.
• Two criteria are used to define an industry: product being produced (market
criterion) and method of production (technology criterion)
33
Firm as a business enterprise for production…
Production function knowledge and the input and output prices information can be used to know the
most profitable input and output levels.
1. If the product has any value at all, input use once begun, should be continued until Stage –II is reached.
That is because physical efficiency of variable resources, measured by APP, increases throughout stage –I.
2. Even if input is free, it will not be used in stage III. Maximum output occurs when Stage
II closes. It is of no use applying variable input when TPP starts coming down.
3. Stage II defines the area of economic relevance. Variable input use must be somewhere in stage-II, but
exact input amount can be determined when choice indicators (input & output prices) are known. 34
Equilibrium of firm and industry under PCM
Equilibrium of the firm can be examined in two ways.
1. Total revenue and total cost approach
2. Marginal cost and marginal revenue approach
37
-Resources (Land, Labor, Capital &
Management)
-Money payment for goods & Services
-Money payments
-Management & Services
Firm Industry
Plant
38
Figure: Inter-relationship between firm, plant and industry in respect to agricultural production
Something interesting….
(Industry 4.0 in Agriculture)
Why? …….Industrial production is nowadays driven by global competition and the
need for fast adaptation of production to the ever-changing market requests. These
requirements
can be met only by radical advances in current manufacturing technology.
39
Industrial
changes
Changing
pattern of
agricultural
production,
processing,
marketing
firms &
industries
40
Concluding remarks…..
The Agricultural industrial revolutions 4.0 is used for
three, communally interrelated factors:
1) Digitalization and its integration in simple economical
and technical relations to complex networks.
2) Services and product digitalization.
3) Updated market models.
41
Practical/Assignment 1:
• Annual program of FY 2077/78 of Pocket/Block/Zone/Superzone
of PMAMP project where LEE students were departed and
assessment of contribution of those programs with respect to
agricultural modernization, commercialization, industrialization
and farmers need.
42
Lecture 3. Agribusiness environment and management systems
Agribusiness environment
Agribusiness environment is the situation in
which agribusiness firm is operated. It refers
to those aspects of the surrounding of the
enterprises (Internal & External), which
affects or influence its operations and
determine its effectiveness.
43
43
Enabling agribusiness environment:
• Sets of polices, institutions, support and other
conditions that collectively improve or create a
general business setting where enterprises and
business activities can start, develop and drive.
• The size of the population has important implication both for the
demand and supply of goods and services.
53
Socio-cultural environment
• It is important for marketers to learn about the customs and taboos,
values and religious beliefs of different locality and community.
• It includes:
Type of political system
Governance and government
Business policies (Agribusiness policy-2063, APP-1995-2015, ADS-2015-2035,
milk policy-2008), Agri-trade policies
Rules and implications of policy to particular business, registrations system, import
and export policies
Production policies
Marketing policies
Banking policies
Local taxes, social taxes, income taxes, duties
55
Technological environment:
• The level of technological advancement of a nation affects the
establishment of business enterprises as well as type of it.
Physical environment:
• Physical environment determines potential types and sizes of agribusiness in
particular area
• It includes:
Location of business point
Availability of land
Road access, vehicle and transport network
Communication facilities
Electricity or power support, irrigation
Market access and boundary
Storage facility
Soil, climate etc.
56
Doing Business Score: Reflection of business environment
57
58
Lecture 4: Organization and business management functions
and managerial decision
60
Organizational Design
The process of designing, defining or adapting
the organizational structure. It usually tries to
answer the following:
1.Who is responsible for each activity?
2.Who has the authority?
3.What are the limits of authority?
4.Who reports to whom?
5.Who has control over which resources?
6.How information flows in
Organization?
61
Elements of Organizational Design
1. Work Specialization: The degree to which
task in the organization are subdivided into
separate jobs.
62
4. Span of Control: The number of employees who can effectively and
efficiently supervised by a manager.
Narrow/Tall span
of control
Flat/Wide span of
control
63
Organizational design for Business enterprise/firm
1. Organizational design by function 2. Organizational design by products
64
Types of Organizational Structure
1. Classical Organizational Structure:
65
Other Forms of Organizational Structure
1. Ladder Type/ Pyramid Type 2. Conical Type
3. Pie-Chart Type 4. Spore Type
5. Hydra Type
66
Organization/Business management function
1 3 5 7
Planning Directing Coordinating Motivating
2 4 6
Organizing Controlling Communicating
Execution of these functions is important for success of business firm. In fact, this is the best concept of
management.
Some management specialists have divided the functions as main and subsidiary as below:
Main functions Subsidiary functions
1. Planning 1. Communication
2. Organizing 2. Decision making
3. Staffing 3. Innovation
4. Directing
5. Controlling
6. Co-ordinating
7. Motivating
Management is needed to convert the disorganized resources of men, machines, materials and methods
into useful and effective enterprise.
The purpose of management is to achieve certain organizational ends and to maintain or improve the
ability of an organization to efficiently achieve objectives.
The manager directs and controls the organization and its activities towards chosen objectives.
Poor management can hold back progress of the agri-business. It is the not the matter how hard the
manager works in the given situation, but how intelligently he solves the problem and handles to the
success of the firm is important.
Major areas to focus:
1. Marketing management 2. Financial management
68
3. Supply chain management 4. Human resource management
1. Planning
The forward thinking (looking ahead) about course of
action or activity (developing alternatives) based on full
understanding of all the related factors and directed at
specified objectives.
