Compiled by Prakash Pantha

Principles of Plant Pathology

Introduction and classification of plant pathology and plant diseases
The word plant pathology has been derived from two Greek words- pathos means
suffering and logos means discourse or to speak. Therefore plant pathology is defined as the
branch of agricultural, botanical and biological science which deals about the causes,
epidemiology, resulting losses and management of plant disease. The practical goal of plant
pathology is to save the produce which could be used for billions of the people of this
overpopulated globe.

Objectives of Plant Pathology

i. to study the living entities that cause diseases in plants;
ii. to study the non-living entities and the environmental conditions that cause disorders in plants;
iii. to study the mechanisms by which the disease causing agents produce diseases;
iv. to study the interactions between the disease causing agents and host plant in relation to
overall environment; and
v.to study the method of preventing or management the diseases and reducing the
losses/damages caused by diseases.

Scope of Plant Pathology

Plant pathology comprises with the basic knowledge and technologies of Botany, Plant
Anatomy, Plant Physiology, Mycology, Bacteriology, Virology, Nematology, Genetics,
Molecular Biology, Genetic Engineering, Biochemistry, Horticulture, Tissue Culture, Soil
Science, Forestry, Physics, Chemistry, Meteorology, Statistics and many other branches of
applied science.

Glimpse of some scientist made contribution in the field of Plant Pathology

Pier Antonio Micheli (1679-1737 AD) Robert Koch (1843-1910) Heinrich Anton de Bary(1831-1888)
Italian Botanist German Physician & Microbiologist German Botanist
Founder and Father of Mycology Father of Modern Bacteriology Founder and Father of Modern Plant Pathology
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

Erwin Frink Smith (1854-1927 AD) Martinus Willem Beijerinck (1851-1931) Nathan Augustus Cobb (1859-1932)
Father of Phytobacteriology Founder & Father of Virology Father of Nematology

Importance of the Plant Diseases

Globally, enormous losses of the crops are caused by the plant diseases. On average 1/3rd loss is
due to disease. Of the 36.5% average total loss, 14.1% are caused by disease, 10.2% by insects
and 10.2% by weeds. Important historical evidences of plant disease epidemics are
• Irish Famine due to late blight of potato (Phytophthora infestans) (Ireland, 1845-46)
which caused the death of millions of people.
• Bengal famine due to brown spot of rice (Bipolaris sorokiniana) (India,1942- 43)
• Coffee rust caused by Hemileia vastatrix (Sri Lanka, Ceylon) in 1871-93 reduced the
export of coffee by 93%.
• In Europe, downy mildew of grape (Plasmopara viticola) closed many wine industries.
• In 1999 outbreak of new race of black rust Ug 99 caused detrimental in wheat cultivation.
• Citrus decline in pokhara valley has caused huge loss of citrus production,
• Estimated loss caused by fungal disease ranged from 5 to 71% in cereal, 10- 100% in
legumes, 23- 83% in vegetable and 21-100% in fruit. Likewise bacterial disease causes 5-
40% loss in cereals and 40-76% in veegetables. Loss from viral disease ranged 77-100%.
• Root knot is also a severe problem causing more than 50% yield reduction in some crops.
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

Concept of Plant Disease

The normal physiological functions of plants are disturbed when they are affected by pathogenic
living organisms or by some environmental factors. When a plant is suffering, we call it
diseased, i.e. it is at ‘dis-ease’.
 A/c to American Phytopathological Society and British Mycological Society- A
malfunctioning process that is caused by continuous irritation, which results in some
suffering producing symptoms.
 Horsefall and Diamond(1957): Disease can be defined as a physiological disorder or
structural abnormality that is deleterious or harmful to the plant or its part or product that
reduces its economic value.

 Disease is a condition that occurs in consequence of abnormal changes in the form,

physiology, integrity or behaviour of the plant.
 Disease is an alternation in one or more of the ordered sequential series of physiological
process culminating in a loss of coordination of energy utilization in a plant as result of
the continuous irritation from the presence of some agent or factor.
 Disease is a malfunctioning process that is caused by caused by continuous irritation
(Horsfall and Diamond)

Physiological activities of a healthy plant

 Normal cell division, differentiation and development.
 Uptake of water and nutrients from the soil.
 Synthesis of food from sunlight by photosynthesis.
 Translocation of water and food to the sites of necessity through xylem andphloem.
 Metabolism of synthesized material
 Reproduction

A diseased plant fails to perform one or more of these functions. The effect of a disease
on functioning of an organ depends on which cells or tissues were first attacked by the
pathogen.

Irritation in plants/ host is caused by the following interrelated pathways.

 By utilizing the host cell content
 By causing the death of cells or by interfering with their metabolic activities through their
enzymes, toxins and growth regulators.
 By weaking of host tissues due to continuous loss of nutrients and by interfering with
translocation of food, minerals and water.
 By interfering with translocation of organic compounds.

Definition and terms

1. Parasite: An organism living upon or in another living organism (the host) and obtaining the
food from the invading host. All the parasite are not pathogens. Eg Rhizobium bacteria forming
root nodule in legumes.

2. Pathogen: An entity, usually a micro-organism that can cause the disease. All the pathogen is
parasite. Eg Phytophthora infestans causing late blight of potato.

3. Biotroph/ Obligate parasite: A plant pathogenic fungus that requires living host cells i.e. an
obligate parasite. Eg Powdery mildew, Rust

4. Hemibiotroph/ facultative saphrophyte: A plant pathogenic fungus that initially requires

Compiled by Prakash Pantha

living host cells but after killing the host cell grows on the dead and dying cells. Eg
Helminthosporium.

5. Necrotroph/ Facultative parasite: A pathogenic fungus that kills the host and survives on
thedying and dead cells. Eg Fusarium, Phythium, Rhizoctonia

6. Pathogenicity: The relative capability of a pathogen to cause disease.

7. Pathogenesis: It is a process caused by an infectious agent (pathogen) when it comes in

contact with a susceptible host.

8. Virulence: The degree of infectivity of a given pathogen.

9. Infection: The initiation and establishment of a parasite within a host plant.

10. Primary infection: The first infection of a plant by the over wintering or over summering of
the pathogen.

11. Inoculum: That portion of pathogen which is transferred to plant and cause disease.

12. Invasion: The penetration and spread of a pathogen in the host.

13. Colonization: The growth of a pathogen, particularly a fungus, in the host after infection is
called colonization.

14. Inoculum potential: The growth or threshold of fungus available for colonization at
substratum (host).

15. Symptoms: The external and internal reaction or alterations of a plant as a result of disease.
16. Incubation period: The period of time between penetration of a pathogen to the host and the
first appearance of symptoms on the plant.
17. Disease cycle: The chain of events involved in disease development.
18. Disease syndrome: The set of varying symptoms characterizing a disease are collectively
called a syndrome.
19. Single cycle disease (Monocyclic): This type of disease is referred to those caused by the
pathogen (fungi) that can complete only one life cycle in one crop season of the host plant. e.g.
downy mildew of rapeseed, club root of crucifers, sclerotinia blight of brinjal etc.
20. Multiple cycle disease (Polycyclic): Some pathogens specially a fungus, can complete a
number of life cycles within one crop season of the host plant and the disease caused by such
pathogens is called multiple cycle disease e.g. wheat rust, rice blast, late blight of potato etc.
21. Alternate host: Plants not related to the main host of parasitic fungus, where it produces its
different stages to complete one cycle (heteroecious).
22. Collateral host: The wild host of same families of a pathogen is called as collateral host.
23. Inoculation: It is procees of landing the pathogenic spore in the host surface naturally or
transferring the pathogenic propagule in healthy part artificially.
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

24. Isolation: It is the process of taking out/ separating the pathogenic part from the diseased
sample for the diagnosis of the disease.
25. Epidemiology: The study of the interrelationships between a given pathogen, the
environment, the groups of population of the relevant hosts.
26. Etiology: the study of cause, that phase of plant pathology dealing with the causal agent and
its relations with the susceptible plant.
27. Primary inoculum: Inoculum that incites the primary infection of the disease. Eg. Sclerotia,
dormant mycelium
28. Secondary inoculum: Inoculum that incites the secondary infection of the disease. Eg.
Airborne conidia, sporangia.
29. Predisposition: The effect of one or more environmental factors which makes a plant
vulnerable to attack by a pathogen.
30. Physiologic race: One or a group of microorganisms similar in morphology but dissimilar in
certain cultural, physiological or pathological characters.
31. Biotype: The smallest morphological unit within a species, the members of which are usually
genetically identical.
32. Symbiosis: A mutually beneficial association of two or more different kinds of organisms.
33. Mutualism: Symbiosis of two organisms that are mutually helpful or that mutually support
one another.
34. Antagonism: The counteraction between organisms or groups of organisms.
35. Mutation: An abrupt appearance of a new characteristic in an individual as a result of an
accidental change in genes present in chromosomes.
36. Disease: Any deviation in the general health, or physiology or function of plant or plant
parts, is recognized as a disease.
37. High sugar pathogens: As young leaves contain high sugar content, they are more favoured
and attacked by high sugar pathogens like Rust, Powdery mildew, Botrytis.
38. Low sugar pathogens: As older leaves contain low sugar, they are more attacked by the low
sugar pathogens like Colletotrichum, Septoria, Helminthosporium.
37. Crop Damage: It is defined as any reduction in the quality or quantity of yield or loss of
revenue resulting from crop injury.
39. Deficiency: Abnormality or disease caused by the lack or subnormal level of availability of
one or more essential nutrient elements.
40. Rhizomorph: Aggregation of hyphae into rope like strands that can cause infection.