69
2. Organizing
The process of establishing the orderly use of resources by
assigning and coordinating tasks.
70
3. Staffing
The process of filling the positions in an organization structure
through identifying work-force requirements, inventorying the
people available, recruitment, selection, placement, promotion,
appraisal, compensation and training of needed people to carry out
the business activities very effectively.
Importance of coordination
1. Creative force 2. Unity of direction 3. High employee
morale 4. Diverse and specialized activities 5. Avoid
personal rivalries 6. Avoid conflict of interest
Types of coordination
1. Internal coordination: Within business enterprises
2. External coordination: Outside business enterprises
74
7. Motivating
Motivation is the process of inspiring people in order to intensify
their desire and willingness for executing their duties effectively
and for cooperating to achieve the common objectives of an
enterprises.
76
77
Lecture 5: Human resource management in organization
Human Resource Management (HRM) is a process of making the efficient and effective use of human
resources in an organization/enterprises so that the set goals/objectives are achieved.
At a macro level, endogenous growth theories suggest that the accumulation of human capital
constitutes the main engine of macro-economic growth.
At a micro level, resource-based theory points to the human capital of employees as a major
source for sustained competitive advantage for individual firms.
HRM is concerned with the most effective use of people to achieve organizational and individual
goals. It is the way of managing people at work so that they give their best to the organization.
78
79
Scope of HRM
It includes all activities starting from manpower
planning till employee leaves the organization.
Accordingly, the scope of HRM consists of
acquisition, development, maintenance/retention, and
control of human resources in the organization.
80
81
Approaches of HRM
82
Factors affecting HRM
Internal environment External environment
(within business enterprise) (Outside of business enterprise)
84
HR Planning process
Process by which an organization ensures that it has the right number and kind of people at the right
time, capable of effectively and efficiently completing those tasks that will help the organization to
achieve its overall strategic objectives.
85
Analyzing Factors for Manpower Requirements on Demand Side (Demand
Forecasting)
1. Judgmental forecast:
(a) Managerial Estimate (b) Delphi Method
2. Statistical projection:
(a) Ratio-Trend Analysis (b) Econometric Model
(c) Work-Study Techniques
2. Statistical projection:
(a) Markov-chain model (b) Econometric Model 86
Recruitment
• Recruitment refers to the process
of identifying, attracting,
interviewing, selecting, hiring and
onboarding employees. In other
words, it involves everything from
the identification of a staffing need
to filling it.
87
Selection
Selection is the process of differentiating
between applicants in order to identify those
with a greater likelihood of success in a job.
88
89
90
Placement
91
Induction
Major focus:
1. Opportunity cost
2. Nature of cash flows: Discounted/Non discounted,
Single cash flow, regular equal cash flow, unequal
cash flow, Perpetual cash flow
96
Time value of money
• Most peculiar attribute of money is its purchasing power. Purchasing power of
money is also known as the value of money.
• Any change in the purchasing power of money over the period of time is known
as the time value of money.
• “The firm can maximize wealth only when it is able to recognize the time value
of money and risk.”
Q.2) Suppose you have 1 lakh rupees and you decided to give loan to your friend. You told your friend to
return 1.5 lakh after 6 years? From economic point of view, is this your rational decision?
Q.3) A bank account pays 8% annual interest, compounded yearly. How long will it take the money to
double in this account?
98
The rule of 72
100
Future value of money (Annuity-Ordinary)
Annuity is a series of even cash flows for a specified duration. It involves regular
cash inflow/outflow. E.g. Life insurance premium, recurring deposit, systematic
investment plan.
Cash flow happens at the end of the year- Ordinary/Regular
Cash flow happens at the beginning of the year- Annuity due
1 r 1 n
FVordianryAn nuity
Ordinary Annuity CF
r
Where, CF = Cash flow per period, r = interest rate n = number of payments
Q.2 What annual interest rate would you need in order to have an ordinary annuity of NRs.
15000 per year accumulate to NRs. 559200 in 15 years?
102
i n FV
Application
The future value annuity formula can be applied in
different contexts.
Its important applications are
To know how much we have in the future
FV= A(1+r)n
To know how much to save annually
r
A FV
1 r n 1
Q. You expect to receive 1,00,000 as a bonus after 5 years on the job. You have
calculated the present value of this bonus and the answer is 80,000. What discount rate
did you use in your calculation?
105
Valuing a Stream of Cash
Flows
• Valuing a single cash flow amount is easy to evaluate
because there is one cash flow.
• What do we need to do if there are multiple cash
flow?
– Equal Cash Flows: Annuity or Perpetuity
– Unequal/Uneven Cash Flows
N FVt
PV
t 1 1 i
t
Valuing a Stream of Cash
Flows
0 1 2 3
n FVt 100
n 3 200 300
PV
t 0 1 r
=PV 3
t 0 1 0.12 1 0.12 1 0.12
n 1 2
0 1 2 3 4 5
Present Value of an Annuity
• The present value of an annuity can be
calculated by taking each cash flow and
discounting it back to the present, and adding
up the present values.
1 i
Pmt t Pmt1 Pmt 2 Pmt N
PVA
t 1
t
1 i 1
1 i 2
1 i N
Present Value of an Annuity
(cont.)
• Alternatively, there is a short cut that can
be used in the calculation [A = Annuity; r =
Discount Rate; n = Number of years]
1 1
(1 r ) N
PV FV
r
Present Value of an Annuity
(cont.)
• Using the example, and assuming a
discount rate of 10% per year, we find
that the present value is:
100 100 100 100 100
PVA 379.08
110
.
1
110
.
2
110
.
3
110
.
4
110
.
5
62.09
68.30
75.13
82.64
90.91
379.08 100 100 100 100 100
0 1 2 3 4 5
• We can use this equation to find the present
value of our annuity example as follows:
1 1
(1 0.1)5
PV 100
0.1
1 1
(1.1)5
PV 100
0.1
0.3791 PV 1003.791
PV 100
0.1 PV 379.1
This equation works for all regular (ordinary)
annuities, regardless of the number of payments
Present value of perpetuity annuity
• A perpetuity is an annuity of with an infinite
duration.
• Hence the present value of perpetuity may be
expressed as follows
PV∞ = CF x PVIFA
Email: gautam.damodar.np@gmail.com
Or,
gautam.damodar@narc.gov.np
Application of time value of money
1. Sinking fund
2. Loan Amortization
3. Equated Monthly Investment
(EMI)
4. Compound Annual Growth Rate
(CAGR)
1. Sinking fund
• A sinking fund is a type of fund that is created and set up
purposely for repaying debt.
• A sinking fund is an account that is used to deposit and save
money to repay a debt or replace a wasting asset in the future.
𝑟 (1+𝑟)𝑛
Loan installments (LI)= P×
(1+𝑟)𝑛 −1
𝑃
or, Loan installments (LI)=
𝑃𝑉𝐼𝐹𝐴
Evaluation Criteria
124
Valuing a Stream of Cash
Flows
• Valuing a single cash flow amount is easy to evaluate
because there is one cash flow.
• What do we need to do if there are multiple cash
flow?
– Equal Cash Flows: Annuity or Perpetuity
– Unequal/Uneven Cash Flows
N FVt
PV
t 1 1 i
t
Net Present Value
Example: Calculating NPV
A sum of NRs. 400,000 invested today in business enterprise may give a series
of below cash inflows in future:
70,000 in year 1
120,000 in year 2
140,000 in year 3
140,000 in year 4
40,000 in year 5
If Discounting rate is 8% per annum, then should we accept or reject the
project?
126
Cash Inflow of all Present Values is : 408,959
Present value of Cash outflow is : 400,000
Net Present Value = PV of Cash inflows – PV of Cash Outflows = (408959 – 400000) =
8959
Since NPV is positive, (i.e., 8959, This project can be accepted)
Same example: Calculating NPV however with Discount rate or Opportunity cost of capital at
15%
A sum of NRs. 400,000 invested today in a business may give a series of below cash inflows in
future:
70,000 in year 1
120,000 in year 2
140,000 in year 3
140,000 in year 4
40,000 in year 5
If Opportunity cost of capital is 15% per annum, then should we accept or reject the project?
127
Solution: Calculating NPV
Step 1: Calculate the PV value of year 1, year2, year3, year4, and year5
Step 2: Sum the PV of all years
Step3: NPV = Present value of all cash inflows – Present value of all cash
outflow.
Step 4: If NPV is positive, Accept the project, if not Reject the project.
N.B: Though we have the same inflow of cash in the previous example and this example,
The NPV value changed with the change in the Discount rate of interest. Therefore, NPV
is very much dependent on the Discount rate of interest value or in other words the
128
opportunity cost of the capital value.
Decision rule for NPV:
NPV = + ve →Project accepted (provided the discount rate more or equal to the
opportunity cost of capital)
NPV = 0 → Indifferent in decision making
NPV = -ve → Project rejected
1. The NPV is expressed in absolute terms rather than relative terms and hence
does not factor in the scale of investment
129
Thus, no ranking of acceptable, alternative independent projects is possible
with NPV rule.
A small highly attractive project may have a small NPV than a large, marginally
acceptable project.
Thus Project A may have NPV of 5000 while Project B may have NPV of 2500
but, Project A may require an investment of 50,000 whereas project B may
require investment of just 10,000
NPV is most appropriate measure to choose among the mutually exclusive
projects
2. The NPV rule does not consider the life of the project. Hence, when
mutually exclusive projects with different lives are being considered, the
NPV rule is biased in favor of the longer term project
130
2. Internal Rate of Return (IRR):
IRR (Internal Rate of Return) is a discount rate at which NPV (Net Present Value) becomes
Zero. In other words, IRR is the opportunity cost at which the NPV becomes Zero. IRR as
the name suggests, it tells how much rate of return are we getting from the project.
Also called Yield on investment, Marginal efficiency of capital, Rate of return over cost,
Time adjusted rate of internal return.
In IRR method the interest rate that equates the present value of the future cash
earnings with initial investment outlay is calculated
In NPV calculation we assume that the discount rate (cost of capital) is known and
determine the NPV
In IRR calculation, we set the NPV equal to zero and determine the discount rate
that satisfies the condition
131
Why IRR, what is the use of calculating IRR?
⮚ IRR is used to rank different projects.
⮚ The higher a project's internal rate of return, the more desirable it is to undertake the
project.
⮚ If all the other factors are same for different projects then the project with the Highest
Internal rate of return value should be considered.
Note:
For Constant rate of Cash inflow for every year, Internal Rate of Return can be calculated with the
help of a formula
For Uneven rate of Cash inflows for every year, IRR can be calculated by little trail & error
adjustments.