.
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

Causes, classification and general symptoms of plant diseases

Disease is a response to specific causal agents (biotic or abotic), inherent defects of the
organism, or combinations of these factors". Diseases are recognized by the resulting symptoms
expressed by the host, and signs (actual manifestations) of the causal agent. Taken together,
symptoms expressed by the host and signs of the causal agent are called the disease syndrome.

Causes of Plant Diseases

Plant diseases are caused by pathogens. Hence a disease is the result of manifestation of reaction
between plant and disease causing factor. In strict sense, the causes of plant diseases are grouped
under following categories:
1. Animate or biotic causes: Pathogens of living nature are categorized into the following
groups.
(i) Fungi: Fungi are organisms that are classified in the Kingdom “Fungi”. They are
cosmopolitan in distribution. They lack chlorophyll and conductive tissue and cannot
manufacture their own food. They must obtain it from another source as either a saprophyte or
parasite. Most fungi encountered are saprophytic (feed on decaying organic matter). A fungus
“body” is a branched filamentous structure known as mycelium. Most fungi reproduce by
spores, reproductive structures that unlike seeds contain little stored food. Fungi damage plants
by killing cells and/or causing plant stress. Fungi are spread by wind, water, soil, animals,
equipment, and in plant material. They enter plants through natural openings such as stomata
and lenticels and through wounds from pruning, hail, and other mechanical damage. Fungi cause
a variety of symptoms including leaf spots, leaf curling, galls, rots, wilts, cankers, and stem and
root rots.

(ii) Bacteria: They are prokaryotic, single-celled microorganisms. Most of the bacteria are rod
shaped except Streptomyces and Corynebacterium. They contain no nucleus and reproduce by
dividing in two equal parts (fission). As a result, they multiply and mutate rapidly. Bacteria
function as either parasites or saprophytes. Bacteria can infect all plant parts. Unlike fungi,
bacterial must find a natural opening for entry. Bacterial cells can move from one plant to
another in water, soil, and plant material, just as fungi do. However, bacterial pathogens are
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

more dependent upon water. Conditions must be very wet and/or humid for them to cause
significant and widespread damage. Bacteria cause symptoms such as leaf blights and spots,
galls, cankers, wilts and stem rots.

(iii) Nematodes: They are thread like unsegmented worms with elongated and cylindrical
shapes. They may be free living or parasitic on plants animals. Plant parasitic nematodes are soil
inhabitans. Feed on either dead organic matter as (saphrophyte) or other nematode and other
samller animals as (predaceous) and on plants as (parasite). All most all the plant parasitic
nematodes are obligate parasite. Reproduction is sexual and parthenocarpic. Life cycle is
completed in 3-4 weeks. Eg Meloidogyne sp cause root knot of vegetables, wilting, stuting,
Pratylenchus sp necrotic lesion on roots.

(iv) Algae and protozoa: Algae are multicellular organism. Mostly possess chlorophyll or other
pigment and are autotrophs. Algae (Cephaleuros mycoides / virescens) causes red rust and attack
litchi , mango, guava, papaya, tea, citrus coffee etc causing leaf and fruit spots. They spread via
sporangia which are wind borne and produce zoospores. They enter into plant cell through
natural openings and grow as a chain of algal cells.

Protozoa (Plasmidiophora brassicae) which are fungus like produce motile spores (asexual)
called zoospores and cause club root of crucifers.

(v) Mycoplasma like organism (phytoplasma)

Small non motile, non spore forming, unicellular and filterable organism. Phytoplasmas are
classified as bacteria; however, they lack a cell wall and can take on a variety of shapes. They
are obligate parasites, meaning they can only survive within their host. Highly resistant to
penicillin but are sensitive to tetracycline.Transmitted mostly by leaf hopper. Phytoplasmas live
in the phloem of host plants and are vectored by certain phloem feeding-insects, such as
leafhoppers. This pathogen causes distortion, yellowing, wilting, and “witches’ brooms” (a
proliferation of growth). Immature leaf veins may appear clear (called “vein-clearing), little leaf
of brinjal.

(vi) Rickettsia like organism (RLOs):

They are smaller than MLO’s, gram negative. They contain well defined cell wall and found
both in xylem and phloem of the host plant. Transmitted by leaf hopper. Shape vary to spherical,
rod- shaped, and polymorphic and apper coryne form. Eg Pierces disease, ratton stunting, citrus
greening, phony disease of peach etc.

(vii) Parasitic higher plant:

More than 2500 species of higher plants are known to live parasitically on other plants. Parasitic
plants produce flowers and reproduce by seeds like other plants. The main difference is they
cannot produce their own chlorophyll or produce only a small amount of chlorophyll. Parasitic
plants are spread in various ways including animals, wind, and forcible ejection of their seeds.
Plants damaged by parasitic plants appear wilted, stunted, distorted and chlorotic. Some plants,
particularly conifers, develop witches’ broom symptoms.
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

(viii) Insects:
Insects are known to damage the crop in different ways. They act as an agent of dissemination
and inoculation of fungi, bacteria and virus. Wound made by insects will soon open way to
invade by microorganism. Aphids, leaf hopper, scale insects, thrips are common insects
responsible for spread of various viral diseases.

2. Mesobiotic cause: These disease incitants are neither living nor non-living.

(i) Virus: Viruses are strictly intracellur, ultra- microscopic, obligate parasite. They possess only
one type of nucleic acid either DNA or RNA both never both. Most of the virus contain RNA,
except cauliflower mosaic virus, dahlia mosaic virus, potato leaf roll virus and bean golden
yellow virus which possess DNA. They depend on living cells for most of the enzymes for their
replication, cannot be cultured in artificial media. Virus can be transmitted themselves and
require mechanical, insects, seeds, propagation, grafting, fodder or their combination for entry in
the host. They cannot enter directly like fungi and nematode and require injury or wound made
by insect vector or means. Eg.mosaic, yellowing, etiolation, vein- clearing, vein- banding, leaf
distortion.

(ii) Viroids: Smallest particle than virus and composed of stable but free RNA. They do not
have outer protein coat and transmitted mechanically. They seem closely associated with the
nuclei, particularly chromosome of the cells. Depend entirely on the host cell for replication. Eg
potato spindle virus, coconut cadang- cadang, chlorotic mottle.

3. Inanimate / Abiotic factors: In true sense these factors cause damages (any reduction in the
quality or quantity of yield or loss of revenue) to the plants rather than causing disease. The
causes are:
1. Soil conditions:
a. Soil moisture: Moisture is indispensable for the germination of fungal spores and penetration
of thehost by the germ tube. It is also indispensable for the activation of bacterial, fungal, and
nematode pathogensbefore they can infect the plant. It also helps for the spread and long distance
dissemination of the pathogen propagules. Moisture increases the succulence of host plants and
thus their susceptibility to certain pathogens, which affects the extent and severity of disease.
Late blight of potato, apple scab, downy mildew of grapes, and fire blight are found or are severe
only in areas with high rainfall or high relative humidity during the growing season.exessive soil
moisture in the nursery bed can cause damping off in the seedling.

b. Soil structure: Compact soil structure will not allow for the propoer growth and development
of plant. Plant grown in such soil condition encounter with drought condition and also with
prolong water logged condition which induce plant to become weak and different wilting,
yellowing symptoms are noticed.

c. Lack of oxygen: Good soil aeration favours normal development and poor aeration is
unfavourable. Limited supply of oxygen combined with poor ventilation leads to different post
harvect of disease in storage eg. Black heart of potato.

d. Nutrient - element deficiences: Nutrition affects the rate of growth and the state of readiness of
plants to defend them against pathogenic attack.
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

Nitrogen abundance results in the production of young, succulent growth, a prolonged

vegetative period and delayed maturity of the plant. These effects make the plant more
susceptible to pathogens eg attack of pear by fire blight (Erwinia amylovora) and wheat by rust
(Puccinia gramis)

Phosphorus: Phosphorus seems to increase resistance either by improving the balance of

nutrients in the plant or by accelerating the maturity of the crop and allowing it to escape
infection by pathogens that prefer younger tissues.

Potassium has also been shown to reduce the severity of numerous diseases, including stem rust
of wheat, early blight of tomato, and gray leaf spot and stalk rot of corn, although high amounts
of potassium seem to increase the severity of rice blast.

Boron: Defiency results dry rot of sugar beet, internal cork of apples, internal browing of
couliflower.

Zinc: Deficiency results mottling, little leaf, rosette of citrus, yellow streak of corn. Khaira
disease in rice is caused by Zn Deficiency.

Molybdenum: Deficiency results whiptail of cauliflower.

e. Soil ph: The pH of the soil is important in the occurrence and severity of plant diseases caused
by certain soilborne pathogens. For example, the clubroot of crucifers caused by
Plasmodiophora brassicae is most prevalent and severe at about pH 5.7, and is completly at pH
7.8.

2. Meteorological condition:
a. Temperature: Excessive heat kills plant tissues, especially of succulent part. Low temperature
may cause frost of pigeon pea whereas extreme temperature may cause sun scald of
tomato.Temperature affects the number of spores formed in a unit area and the number of spores
released in a given time period.

b. Light: Light has no direct effect on the disease development but the intensity and duration of
light may increase or decrease the intensity of disease. In nature, however, the effect of light is
limited to the production of more or less etiolated plants as a result of reduced light intensity.
Lightt decreases their susceptibility to obligate parasites, eg wheat rust (Puccinia.)

c. Wind: Most plant diseases that spread rapidly and are likely to assume large epidemic
proportions are caused by pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, and viruses that are spread either
directly by the wind or indirectly by insect vectors that can themselves are carried over long
distances by the wind. Wind-blown rain helps release spores and bacteria from infected tissue
and then carries them through the air and deposits them on wet surfaces of plants, which, if
susceptible, can be infected immediately.
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

d. Atmospheric humidity: It has direct effect on the rate of transpiration by plants. Combination
of heat, wind, and low relative humidity can cause extensive injury or death of plants. Certain
varieties of sorghum often yield well when corn is ruined by hot, dry weather which is exception.

3. Agricultural practices: Close and deep planting of row crops and vine and tree crops may
result root cut off or injured, resulting in subnormal development or death of the plant. Common
types of injuries are caused by fungicides, insecticides and herbicides because of improper
concerntration level when applied to cure the plant disease, insects and weeds. Similarly
inadequate and untimely watering can cause injury to the plants. The deep cultivation may cause
injury to the roots of plants.

4. Industrial contaminants: the gasses released by factories, smelting, refineries plants,

automobiles, men related avtivities and dust and natural product such as ozone also cause plant
disease. Smog causes extensive injury to sensitive kinds of plants near certain large cities. The
air in industrial areas or near brick kilns is likely to contain atmospheric impurities such as
sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, coal gas and chlorine. So2 that are released by brick kilns
cause black tip of mango when mango orchard are near to 1.5 km. Ozone concerntration if
exceeds 0.035 ppm for 4 hrs may cause water socked spots on leaves.

Classification of plant disease:

To facilate the study of plant disease they need to be grouped into some orderly fashion. Plant
diseases can be grouped into various ways in following groups:
1. On the basis of causes of plant disease:
a. Non-infectious/ non-parasitic/ physiological diseases/ abotic :
The factors included in inanimate or abiotic causes can incite such diseases in plants under a set
of suitable environmental conditions. This is the disease without the involvement of
microorganisms. eg Black tip of mango caused by So2 , tip burn of paddy caused by deficiency of
oxygen in submerged condition.

b. Infectious/ parasite/ biotic :

This disease is caused by microorganisms like fungi, bacteria, virus and nematode under a set of
suitable environments. These are infectious, sometime contagious and are transmitted from
diseased to healty plants in the field through various agencies. Disease caused by biotic factors
can cause epidemic in short period of time due to its high reproduction rate.

2. On the basis of mode of spread and severity:

a. Endemic disease: Disease is more or less constantly present from year to year in a moderate to
severe form in a country or part of the earth. Eg.Wart disease of potato, Onion smut – Urocystis
cepulae

b. Epidemic or Epiphytotic disease: Epidemic greek word "among the people". When a disease
break viruntly covering a huge population and occurs widely and periodically depending upon
environment. The environment plays a vital role fr the outbreak of epidemic diseases. Eg Late
blight of potato.
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

c. Sporadic: Disease occurs at very irregular intervals and locations and in relatively few
instances. These disease are not very important and do not cause significant yield loss even in
favourable environmental conditions. Eg.Black rust of wheat, Angular leaf spot of cucumber –
Pseudomonas lachrymans.

d. Pandamic: When the disease are occuring in epidemic proportions over a very extensive
region and causing devastating damage in short period of time. Eg Late blight of potato.

3. On the basis of source of inoculum:

a. Seed- borne diseases. Eg- Rice blast, Brown spot
b. Soil- borne diseases. Eg- Damping off of seedling
c. Air- borne disease. Eg- wheat rust

4. On the basis of mode of action:

a. Local system: Effect of disease is confined to part of plant which is attacked by the pathogen.
Eg.leaf spot, blight
b. Systemic system: When the pathogen or the effects of pathogen moves in along with the
system of plant thus effecting the system of plant thus effecting the system of plant or
appearance of symptoms in a distance place of pathogen attack. Eg.Fungal and bacterial wilt.

5. On the basis of plants part infected:

a. Foliar diseases. Eg- Rice blast
b. Fruit diseases. Eg- Mango anthracnose
c. Root diseases. Eg- Root rot of jute

6. On the basis of plant specie

a. Rice disease
b. wheat disease
c. Maize disease
d. Soybean disease
e. Vegetables disease

General symptoms:
Symptoms are the plant's expression of being diseased. Symptom is the phenotypic and or
physiological manifestation of a successful invasion of a host by a pathogen. Symptoms are not
always true diagnosis for disease study. Examples of symptoms include: blights, cankers, galls,
rots, necrosis, and spots. Symptoms are expressed either locally or systemically, and
theyfrequently reflect the structural, functional, or physiological systems disturbed.

Signs are the physical evidence of the pathogen (primary or secondary, vegetative and/or
reproductive structures). Examination of these signs helps in identifying the pathogen and
diagnosing the disease. Some examples include: mildew, mycelium, ooze, pycnidia, and
rhizomorphs.

 Symptoms due to visible pathogens:

1. Mildew : A plant disease in which the pathogen is seen as a growth on the surface of the host;
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

Downy mildew- The superficial growth is cottony or downy growth like a day old chiken
feather. It is a chlorosis disease. E.g. downy mildew of grape- Plasmopara viticola
Powdery mildew- Enormous numbers of spores are formed on superficial growth of the fungus
giving the host surface a dusty or powdery appearance. It is a necrosis disease. E.g. powdery
mildew of pea- Erysiphe polygoni

2. Rust- They appear as relatively small pustulesof spores, usually breaking through the host
epidermis. The pustules may be yellow, brown, or black in color. Eg.Black rust of wheat-
Puccinia tritici repenties.

3.Smuts- A disease characterized by masses of dark, sooty or charcoal like powder and also
sometime oderous spores caused by smut fungi (Ustilaginales). Eg loose smut of wheat- Ustilago
tritici

4. White blisters- They are found mainly on crucifers as white blisters- like pustules, which
break open the epidermis ans expose powdery masses of spores. Eg. White blisters of mustard-
Albugo candida.

5. Sclerotia- A compact mass of hyphae with or without host tissue, usually with a darkned rind,
and capable of surviving under unfavourable environment conditions. Eg Sheath blight of rice.