Decision criteria
In case of single project: Accept the project when IRR greater than opportunity
cost of capital i.e. market interest rate which is generally between 14-19%.
In case of two mutually exclusive projects: Accept one having higher Internal
Rate of Return
Conditional analysis:
1. Equal and unequal cash flow
2. Conventional and Non-conventional cash flow
3. Types of project (Independent and Mutually exclusive)
4. Amount and duration of cash flow 132
133
Calculation: Equal and unequal cash flow
Equal cash flow: Case of Annuity (We can use the formula of annuity)
Unequal cash flow:
Case 1: if time period is up to three years, we can solve through equation.
Case 2: if time period is more than three years, IRR is most commonly calculated
using the hit-and-trial method, linear-interpolation formula or spreadsheets and
financial calculators.
• Since IRR is defined as the discount rate at which NPV = 0, we can write that:
NPV = 0 or PV of future cash flows − Initial Investment = 0
The most difficult aspect of trial and error is making the initial estimate. If the estimate is
too far from the final result, then several trails will have to be made to find two rates
close enough together to permit accurate interpolation. Interpolation is the process of
finding a desired value between two other values.
134
• Question 1: Suppose an organization is planning to invest in a plant, it generates the
following cash flows:
Year 0 1 2 3 4 5
136
Conventional and Non-conventional cash flows
Year Cash flow Year Cash flow
0 1,00,000 0 1,00,000
1 40,000 1 40,000
2 30,000 2 30,000
3 25,000 3 -40,000
4 10,000 4 10,000
5 15,000 5 15,000
Note: IRR inherently assumes that any cash flows can be reinvested at the
internal rate of return. This assumption is problematic because there is no
guarantee that equally profitable opportunities will be available as soon as cash
flows occur. The risk of receiving cash flows and not having good enough
opportunities for reinvestment is called reinvestment risk. 138
3. Profitability index or Benefit-Cost ratio
PI is also known as profit investment ratio (PIR) or value
investment ratio (VIR)
It is a useful tool for ranking projects because it allows you to
quantify the amount of value created per unit of investment.
Profitability index is an investment appraisal technique calculated
by dividing the present value of future cash flows of a project by
the initial investment required for the project.
PI of 1.1 implies that for every 1 rupees investment, we create an
additional 0.1 rupees value.
139
140
141
Project acceptance criteria using Profitability Index method.
Note:
For a project with NPV > 0, PI is always greater than 1.
For a project with NPV < 0, PI is always less than 1
142
4. Pay back period (Discounted)
A discounted payback period gives the number of years it takes to break even from
undertaking the initial expenditure, by discounting future cash flows and recognizing the
time value of money.
In terms of Projects ranking, it gives highest ranking to the project with the shortest payback
period.
Q. An initial investment of 23,24,000 is expected to generate 6,00,000 per year for 6 years.
Calculate the discounted payback period of the investment if the discount rate is 11%.
143
144
Exam questions
Q1. Suppose an organization is planning to invest in a plant, it generates the following cash flows
Year 0 1 2 3 4 5
Cash flows 240000 140000 80000 60000 20000 20000
From the above information calculate NPV and IRR. The discounting rate is 10% and suggest
whether the organization should invest in this plant or not?
Q2. Calculate the IRR from following information.
Year 0 1 2 3 4 5
Cost (000) 35 20 40 60 90 130
Returns (000) 0 45 85 115 135 145
146
Decision criteria:
Accept the project only if its ARR is not less than the required
rate of return. In case of mutually exclusive projects, accept the
one with higher ARR
Example 1:
An initial investment of 130,000 is expected to generate annual cash inflow of 32,000 for
6 years. Depreciation is allowed on the straight line basis. It is estimated that the project
will generate scrap value of 10,500 at end of the 6th year. Calculate its accounting rate of
return assuming that there are no other expenses on the project.
Solution: Annual Depreciation = (Initial Investment − Scrap Value) ÷ Useful Life in Years
Annual Depreciation = (130,000 − 10,500) ÷ 6 ≈ 19,917
Average Accounting Income = 32,000 − 19,917 = 12,083
Accounting Rate of Return = 12,083 ÷ 130,000 ≈ 9.3%
147
Example 2 Compare the following two mutually exclusive projects on the
basis of ARR. Cash flows and salvage values are in thousands. Use the straight
line depreciation method. Salvage value of project A is 10 and project B is 18.
Project A Project B
Year Cash flow Year Cash flow
0 -220 0 -198
1 91 1 87
2 130 2 110
3 105 3 84
Solution: Solution:
Project A: Project B:
Step 1: Annual depreciation= (220-10)/3 = 70 Step 1: Annual depreciation= (198-18)/3 = 60
Step 2: Accounting income for year 1= (91-70)= 21 Step 2: Accounting income for year 1= (87-60)= 27
Accounting income for year 2= (130-70)= 60 Accounting income for year 2= (110-60)= 50
Accounting income for year 3= (105-70+10)= 45 Accounting income for year 3= (84-60+18)= 42
Step 3: Average accounting income = (21+60+45)/3 = 42 Step 3: Average accounting income = (27+50+42)/3 = 39.6
Step 4: Accounting rate of return = 42/220 *100 = 19.1% Step 4: Accounting rate of return = 39.6/198 *100 = 20%
148
2. Break even analysis
• Break-even sales units are the number of units that must be sold to reach the
break-even point. Using the break-even point equation, P*X = V*X + FC, you can
solve for X to determine the number of units that need to be sold to break even.
P*X = V*X + FC
(P*X– V*X) = FC
X (P – V) = FC
X = FC/(P – V) 149
150
Q1. If I sell a product for Rs. 79.99 that costs me Rs. 11.99 per
unit to produce and my fixed costs total Rs. 27,336, how many
units must I sell to break even?
Q2. A product currently sells for Rs. 12 per unit. The variable
cost is Rs. 4 per unit, and 10,000 units are sold annually and a
profit of 30,000 is realized per year. A new design will increase
the variable costs by 20% and Fixed Costs by 10% but sales will
increase to 12,000 units per year.
(a) At what selling price do we break even
(b) If the selling price is to be kept same ( Rs. 12/unit) what
will the annual profit be?
151
3. Proceeds per unit of outlay
Proceeds: Money received from sale or Profit
It is equal to total value of incremental production
divided by the total amount of the investment
Agri-business service centers establishment for quality agriculture inputs and services
Emphasis on special economic zones for agro-industry development- Commercial, Organic and Export
Areas
Infrastructure development for processing and marketing as a foundation for commercialization and
diversification
Promotion of partnership approach between government and the private sector for agriculture
development
Private sectors involvement for the export of quality goods and market network
158
Major focus of ABPP
1. Establish and develop extensive growth centers based on geographic,
technical and economic potentialities
2. To be compatible and coordinate with special economic zone program
3. Establish and promote ‘Business Development Service Centre’ based on
agribusiness and geographic region
4. Extend agribusiness promotion infrastructures like irrigation, road, cold
storage
5. Subsidizing import tax of machines and equipment's up to 75%
6. Provision of agribusiness loan liberal repayment strategy
7. E-commerce at agri-market and business service centres
8. Price determination system
9. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) promotion for agribusiness development
and extension
10. Subsidy scheme in agricultural cost items
11. Agri-market and agribusiness relate information system will be
developed, extended and inflowed in close cooperation of private sector,
cooperative and local bodies
159
Synthesis of Agriculture Development Strategy (ADS)
• ADS includes:
– 20 years vision for agriculture development in Nepal
Priorities
a) Priority Inputs (Fertilizer, Irrigation, Road & Power,
Technology)
b) Priority Output (High Value Crop, Agribusiness, Livestock,
Agro-forestry)
ADS
Based on Concept of Value Chain
Welfare based and Market based Growth strategy
Sustainability & Inclusive perspective
Multiple priorities (Food-based nutrition, Right based,
Market oriented)
Pluralistic Approach (Government –Farmer
Groups/Cooperatives-Private sector engagement) 163
164
165
Vision of ADS
“A self-reliant, sustainable, competitive and inclusive
agricultural sector that drives economic growth and
contributes to improved livelihoods and food and nutrition
security leading to food sovereignty.”
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Assessment -
Where are we
Vision – Where we
want to be
2015
Low Agricultural
Development
1. Food and Nutrition Security
2. Poverty Reduction
3. Agricultural Trade Competitiveness
4. Higher and Equitable Income
5. Farmer’s Rights ensured and strengthened
Sustainability Connectivity
Profitable
Governance Productivity Competitiveness
Commercialization
170
171
ADS programs
Types of Programs
CADIC ADSISU
Central Agriculture Devt. ADS Implementation
Implementation Support Unit (Section) Flagship Programs
Committee (MoAD)
Other Programs
DADC
District Agriculture Devt.
Committee
IMPLEMENTATION
CO-ORDINTATION
• Target:
• Purpose:
174
175
176
177
178
Government intervention
• The government tries to combat market inequities through regulation,
floor price, ceiling price, taxation, and subsidies.
4 S
Price controls are government-mandated minimum or
maximum prices set for specific goods and services. 3
100 200
Price controls interfere with market signals. Quantity of icecreams
• Price ceilings limit the price sellers can charge for their
goods to the maximum price
8. Awareness raising
183
2. Reduction in quality
• At the controlled price,
sellers find there is an
excess of demand.
186
5. Misallocation of resources
• When prices are controlled, resources do not flow to their
highest valued uses.
• Price controls distort signals and eliminate incentives-
leading to a misallocation of resources.
Consumers who value a good most are prevented from
signaling their preference (by offering sellers a higher
price.)
187
2. Price floor
A price floor is the lowest Price
legal price that can be paid in
a market for goods and floor creates:
services, labor, or financial 1. Surpluses
capital. 2. Lost gains from trade
• Important examples of price (deadweight loss)
floor are: Minimum Support 3. Wasteful increases in
Price (MSP), Minimum wage quality
rate. 4. A misallocation of
• Not as common as price resources
ceilings but still important
188
1. Surpluses
Price floor creates favorable environment for producer to produce
more and more product which will create surplus into industry.
Floor price is higher than equilibrium price that causes the reduction
of quantity demands.
The surplus quantity of good is known as Buffer stock. If there will not
any government regulation, price will fall.
Price Surplus
D S
Price D S
4
4
3 3
Price Ceiling
2 2
190
2. Lost gains from trade (deadweight loss)
191
3. Wasteful increases in quality
Surpluses means that producers will not be able to sell all of their goods.
In free markets sellers compete with other sellers by offering a lower price.
Since price is not allowed to fall below the floor price, sellers must compete in
other ways.
Some producers may be willing to make quality investments in order to sell their
surplus goods.
Quality investments require resources that are wasted when consumers are not
normally willing to pay for the higher quality.