6. Scab- A roughened, crust like diseased area on the surface of a plant organ. Eg- powdery scab
of potato- Spongospora subterranean.

7. Exudate: Appear as masses of bacterial ooze in the form of droplets on infected parts of the
plants. Eg. Bacterial wilt of crops.

 Symptoms due to some effect or change in the host plants:

Hypertrophy: A plant overgrowth due to increased cell enlargement.
Hyperplasia: A plant overgrowth due to increased cell division. Some of the examples are as.
1. Galls: These malformations are more or less globose, elongated, or irregular in shape. They
may be fleshy or woody. Smaller galls are called warts and larger galls are called knot. E.g. stem
gall of coriander- Protomyces macrospores.

2. Leaf curl: Leaves are twisted curled distorted due to over growth of tissues in localized areas
of the leaves. E.g. peach leaf curl- Taphrina deformans

3. Witches’ broom: Numerous slender branches arise from a limited region in rather close cluster
apperaring like a broom. E.g Witches’ broom- Mycoplasma

 Symptoms due to Atrophy or hypoplasia or dwarfing- Inhibition of growth resulting

in stunting or dwarfing of the plant. Eg Rice dwarfing
 Symptoms due to necrosis: It indicates the death of cells, tissues and organs resulting
from infection by pathogen. Necrotic symptoms include spots, blights, burn, canker,
streaks, stripes, damping-off, rot etc.
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

1. Spots: Circular or irregular lesions on above ground tissue consisting of dead and collapsed
cells. E.g leaf spot of chilly: Cercospora capsici.

2. Anthracnose: Necrotic and sunken tumor like scattered lesions on the leaves, flowers, fruits
and stems. E.g. anthracnose of bean: Colletotrichum lindemuthianum.

3. Canker: A localized necrotic, often sunken, lesion on a stem, branch, or twig of a plant.e.g.
Citrus canker- Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri.

4. Blight: Rapid burning of leaves, branches, twigs or floral organs resulting into their death. E.g.
leaf blight of potato- Phytophthora infestans

5.Damping off: The stems of the seedling near the soil surface become constricted, weak, and
unable to bear the load of the upper part and they topple down. E.g damping off of seedlings-
Phythium spp

6.Rots: The softening, discoloration, and disintegration of succulent plant tissue as the result of
fungal or bacterial infection. E.g root rot- Rhizoctonia solani.

7. Shot-hole: A perforated appearance of a leaf as the dead areas of local lesions drop out
leaving a shot-hole.

 Symptoms caused by plant virus:

1. Stunting: The multiplication of cells may be reduced or checked by the viral activity on host
system.
2. Local lesions: formation of small, usually necrotic lesions at the point of entry of viruses.
3. Mosaic- alternate patches of green and yellow color of leaves. 4.
Ring spot- Distinct chlorotic or necrotic rings on the leaves or fruits.
5. Rosette- Short branching habit of plant growth.
6. Enation: Tissue malformation or overgrowth.
7. Stem pitting: Below the bark pits on the stem develop on citrus due to tristeza virus.
8. Phyllody: Metamorphosis of sepals, petals, stamens or carpels into leaf- like structures.

Importance of fungi:
Beneficial effects
1. Fungi are important for decomposition of plant debris with the help of cellulose.
2. They are used as biological control agents. Eg Trichoderma sp
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

3. They have important role in Organic acid production-Aspergillus flavous- Fumaric acid,
Growth hormone production- Gibberlla fujukori, GA3-gibberllin, IBA, IAA
4. Many varieties of mushroom are used for nutritional and delicious food value.
5. They are used for the study of genetic research.
6. Fungi are used for many industrial processes involving fermentation.eg bread, wines,
beers, cheeses
7. They are used as medicine eg. Penicillin from Penicillum digitatum and P. crysogenus.
Streptomycine from Streptomyces glisus.
8. Fungi such as Mucor, Chaetonium, Fusarium, Aspergillus improve the soil structure
bythe formation of soil aggregates.
9. Entomogenous fungi help in controlling insect pests. Eg Breveria bassisiana,
Metarrhizum anisopleae

Harmful effects:

Major group of fungi cause plant pathogenic diseases which cause serious loss to plant.
1. Many saprophyte fungi are response ble for destruction of food, fabrics, lether, and other
goods manufactured for raw material .
2. Many fungal group of mushroom are poisonous and cause serious health hazard. eg
Coprinus comatus

3. Oranges are destroyed by Penicillium digitatum

4. Members of mucorales, yeasts, and moniliales are responsible for food spoilage.

Asexual and sexual reproduction and types of fruting bodies

Reproduction in fungi: Fungi reproduce by two processes viz., (A) Asexual and (B) Sexual
reproduction.

Vegetative reproduction or asexual reproduction

1. Fragmentation – The septate hyphae breakup into their component cells, each fragment
growing into new individuals. They are called oidia or arthrospores. If the cells are
enveloped in a thick wall before they separate, then they are known as chlamydospores.

2. Fission – Simply splitting of a cell into two daughter cells by constriction and formation of a
cell wall. Eg. Yeast

3. Budding – A bud is formed as a small outgrowth from the mother cells, which grows and
are separated, eventually forming a new individual. It is called as blastospore. Eg. Yeast

4. Gemmae:- Resembles chlamydospore but are not thickened wall. They are single or in chain
and are generally born in terminally. Chain separate after maturity and Gemmae break free
from mycelium and disperse in water. They are produced by Saprolegnials and in some
Mucor species.
5. Sclerotia-These are resistant structures which are rounded mass of hyphae with or without
addition of host tissue or soil. Remain dormant for long period of time and germinate when
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

the environmental condition become favorable. Eg; Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, Sclerotium etc.

6. Chlamydospore - Asecxual spore or thick wall conidium that function is resting spore. In
unfavourable condition; old culture form chlamydospore. Eg; Protomyces macrosporus,
Fusarium sps.
7. Production of spores:
a. Exogenous: The spores (reproductive units) borne at the tip or outside the vegetative structure
called conidia (sing. conidium i.e. dust). The spores may be hyaline to green, yellow,
orange, red, brown and black.. Some other types of conidia bearing structures are phialids
(small bottle type), synnema, coremia, acervulus (heap), sporodochia, pycnidia and sori
(sing. sorus) or pustule.
b. Endogenous: The spores’ sporangia are borne at the tip of sporangiospores. Sporangiospores
are of two types’ viz. (i) plasmospores or zoospores or swarm spores which are motile
dueto having flagella and (ii) aplanospores which are non-motile due to lacking flagella.

Types of asexual spore:

. i. Sporangiospore:

 These asexual spore are produced in a sac like structure called sporangia (singular; sporangium).
 Sporangium are produced at the end of special aerial hyphae called sporangiophore
 Sporangium contains large numbers of haploid spores, which are released by rapture of sporangial wall
 Examples: Rhizopus

ii. Conidiospore:
 Conidiospore or conidia are single celled, bicelled or multicelled structure born on the tip or side of
aerial hyphal structure called conidiophore
 Conidia are different from sporangiospore as these are not produced inside sporangium or any sac like
structure.
 Conidia are born singly or in chain
 Examples: Penicillium, Apergillus

iii. Arthrospore:
 Arthrospore are very primitive type of spore formed by the breaking up of fungal mycelium
 A spore is formed by separation followed by fragmentation of hyphae
 Examples: Trichosporium, Geotrichum, Coccididious imitis

iv. Chlamydospore:
 These are usually formed during unfavorable condition and are thick walled single celled spore, which
are highly resistant to adverse condition.
 Hyphal cell or portion of hyphae contracts, loose water, round up and develops into thick walled
chalmydospore.
 When favorable condition returns, each chlamydospore gives rise to a new individual fungus.
 Examples: ascomycetes, basidiomycetes, zygomycetes,
 Histoplasma capsulatum, Candida albicans

v. Blastospore:
 It is a budding spores usually formed at the terminal end of hyphae.
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

 These spore may remains attached to hyphae and bud further to gibe branching chain of blastospores
 Examples: ascomycetes, basidiomycetes, zygomycetes
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

Sexual spores of fungi

 As a result of sexual reproduction sexual sores are produced.
 Sexual spores are fewer in number than asexual spores.