192
Effect of taxation
• Taxation: fees and financial obligations imposed by a government on its residents.
• Commodity taxes: taxes on goods, such as those on fuel, cigarettes, liquor and other
agricultural/non-agricultural commodity.
• When government impose tax on any goods, that will cause shift in supply curve upward i.e.,
quantities of supply decreases by amount at which tax impose.
• The amount of the tax is always shown by the vertical distance between the two supply
curves.
193
Reasons for imposing taxes:
1. To generate Government revenues: excise duties on beers, wines and
spirits are price inelastic in demand, so tax price increases by levying
specific alcohol and tobacco taxes raise consumer expenditures as a whole
on these categories and therefore taxation revenues;
194
Effects of a tax:
• Increases price
• Reduces consumption/output
• Welfare effects:
– Burden of tax on producer and consumer – changes in producer and
consumer surplus
Quantity of
500 700 Apples (baskets)
197
Who Ultimately Pays the Tax
Price of Apples
(per basket) $1 Tax on Buyers
1. Demand shifts down by $1
$4 2. With no tax, equilibrium is
at a: P=$2, Q=700
3. With tax, equilibrium is at
$3 b point d: P=$1.65, Q=500
2.65 Supply 4. Buyers pay
Buyer a w/o tax $1.65 + 1.00 tax = $2.65
$2 d Suppliers receive $1.65
Supplier
1.65 Demand 5. Tax burden:
w/o tax Buyers $0.65
$1
Demand Suppliers $0.35
w/tax
Quantity of
500 700 Apples (baskets)
198
Commodity Taxes
No Tax With Tax
Price Price
Consumer
Consumer surplus Tax wedge
surplus $2.65 S
S
$2.00 $2.00 Deadweight
loss
D $1.65
D
Producer Government
Producer surplus revenue
surplus
Q Q
700 500 700
199
200
Effect of subsidy
• Subsidy is an amount of money paid by the
government to producers or consumers per
unit of output.
201
Reasons for Subsidies How is it helping?
To lower the price essential goods. When subsidy is granted,
supply curve will shift
Encouraged by lower price, vertically downwards by the
consumption will be increased. amount of the subsidy.
202
203
204
Who
benefits
from a
subsidy does
depend on
the relative
elasticities
of demand
and supply.
205
206
207
208
Value chain analysis:
Concept, mapping and
approaches
209
Value chain analysis: Concept, mapping and approaches
The concept of value chain was developed during eighties to gain competitiveness
by firms as focus shifted from product to value.
The idea of a value chain was pioneered by Michael Porter in 1985 in his book
"Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance.” This
book clearly describe a firm’s internal value-adding activities.
The concept of the value chain comes from a business management perspective.
Kaplinsky (2000) defined it as wider system view “the full range of activities
which are required to bring a product or service from conception, through the
intermediary phases of production (involving a combination of physical
transformation and the input of various producer services), delivery to final
consumers, and the final disposal after use”.
210
211
This system is often described as ‘farm gate to plate’,
or ‘beef to burger’
212
A value chain describes all the activities, functions,
roles and organizations involved in the production,
delivery and consumption of products from raw
materials to final consumption and back again
through reverse flows.
Business environments
213
Michael Porter generic value chain model-1985
A value chain is a chain of activities that a firm
operating in a specific industry performs in order to
deliver a valuable product or service for the market.
214
1. Primary activities
Inbound logistics: Concerned with receiving, storing,
distributing raw materials. This also covers all relationships with
suppliers. (e.g. handling of raw materials, warehousing, inventory
control.)
Operations: Comprises the transformation of inputs in to
the final product form. (e.g. production, conditioning, assembly,
215
packaging)
Outbound logistics: Involves the activities like collecting,
storing and distributing the product to the buyers. (e.g. processing of
orders, warehousing of finished goods and delivery)
216
2. Support activities
Procurement: Concerned with the task of
purchasing inputs such as raw materials, equipment's,
labor etc.
• It is a simple framework for assessing and evaluating the competitive strength and
position of a business organization.
219
Supply chain
Various activities, individuals and businesses that
are involved in the transfer of product from one
place to another are integrated in a supply chain.
Supply Chain activities
include the transfer of
material from one place
to another.
220
Difference between supply chain and value chain
Aspect Supply Chain Value Chain
Originated from Operation management Business management
Concept Conveyance Value addition
Objective Customer Satisfaction Gaining competitive advantage
Deliver to consumer Supplies/products Values and satisfaction
Information flow Little or none Extensive
Organizational structure Independent actors Interdependent actors
Sequence Product Request - Supply Customer Request - Value
Chain - Customer Chain - Product
Nature Static, unable to adjust with Dynamic and systemic, keep
changing consumer demands pace with changing consumer
demands
Limitation Less equipped for analysis of Equipped for analysis of social
social and environmental and environmental
sustainability sustainability
221
222
Value chain governance
Authority and power relationships that determine how
financial, material and human resources are allocated and flow
within a chain.
•Coordination Structures,
•Rules and Regulations, and
•Control Mechanisms (Transmission of Information and Services).