Types of sexual spores

i. Ascospore:
 It is usually single celled produced in a sac called ascus (plural;asci) and usually there are 4-8 ascospore
in an ascus but the number may vary from species to species
 The ascospores are usually arranged in a linear order. In some case ascospores are long, narrow and
arearranged in parallel order.

ii. Basidiospore:
 It is a reproductive spore produced by basidiomycetes.
 This single celled spores are born in a club shaped structure called basidium
 These basidiospore aerves as main air dispersal unit for the fungi.

iii. Zygospore:
 Zygospores are thick walled spores formed when two sexually compatible hyphae or gametangia of
certain fungi fuse together.
 In suitable condition, zygospore germinates to produce a single vertical hyphae which forms a
aporangium and releases its spores

iv. Oospore:
 These are formed within a special female structure called Oogonium.
 Fertilization of egg by male gamete in female sex organ gives rise to oospores.
 There are one or more oospores in each oogonium.

Types of fruiting bodies:

Fungus produce different types of complex fungal structure containing spores throught out their
life cycle for the development of disease, these complex structures are called fruiting bodies.
Fruting structures are of two types:
Axexual fruiting structure:
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

1. Pycnidium: It is spherical to oval- shaped more or less closed or with an opening, hollow
fruiting body lined with conidiophores bearing conidia at their tip. Eg.Phoma sp.

2. Acervulus: Boat or saucer shaped structure on or in the surface of the

host in which conidiophores develops from the underlying bed like mass
of the somatic hypae bearing conidia. Eg. Colletotrichum sp

3. Synnema: A group of conidiophores cemented together and forming an

elongated structure bearing conidia at their tips or along the length of the conidiophores.
Eg.Graphium sp, Arthrobotryum sps

4. Sporodochium: A cushion shaped stroma covered with conidiophores

bearing conidia at their tips. Eg Epicoccum sp.

Sexual fruiting bodies: (Ascocarp)

1. Cleistothecia:- It is a completely closed ascocarp, in which ascus bears
8 ascospores, brusts at favorable temperature or climatic condition. Eg;-
Erysiphe sps

2. Perithecia:- It is more or less closed ascocarp with an opening called

ostiole at maturity in which asci and ascospores are produced . Eg
Venturia inaequalis

3. Apothecia:-It is an open ascocarp lined with asci producing

ascospores. Eg. Agaricus bisporus

4.Ascostroma/ Peudothecia : A type of fungal fruit body in which asci develop in or

Compiled by Prakash Pantha
within a stroma Eg.Eupenicillium sp., Talaromyces sp
Difference between:
A. Pythium and Phytophthora
Pythium
1. Sporangia are produced or somatic 1.
hyphae indistinguishable from the
other hyphae.
2 2.
Globose to oval sporangia either
terminal or intercalary.
3. The differentiation of zoospores takes
place in vesicle. They are liberated by 3.
sudden brusting of vesicle wall.
The germ tube enters the host tissue
4.
through the stomata or by puncturing
5. of epidermal wall
Haustoria absent.
B. Puccinia and Uromyces
Puccinia
• Teliospore bicelled
• Only one germ pores on teliospore
• Amphisporus are also formed in some
species
• The genus includes more than 3000
species
• Species cause disease especially on
cereal crops
Phytophthora
Sporangia are produced on special aerial
reproductive hyphae called
sporangiophores.
The papillate lemon shaped sporangia are
always terminal in origin but are
subsequently shifted to the side.
Zoospore are differentiated in the
sporangium and liberated by brusting of the
special papillate. No vesicles are formed.
4
The germ tube enters the host through the
5. epidermal cells by infection peg that grows
from appressorium.
Haustoria present.
Uromyces
• Teliospore single celled
• One germ pores on teliospore
• No amphispores are formed in any
species
• The genus includes about 600 species
• Species cause disease especially on
leguminious crops
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

Economic importance of bacteria:

Useful activities:
1. Decay and decomposition of organic matter
2. Nitrogen fixation. Eg. Rhizobium
3. Dairy industry for the production of cheese
4. Silage making and retting of flax- fibres
5. Leather industry
6. Antibiotics. eg Streptomycin
7. Vitamins- Closteridium butylicum used for he synthesis of B- complex vitamin
Harmful activities:
1. Food poisoning: A fatal form of food poisonng called botulism is due to effect of
Clostridium botulinium
2. Diseases: cause wilt of plants, crown gall, blight
3. Denitrification

Multiplication and transmission of plant viruses

Viruses are distributed or transmitted from the infected plants to the healthy ones in various ways
in nature. As the plant viruses can not penetrate cuticle of their hosts and hence they can enter
into the host tissue through wounds only. The means of transmission are:
1. Mechanical transmission: It is the easiest method of experimental
inoculation.The sap of the infected plant is manually transferred to the healthy
plants by
• By contact of infected leaves with healthy leaves brought about by wind
• By rubbing the juice of the diseased plant over the surface of leaves of healthy plants
• Roots of diseased plant may come in contact of roots of healthy plants and spread
disease
2. Graft transmission: In this practice, if either the scion (shoot portion) or stock (root stock) is
infected, the virus usually moves to the healthy partner which may later express visible
symptoms of disease.
3. Transmission through vectors
(i) Insects: Some insect species are the vector of plant viruses which can carry/ transmit viruses
from infected plants to the healthy plants e.g. aphid (potato virus Y, PLVR), white
flies (tobacco leaf curl), beetles (cowpea mosaic virus), mealy bugs (cacao mottle
leaf), thrips (tomato spotted wilt), lace bugs (sugar beet viruses), mites (sterility
mosaic of arhar), leaf hoppers (beet curly top, rice tungro etc.), plant-hoppers (maize
mosaic, maize rough dwarf), tree hopper (tomato pseudo curly top).
(ii) Nematodes: Five genera of nematodues viz., Xiphinema, Longidorus, Paralongidorus,
Trichodorus and Paratrichodorus can transmit plant viruses.

(iii) Fungi: Some species of fungi can also transmit viruses e.g. Olpiduim brassicae (tobacco
necrosis), O. cucurbitacearum (cucumber necrosis), Polymyxa graminis (oat mosaic,
wheat mosaic), P. betae (beet necrotic yellow vein) and Spongospora subterranea
(potato mop top) etc.
4. Dodder transmission: Many viruses can be transmitted through dodder (Cuscuta spp.).
Dodder transmission is used in the laboratory to transfer viruses from the hosts.
5. Transmission through seeds and pollens: Seed coat (testa), embryo, and also pollens of
some plants can transmit viruses. E.g. alfalfa mosaic, barley stripe mosaic, bean common
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

mosaic, lettuce mosaic are transmitted by both seeds and pollens of Medicago sativa,
Hordeum vulgare, Phaseolus vulgaris and Lactuca sativa, respectively.

Nematodes: Anguina, Heterodera, Meloidogyne, Hirschmanniella:

1. Seed gall nematode: Anguina

2. Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne)
3. Cyst nematode :( Heterodera)
Potato cyst nematode- H. rostochiensis

Cereal cyst nematode- H. avenae- cause molya disease of barley and wheat
Soybean cyst nematode- H. glycines
Sugar beet cyst nematode- H.
schachtiiTobacco cyst nematode- H.
tabaccum Clover cyst nematode- H.
trifoli

4. Root rot nematode: Hirschmanniella

Compiled by Prakash Pantha

Pathogenecity and pathogenesis

An organism which lives in or on other living organisms and derives its nutrients from the latter
is called parasite. The relationship between a parasite and its hosts is known as parasitism.
Parasitism in cultivated crops is common phenomenon. The ability of a pathogen or parasite to
interfere with one or more of the essential functions of the plants, there by causing disease is
known as pathogenicity.

Koch’s Postulates
Koch’s postulates is followed to prove the pathogenicity, in includes;
1. Recognition: The pathogens must be found associated with the disease in the diseased
plant. The symptom of the disease should be recorded.

2. Isolation: The pathogen should be isolated, grown in pure culture in artificial media. The
cultural characteristics of the pathogen should be noted.
3. Inoculation: The pathogen of pure culture must be inoculated on healthy plant of same
species/variety. It must be able to reproduce disease symptoms on the inoculated plant
identical to step 1.
4. Re-isolation: The pathogen must be isolated form the inoculated plant in culture media. Its
cultural characteristics should be similar to those noted in step 2.

Pathogenesis:
Pathogenesis is the sequence of processes in disese development that describes a pathogen’s
association with its host. The sequence begins with initial contact between the pathogen and host
and ends when the pathogen is no longer associated with that host (i.e.when the host/pathogen
dies or the pathogen moves to another host). There fore pathogenesis includes inoculation,
penetration, infection, incubation period, invasion/colanaization, reproduction, dissemination,
and over wintering or over summering of the pathogen.
a. Inoculation:
This is the process by which pathogen or their reproductive units are brought into contact with
plant organ (root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit etc).
Inoculum is a pathogen or its parts which can cause infection when transferred to favourable
location; the population of microorganisms introduced in an inoculation. In fungi the inoculum
may be spores, sclerotia, or fragments of mycelium. In bacteria, mollicutes, protozoa, viruses,
and viroids, the inoculum is always whole individuals of bacteria, mollicutes, protozoa, viruses
and viroids respectively. In nematodes, the inoculum may be adult nematodes, nematode juvenile
or eggs. In parasitic higher plants, the inoculum may be plant fragments or seeds.
b. Penetration:
Penetration in the host may be direct and indirect methods. In Fungi, and nematodes the
penetration is direct and indirect. In nemtodes direct penetration is due to stylet. Initial invasion
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

of a host by a pathogen is known as penetration. Penetration of the cuticle alone Eg.Apple scab-
Venturia inaequalis. Penetration of epidermal cells only eg. Powdery mildew.Penetration may be
direct i.e mechanical pressure of the pathogen by producing appressoria or by secreting enzymes
to soften or dissolve the host surface and then apply the pressure. Indirect penetration may be
through the natural openings such as stomata, lenticles and hydathodes.
c. Infection:
Infection is the process by which pathogen establishes contact with susceptible cells or tissues of
the hosts and procure nutrients from them. For infection to take place the pathogen must be
virulent, host must be susceptible and the environment must be favourable to pathogen.
d. Incubation period
The time interval between inoculation and the appearance of disease symptom is called the
incubation period. This is the period or time interval between inoculation of the plant and the
first appearance of the disease symptoms on the plant. Length of incubation period varies with
the type of pathogen and the environment conditions for few days (2-4) days or few weeks or
months or even years.
e. Invasion/colonization
After the establishment of pathogen on host cell now it tries to spread extensively within the host
tissue for their life activities to fulfill nutrient demand and to undergo reproduction etc. Invasion
follows the establishment of infection.
f. Reproduction:
After colonization or final establishment of pathogen in the host, pathogen now tries to produce
reproductive structures for their multiplication and to cover almost all crops. Eg. Several
thousand to several hundred thousands of spores of fungi may be produced per square cm of
infected tissues. Bacteria divide double their numbers within 20-30 minutes. Millions of bacteria
may be preset in a single drop of infected plant sap so the number of bacteria per plant must be
astronomical. Fastidious bacteria and mollicutes appear to reproduce more slowly than typical
bacteria. First new particles can be detected several hours after infection. A single cell may
contain as many as 100,000 to 10,000,000 particles.
g. Dissemination:
A few pathogens, such as nematodes, oomycetes, zoosporic fungi and bacteria, can move short
distances on their own power and thus can move from one host to another one close to it. These
pathogens are disseminated passively by wind, insect, human beings and other animals.
h. Overwintering and oversummering:
Pathogens that attack annual plants and renewable parts of perennial plants, have evolved
mechanisms by which they can survive the cold winters or dry summers that may intervene
between crops or growing seasons. Fungi produce resting structures such as mycelium itself.
Spores (conidia, chlamydospores,teliospores etc), sclerotia etc. Bacteria overwinter/ oversummar
as bacterial cells in infected plants, seeds and tubers, in infected plant debris and some in soil.
Viruses, viroids, mollicutes, fastidiuous bacteria and protozoa survive only in living plant tissues
such as the tops and roots of perennial plants, vegetative propagative organs and seeds of some
hosts.
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

Figure: Pathogenesis cycle

Compiled by Prakash Pantha

Survival and Dissemination of plant pathogens

Survival of the plant pathogens:

Whenever the pathogens get suitable host and environmental conditions they remain active by
continuously growing and multiplying, but whenever the pathogens does not get these conditions
they have to go for passive survival or they have to survive in wild host many times. To
overcome these stress conditions must of the pathogens have their own mechanisms by which
they manage to survive in absence of host and in unfavorable environmental conditions. Active
survival produce secondary inocula, cause infection and in unfavourable host nutrition and
environment prepare for passive survival whereas, passive from produces primary inocula.

Sources of survival of the pathogens:

1) Infected host as reservoir of inoculum:
The infected host serving as reservoir of active inoculum is grouped into
a) Collateral hosts (wild hosts of same families): Weeds which survive and live during non-
cropping season provide for the continuous growth and multiplication of the pathogen. Thus the
weed hosts help to bridge the gap between two crop seasons.
Ex: The fungal pathogen for blast disease of rice, Pyricularia grisea (Teleomorph:Magnaporthe
grisea) can infect the grass weeds like Brachiaria mutica, Dinebraretroflexa, Leersia hexandra,
Panicum repens etc., and survive during off-season ofrice crop. As soon as a fresh rice crop is
raised, the conidia (inoculum) liberated fromthe weed host disseminated by wind infects the
fresh rice crop.

b) Alternate hosts (Wild hosts of other families): The role of alternate hosts is not asimportant
as of collateral hosts. These alternate hosts are very important for thecompletion of the life cycle
of heteroecious rust pathogens.For example in temperate regions the alternate host of Puccinia
graminis tritici (blackor stem rust pathogen of wheat), the barberry bush (Berberis vulgaris)
belonging to a different family is important for survival of the fungus.

c) Perennial host: once the perennial plant is infected the plant remains as a good reservoir
throughtout its life unless effective treatment procedures are followed. Eg. Citrus canker
(Xanthomonas axonopodis pv citri), Red rot of sugarcane (Colletotrichum falcatum) etc.

d) Annual host: because of the varied climatic conditions in a country, permit cultivation of the
crop throughout the year in different regions and spores are easily wind- borne to long distances.
Eg. Brown spot of rice (Bipolaris oryzae), Rice blast (Pyricularia oryzae).

d) Self sown crops: Self sown crops, voluntary crops and early sown crops arereservoirs of any
plant pathogens. Ex: Self sown rice plants harbour the pathogen (Rice tungro virus) as well as
vector (Nephottetix virescens).

e) Ratoon crops: Sometimes ratoon crops also harbour the plant pathogens.Ex: Sugarcane
mosaic.

f) Survival by latent infection: Latent infection refers to the conditions in which

theplantpathogens may survive for a long time in plant tissue without development ofvisual
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

symptoms. Ex: Xylella fastidiosa, the causal agent of pierce’s disease ofgrapevine infect different
weeds without developing visible symptoms.

2) Saprophytic survival outside the host:

In the absence of the cultivated host plant, fungi are capable of surviving as saprophytes and can
be studied under three categories:
a) Soil inhabitants: Those organisms which survive indefinitely in the soil assaprophytes such
as obligate saprophyte and facultative saprophyte in the absence of the host plant. Ex: Species of
Pythium, Rhizoctoniaproduce oospore and sclerotia as a resting structure which can remain in
soil for longer period in an in active form.

b) Soil invaders/Root inhabitants: These are more specialized parasites that survive in soils in
close association with their hosts. The active saprophytic phase remains as long asthe host tissue
in which they are living as parasites is not completely decomposed.Ex: Species of Fusarium,
Verticillium (vascular wilt causing fungi) and root rot ofcotton (Phymatotrichum omnivorum).

c) Rhizosphere colonizers: Those organisms which colonize the dead substrates inthe root
region and continue to live like that for a longer period which are moretolerant to soil
antagonism. Ex: Leaf mold in tomato: Cladosporium fulvum.

3) Survival as dormant spores or specialized resting structures:

• Plant viruses have no resting stage and are transmitted through a continuous infection
chain.
• Phytopathogenic bacteria: The plant bacteria also do not produce resting spores or
similar structures. They continuously live in their active parasitic stage in the living host
or as active saprophytes on dead plant debris.
• Nematodes: They survive in the form of active parasitic phase on a living host and also
survive through dormant structures, i.e., eggs, cysts, galls, formed in host tissues. These
structures may be present in soil or in seed lots
• Phanerogamic parasites: They survive in dormant state for many years through seeds.
Ex; Seeds of Orobanchae survive in soil for more than 7 years.
• Among plant pathogens, fungi are the only organisms that produce spores, analogous to
eggs of nematodes, and other resting structures for their inactive survival. These dormant
structures of survival can be classified in the following categories.
A) Soil borne fungi:
 Dormant spores Conidia (Peach leaf curl pathogen:Taphrina deformans),
Chlamydospores (Wilt pathogen, Fusarium sp.), oospores (Downy mildew fungi),
perithecia (Apple scab pathogen, Venturia inaequalis) etc)

Fig: Oospore Fig. Chlamydospore Fig. Perithecia

Compiled by Prakash Pantha

 Other dormant structures such as thickened hypha, sclerotia (Cottony rot fungus,
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum), microsclerotia (Verticillium), Rhizomorphs (Armillaria
mellea), etc.