Chain governance exist when some firms work to the parameters set by other
powerful firms in the chain (Humphrey & Schmitz, 2008) 223
Objectives of VC governance
Understand how the value chain is coordinated, including
key firms (actors) and mechanisms (i.e. contracts,
agreements, services), and why this coordination structure
has arisen and evolved,
228
229
Major steps in value chain mapping
Step 1: Mapping the core processes in the value chain
230
Step 3: Mapping the activities of the actors
Step 4: Mapping services that feed in to the value
chain
231
Step 5: Mapping the volume of products and number of
actors
232
Step 7: Mapping relationship and linkage between value chain actors
233
Value chain analysis
Value chain analysis is emerged as important mainstream
tool for competitiveness analysis, business upgrading and
development of sustainable value chains.
235
Major domains of value chain analysis
1. Socio-economic context of value chain:
Macro-economic and social situation of the country(ies) in which
the value chain develops
237
3. Analysis of the institutional set up
The identification and appraisal of the
institutional set-up, i.e., set of interactions taking
place among agents and the formal and/or
informal rules governing them.
240
241
Why value chain analysis approach
Creation of consumer values in products and services,
Identifies value creating activities and processes,
Evaluates the chain against efficiency, effectiveness in creation and distribution of
value
The interventions to improve the chain performance with respect to understanding
customers and consumers, creating more value, reducing waste and build stronger
partnerships among chain actors
Improves market access
Offers wider choice of better products
242
243
244
245
THANK YOU !!
246
Production planning in
agribusiness-planning, production,
risk management
247
248
Product life cycle approach
249
Major concerns in production planning
Production plan helps to meet product demand
while minimizing production time and cost by
improving process flow, reducing the waiting time
between operations and optimizing use of plant,
equipment and inventory.
250
Planning for production: Consideration of all input variables to
achieve predetermined output goals; a pre-production activity to determine optimal
production schedule, operation sequence, economic quantity, etc.
Production planning is “The administrative process that takes place within a manufacturing
business and that involves making sure that sufficient raw materials, human resources and other
necessary items are procured and ready to create finished products according to the schedule
251
specified.”
For efficient, effective and economical operation
in a manufacturing unit of an organization, it is
essential to integrate the production planning and
control system.
255
Major steps for production planning and control
259
RISK AND UNCERTAINTY IN
AGRICULTURE
260
Concept
Agricultural activities are subject to a wide range of risks because of the
variable economic and biophysical environment in which farming
operates.
The occurrence of an event can not be quantified with the help of probability.
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
Dimensions of Agricultural risks
• Production/Technical risks, concerning variations in crop yields and livestock
production, affected by a range of factors: weather conditions/climate change, pests,
diseases, technological change as well as management of natural resources such as
water
• Market risks, associated with variability in output price (mostly), also input price
variability and integration in the food supply chain (with respect to quality, safety, new
products, etc.)
• Regulatory risks connected with the impact of changes in agricultural policies (e.g.
subsidies, regulations for food safety and environmental regulations) or trade policies: a
change in government action, which is at odds with what farmers expected, may have a
negative impact on their income
• Financial risks resulting from different methods of financing the farm business,
subject to credit availability, interest and exchange rates, etc.
2. Technological Uncertainties
273
274
Risk management techniques in agriculture
1. Forward contract (contract farming)
2. Insurance
3. Share cropping
4. Vertical integration of Farm enterprise
5. Selection of enterprises with low variability
6. Flexibility in farm organization
7. Liquidity
8. Maintenance of resources in reserve
9. Adjustment to uncertain of Inputs
10. Diversification
275
THANK YOU !!
276
Implications of international trade
in agriculture sector of Nepal
277
Trade scenario of Nepal
Based on Annual data of FY 2077/78 (Mid July 2020
Table 1 : Foreign Trade Direction :
to Mid July 2021)
Change
SN Trade Indicators FY 2076/77 (12 Months) FY 2077/78 (12 Months)
(%)
1 Imports (Rs.in `000) 1,196,799,053 1,539,837,068 28.66
278
279
280
..\Downloads\FTS_Annual_207778.xlsx
281
Basic concepts
Trade: Exchange of goods and services
Domestic trade: Exchange of domestic goods within the boundaries
of a country.
International trade: The exchange of goods and services between
countries and across borders is referred to as international trade.
Trade deficit: Occurs when a value of a nations export is less than the
value of its import i.e. Exports<Imports.
Trade surplus: Occurs when a value of a nations export is more than
value of its import i.e. Exports>Imports
Terms of Trade:
282
Difference between domestic and international trade
283
4. Differences between the money and banking
system: Same monetary policy and banking system exist inside a country. But
different countries have different rules and regulations in their banking and monetary
systems. The foreign exchange rate is essential for international trade. For that reason,
international trade is more complex than domestic trade.
285
286
Absolute and Comparative advantage
The United States has some of the richest farmland in the world, making it
easier to grow corn and wheat than in many other countries.
Guatemala and Colombia have climates especially suited for growing coffee.
Chile and Zambia have some of the world’s richest copper mines.
France can produce 10 liters of wine in 30 hours. Italy can produce 10 liters of
wine in 20 hours i.e. Italy has an absolute advantage over France.
Philippines can produce clothing with less resources (Money) used than USA
i.e. Philippines has an absolute advantage over USA in clothing production.
288
Significance of absolute advantage theory
289
Limitation of absolute advantage theory
• Condition that a country has ability to produce a certain product better than
another country with a lower opportunity cost. Country produce the product
with less opportunity cost and trade with other.
• The question each country or company should be asking when it trades is:
“What do we give up to produce this good?” It should be no surprise that
the concept of comparative advantage is based on this idea of opportunity
cost.
• Each party can gain by specializing in the good where it has comparative
advantage, and trading that good for the other.
291
When one country can produce goods at a lower opportunity cost then
it sacrifices less resources in production.
292
293
Specialization refers to the tendency of countries to specialize in
certain products which they trade for other goods, rather than
producing all consumption goods on their own.
Factor cost is a factor involved in absolute opportunity cost is the factor that is
advantage involved in comparative advantage.
295
Context of absolute and comparative advantage in Nepal
296
Balance of payment and Balance of Trade
Balance of payments (BOP): Accounting record of all monetary
transactions between a country and the rest of the world. These
transactions include payments for the country's exports and imports of
goods & services, financial capital, and financial transfers.
Invisible items which include all those services whose export and
import are not visible. e.g. transport services, medical services etc.
Capital transfers which are concerned with capital receipts and capital
payment.
300
Balance of Trade: The difference between a country's imports and its
exports. Balance of trade is the largest component of a country's balance of payments.
The balance of trade, commercial balance, or net exports (sometimes symbolized
as NX), is the difference between the monetary value of a
nation's exports and imports over a certain period.
Debit items include imports, foreign aid, domestic spending abroad and
domestic investments abroad.
When exports are greater than imports than the BOT is favourable and if
imports are greater than exports then it is unfavourable.
301
302
Difference between BoP and BoT
303
Major theories related with international trade
1. Theory of Mercantilism
The theory that a country should accumulate
financial wealth by amassing as many inflows of
“currency” as possible.
Mercantilism: 16th – late 18th century
• A nation’s wealth depends on accumulated treasure
• Gold and silver are the currency of trade
305
5. Product Life-Cycle Theory (Raymond Vernon, 1966)
• Article in the Quarterly Journal of Economics.
• As products mature, both location of sales and optimal production
changes.
• Affects the direction and flow of imports and exports.
• Globalization and integration of the economy makes this theory less
valid.
307
Determinants of
National Competitive Advantage
Chance
Company Strategy,
Structure,
and Rivalry
Two external
factors that Factor Demand
influence the Conditions Conditions
four
determinants.
Related
and Supporting
Industries
Government
Source: Michael Porter, The Competitive Advantage of Nations
THANK YOU !!
309
World Trade Organization and
Implication in Nepal
310
An Only global international organization that facilitates
international trade.
311
Objectives of WTO
• To make transparent international trade related rules
312
Activities of WTO
• Negotiating the reduction or elimination of obstacles to
trade(import tarrifs,other barrier to trade) and agreeing on rules
governing the conduct of international trade( antidumping,
subsidies, product, standards etc.)
• Assisting the process of accession of some 30 countries who are not yet
members of the organization
• Explaining to and educating the public about the WTO, its mission and
its activities.
314
Trade Principle of WTO
• Non- discrimination( most favor nation and national
tratment)
• Safety values
315
Nepal’s Accession to the WTO
• On April 23, 2004 the protocol entered into force and Nepal
became the 147th member of the WTO.
316
WTO agreements
1. Agreement on Agriculture (AOA)- 3 pillarrs
320
Import consistency for industrial inputs.
Helps to eradicate the problem arising from the bilateral business with
the neighboring countries.
321
Challenges of WTO Membership
Employment- sophisticated machineries and better technology
Strengthening Institutions
322
Disadvantages of WTO to Nepal
1. Domestic industries may be adversely affected
2. Tariff reduction causes decrease in revenue
collection
3. Domestic investment may suffer because of FDI
4. Difficult to meet international standard of
quality
5. National indigenous expertise may decline
6. Elimination of duty free and quota free system
323
Conclusion
• The international agriculture trade under the WTO
regime has been liberalized, but at the same time has
also become more competitive.
SAARC:
325
SAFTA (South Asian free Trade Area)
Objectives of SAFTA:
Promoting and enhancing mutual trade and economic
corporation by eliminating barriers in the trade
Promoting condition of fair trade competition in the free trade
area.
Establishing a framework for further regional corporation to
expand the mutual benefits of the agreement
Creating effective mechanism for the implementation and
application of this agreement, for its joint administration
326and for
the resolution of disputes.
Under SAFTA, the eight SAARC nations (Nepal, Bhutan, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri
Lanka, Maldives, and Afghanistan) have pledged to cut tariff rates on a product-by-product
basis, and more than 5,000 items are entitled to preferential duty treatment in the
participating countries. However, the long “negative list” of goods that are excluded from
preferential duty treatment under SAFTA has limited the agreement’s impact on regional
trade.
Nepal became the 147th member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in April
2004. Nepal was given until December 2006 to comply with its WTO obligations, but to
date it has only partially fulfilled these obligations.
In February 2004, Nepal became a member of the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-
Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC). Other members include
Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. BIMSTEC seeks to establish
a more comprehensive free-trade area through deeper and more substantial sector
coverage of services and an open and competitive investment regime.
Nepal has signed bilateral trade agreements and treaties with seventeen countries,
including the United States, United Kingdom, Yugoslavia, India, Russia, South Korea, North Korea, Egypt, Bangladesh,
Sri Lanka, Bulgaria, China, Czech Republic, Pakistan, Romania, Mongolia, and Poland.
The treaty Nepal signed with India in 1996 and amended in 2009 is its most important in terms of
trade volume. Except for some items under quantitative restrictions, the trade treaty puts Nepal in a
unilateral duty-free trade regime with India, which accounted for more than 60 percent of Nepal’s
total trade in FY 2016/17.
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THANK YOU !!
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