Fig. Thickened hyphae Fig. Sclerotia Fig. Rhizomorphs Fig. Microsclerotia

B) Seed borne fungi:

a) Externally seed borne: Dormant spores on seed coat Ex: Covered smut of barley,
grain smut of jowar, bunt of wheat, etc.
b) Internally seed borne: Dormant mycelium under the seed coat or in the embryo
Ex: Loose smut of wheat (Ustilago nuda tritici)

C) Dormant fungal structures on dormant or active host Ex: In downy mildew of grapevine,
powdery mildew of grapevine, apple etc., The fungus mycelium may be present in dormant state
in the affected twigs or its oospores or perithecia may be embedded in the tissues of the affected
organs. Parasitic phanerogams survive in the form of seeds, and in plant parasitic nematodes
eggs, cysts and larvae serve as over seasoning structures.

4) Survival in association with nematodes and fungi

. Plant viruses like wheat mosaic, tobacco necrosis, tobacco rattle and tobacco ringspot viruses
survive with nematodes or fungi found in the soil between crop seasons. Tobacco ringspot is
associated with the nematode Xiphinema americana. The fungi, Polymyxa graminis (Wheat soil
borne mosaic & Barley yellow mosaic) and Spongospora subterranea (Potato mop top virus)
carry the viruses internally and transmit them through the resting spore.

5) Survival in association with insects

Several important plant pathogens may survive within the insect body and over winter therein.
The corn flea beetle, Cheatocnema pulicaria carries inside its body, the corn wilt pathogen,
Xanthomonas stewartii and thus helps in over wintering

5) Survival on agricultural materials

Compiled by Prakash Pantha

Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis has been shown to survive in air-dried

conditions for 7 to 8 months on the surface of wooden stakes and boxes or wires or for 15
months in air-dried tissues of diseased· tomato plants.

6) Survival on surface water

Erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora is detected from water from drains, ditches,
streams, rivers and lakes in mountainous upland and arable areas of Scotland and Colorado
throughout the year.

Dissemination or dispersal of the plant pathogens:

Transport of spores or infectious bodies, acting as inoculum, from one host to another host at
various distances resulting in the spread of the disease, is called dispersal, dissemination or
transmissionof plant pathogens.

In fungi, productions of asexual and sexual spores follow the active vegetative growth of the
fungus in or on the host tissues and are dispersed mechanically in time and space by various
means.
In bacterial diseases, the bacterial cells come out on the host surface as ooze or the tissues may
be disintegrated so that the bacterial mass is exposed and then dispersed by various physical and
biological agencies.
In Viral diseases which have no such organs are transmitted by insects, mites, phanerogamic
parasites, nematodes and human beings.

Inocula to be effective, have to reach the infection court. The movement of pathogen from
diseased to healthy plants in spaceoccurs through two ways:
1. Autonomous or direct or active dispersal.
2. Indirect or passive dispersal.

I) Autonomous or direct or active dispersal:

Transportation of fungal, bacterial, viral and nematodes pathogens takes place through seed, soil,
planting material or plant organ during normal agronomic operations. There is no major role of
external agencies like insects, wind, water, etc. in this type of dispersal.

1) Seed as the source of autonomous dispersal:

The pathogens may be mixed with seed lot or sed may be contaminated by the pathogen during
harvesting, threshing and cleaning. The dormant structures of the pathogen (Ex: seeds of
Cuscuta, Sclerotia of ergot fungus, smut sori, etc.) are found mixed with seed lots and they are
dispersed as seed contaminants. The bacterial cells or spores of fungi present on the seed coat
(such as in smuts of barley, sorghum, etc.) are transported to long distances. Dormant mycelium
of many fungi present in the seed is transmitted to long distances. There are three types of
dispersal by seed, viz.,

Contamination of the seed: Seed -borne pathogens move in seed lot as separate contaminants
without being in intimate contact with the viable crop seeds. (Ex: Smut of pearl millet and ergot
of rye. Smut sori and ergots mix easily with the seed lots during harvest and threshing)
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

Externally seed borne:

Close contact between structure of the pathogen and seed is established where the pathogen gets
lodged in the form of dormant spores or bacteriaon the seed coat during growth of the crop or at
the time of harvest and threshing. Ex: smut of sorghum, bacterial blight of cotton, loose smut of
barley etc. The spores of Tilletia caries (stinking smut of wheat) remain viable even after 18
years and those of Ustilago avenae (oat smut) for 13 years.

Internally seed borne. The pathogen may penetrate into the ovary and cause infection of the
embryo while it is developing. They become internally seed-borne. Internally seed borne
pathogens like Ustilago nuda tritici are viable for more than 15 years.

2) Soil as a means of autonomous dispersal:

Soil borne facultative saprophytes orfacultative parasites may survive through soil.
A) Dispersal in soil: The following are the three stages of dispersal in soil
i) Contamination of soil: Contamination of the soil takes place by gradual spread of the pathogen
from an infested area to a new area or by introduction of contaminated soil, plant debris to a new
area or by introduction of infected seed or planting materials.

ii) Growth and spread of a pathogen in soil: Once the pathogen has reached the soil it cangrow
and spread based on its ability to multiply and spread. Multiplication and spread depends on the
characters of the pathogen, presence of susceptible host and cultural practices. The adaptability
of the pathogen to the soil environment includes saprophytic survival ability. The survival ability
of the pathogen is governed by high growth rate, rapid spore germination, better enzymatic
activity, capability to produce antibiotics and tolerance to antibiotics produced by other soil
microorganisms. The non-specialized facultative parasites can pass their entire life in the soil.
e:g., Pythium sp., Phytophthora sp.,

iii) Persistence of the pathogen in soil: The pathogens persist in the soil as dormant structures
like oospores (Pythium, Phytophthora, Sclerospora etc.), Chlamydospores (Fusarium), smut
spores (Ustilago) and sclerotia (Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium).

B) Dispersal by the soil: The pathogen is dispersed by the soil during cultural operationsthrough
the agricultural implements, irrigation water, workers feet etc. Propagules offungi and the plant
debris containing the fungal and bacterial pathogens thus spreadthrough out the field.
Forexample transfer of papaya seedlings from a nursery infested with Pythium aphanidermatum
(causal agent of stem or foot rot of papaya) can introduce the pathogenin new pits for
transplanting the seedlings.
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

3) The plant and the plant organs as a means of autonomous dispersal:

The plants, plant parts other than seed that are used for vegetative propagation, raw field
produce and plant debris that accumulates during the course of cropping is another means of
autonomous dispersal. Similarly grafts of fruit trees transported with soil around their roots can
transmit pathogens present in the nursery to the orchards. By this method, pathogens are not only
spread from field to the field but also from district to district, State to State and often from
country to country. Eg. Citrus canker was introduced into California from Asia. The climatic
conditions favoured its epidemic in California.

II) Passive or Indirect dispersal:

Passive dispersal of plant pathogens happens through animate and inanimate agents.
1) Animate agents:
a) Insects: Insects carry plant pathogens either externally (epizoic) or internally(endozoic). They
can disseminate bacteria, fungi, viruses, mycoplasmas, spiroplasmas,rickettsia, etc.

Fungal diseases: The external transmission is of special interest in those fungi which produce
conidia, oidia and spermatia in honey secretions having attractive odours. Dutch elm disease
(Ceratostomella ulmi) is transmitted internally by elm bark beetles.

Bacterial diseases: The fire blight organism (Erwinia amylovora) and citrus canker bacterium
(Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri) are transmitted by flies (bees) and ants and the later by leaf
miner respectively. The cucumber wilt bacterium, Erwinia tracheiphila is spread by the stripped
cucumber beetles and the spotted cucumber beetle.

Viral diseases: More than 80 per cent of the viral and phytoplasmal diseases are spreadby
different types of insects. The insect which acts as specific carriers in disseminatingthe diseases
are called insect vectors. Both Aphids and leaf hoppers in the order Homoptera contain largest
number and the mostimportant insect vectors of plant viruses. Aster yellow- leaf hopper

Mycoplasma diseases: Plant MLO’s are phloem inhabitants and those insects which are feeding
on phloem of plants transfer the MLO’s. Mycoplasmal diseases are mostly transmitted by leaf
hoppers. Ex: Sesamum phyllody (Orosious albicinctus) and little leaf of brinjal (Hishimonas
phycitis)

b) Mites: Mites belonging to class Arachnida transmit plant viruses. The genera
Abacarus,Aceria, Eriophyes and Brevipalpus are important. Ex: Aceria cajani transmits
Pigeonpea sterility mosaic virus, Aceria tulipae transmits wheat streak mosaic

c) Fungi: Some soil borne fungal plant pathogens carry plant viruses in or on their restingspores
and zoospores, and transmit them to susceptible hosts during the infection process. Tobacco
necrosis virus and Cucumber mosaic virus are carried outside the fungi, while lettuce big vein
virus is carried inside the zoospores.

d) Nematodes: Several nematodes act as vectors for transmission of fungi, bacteria andviruses.
Bacterial diseases: The bacterium which causes yellow ear rot of wheat (Corynebacterium
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

tritici or Clavibacter tritici) is disseminated by ear cockle nematode, Anguina tritici. If these
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

two diseases appear together, a complex disease called tundu of wheat occurs.
Corynebacterium tritici is not capable of dispersal and infection unless it is carried by Anguina
tritici.

Fungal diseases: Similarly, root rot and wilt pathogens such as Phytophthora,
Fusarium,Rhizoctonia, Verticillium, etc., are disseminated by nematodes.

Viral diseases: Plant nematodes play a vital role in transmitting certain virus diseases.Many soil
borne viruses are known to be transmitted by the nematodes. Xiphenema,Longidorous,
Trichodorus and Paratrichodorus are the nematode genera belonging to Dorylaimoidea which
are known to transmit plant viruses. The nematode transmittedviruses are divided into two
groups on the basis of shape of their particles: nematode transmitted polyhedral viruses (NEPO)
and nematode transmitted tubular (NETU) viruses.

NEPO viruses: These are nematode transmitted viruses with polyhedral particles.These are
generally transmitted by species of Xiphenema and Longidorus.

Ex: Tobaccoringspot virus, Tomato ringspot virus, Tomato black ring virus, Arabis mosaic virus

NETU viruses: These are nematode transmitted viruses with tubular particles. NETUviruses are
transmitted by Trichodorus and Paratrichodorous. Ex; Pea early browningvirus (Trichodorus sp.),
Tobacco rattle virus (Trichodorus pachydermis)

e) Human beings: Human beings role in dissemination of plant pathogens is more directthan
indirect. The ways and means in which human beings help in dispersal are asfollows.
1. Transportation of infected planting materials such as grafted plants, tubers, rhizomes,
sugarcane sets etc.
2. Transporting of infected seed- they are carried even longer distance than infected planting
materials.
3. The spores, mycelium or bacterial cells may be carried through workers’s shoe, clothing,
hand etc plant to plant.
4. The use of contaminated implements such as plough, hoe, spade, knife etc.
5. Grafting and budding between healthy and diseased plants is the most effective method
of distribution of pathogens of horticultural crops.
6. Cultural operation such as ploughing, weeding, irrigation, pruning etc. The pathogen are
carried from disease areas to healthy areas along with the implements.

f) Dispersal by phanerogamic parasites: Phanerogamic parasites transmit the virusesby acting

as a bridge between the diseased and healthy plants. Ex: Dodder(Cuscuta California,
C.campesris, C. subinclusa etc.)
Cuscuta subinclusa – Cucumber mosaic virus

Cuscuta california– Tobacco mosaic virus

g) Dispersal by birds: This mode of dispersal is important in dissemination of seedsof flowering

parasites and certain fungi. Seeds of Loranthus are disseminated by birds bysticking on their
beaks and also through excreta. Moreover, spores of chestnut blight fungus, Endothea parasitica
are disseminatedby more than 18 species of birds. Cleistothecia of many powdery mildew fungi
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

arecarried by feathers of birds.

Compiled by Prakash Pantha

h) Farm and wild animals: Farm animals (cattle) while feeding on diseased fodderingest the
viable fungal propagules (spores or oospores or sclerotia) and pass out as such in the dung. This
dung when used as manure spread in the field and act assource of inoculum

2) Inanimate agents:
a) Wind:
Wind acts as a potent carrier of propagules of fungi, bacteria and viruses.
Fungi: The adaptations for wind dispersal in fungal pathogens include production ofnumerous
spores and conidia, discharge of spores with sufficient force, production ofvery small and light
spores so that they can move to long distances. Ex: Powdery mildew,downy mildew, rusts, smuts
etc. Sporangia of downy mildew fungi, conidia of powdery mildew fungi and basidiospores of
rust fungi are short distance disseminated and uredospores of rust fungi,Chlamydospores of smut
fungi and conidia of Alternaria, Helminthosporium and Pyricularialong distance disseminated
by wind.

Nematodes: In addition to fungi, it also helps in the dissemination of the cysts ofnematodes
and also the seeds of phanerogamic parasites. Ex: Cysts of the nematode Heterodera major,
which causes molya disease of wheat and barley, are carried by duststorms from Rajasthan to
Haryana

Bacteria: Some pathogenic bacteria are carried along with the infected material to shortdistances
by wind. Ex: Erwinia amylovora, the causal agent of fire blight of apple andpear, produces fine
strands of dried bacterial exudates which may be broken off and are transmitted by wind.

Viruses and phytoplasmas are not directly transmitted by wind, but the insect and mite vectors
that carry the viruses move to different directions and distances based on the direction and speed
of the air.

b) Water:Water isless important than air in long distance transport of pathogens, but it is more
efficient asthe pathogens land on the wet surface and can germinate immediately and help in the
infection process. Ex: The mycelial fragments, spores or sclerotiaof fungi, Colletotrichum
falcatum (red rot of sugaecane), Fusarium, Ganoderma, Macrophomina, Pythium,
Phytophthora, Sclerotium, etc., are transmitted through rain or irrigation water.
It is one of the efficient methods of dispersal of bacterial plant pathogens. Ex: Bacterial leaf
spot of rice (Xanthomonascampestris pv. oryzae), Bacterial leaf streak of rice (Xanthomonas
campestris pv.oryzicola), Green ear of bajra (Sclerospora graminicola).
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

Epidemiological study
Epiphytology or Epidemiology of plant diseases is essentially a study of the rate of
multiplication of a pathogen and spread of the disease caused by it in a plant population.
Epidemiology deals with outbreaks and spread of diseases in a population.
Disease Triangle: The interactions of three components of disease, i.e., the host, pathogen and
environment, can be visualized as a disease triangle. The length of eachside is proportional to the
sum total of the characteristics of each component that favour disease.

Thus addition of time component to the disease triangle results into a tetrahedron
Or disease pyramid.

Essential components/conditions for an Epiphytotic/ Epedimic

1. Host factors 2. Pathogen factors 3. Environmental factors
1. Host factors
i) Distance of susceptible plants from the source of primary inoculum
ii) Abundance and distribution of susceptible hosts:
iii) Disease proneness in the host due to environment:
iv) Presence of suitable alternate or collateral hosts:
Presence of Barbery which is an alternate host to Puccinia graminis tritici helps in the
heterogenous infection chain.

2. Pathogen factors:
i) Presence of virulent/aggressive isolate of a pathogen:
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

ii) High birth rate:

iii) Low death rate of the pathogen:
iv) Easy and rapid dispersal of the pathogen
Ex: Fungal spores disseminated by wind, water, etc.Viruses disseminated by insect vectors
Bacteria dispersed through rain splashes and water
v) Adaptability of the pathogen:
.
3. Weather/ Environmental factors.
Weather conditions such as, optimum temperature, moisture, light, etc., are very essentialfor the
development of an epidemics. White stem blight becomes epidemic when environment is cool
i.e. temperature 10-12oC, high humidity above 90% and prolonged cloudy weather. High
application of nitrogen results blast attack whereas silicon application will reduce infection by
this pathogen.

An epidemic is more likely to occur when:

1. Monocropping i.e single variety is grown in an area for several years.
2. When plants are predisposed to infection such as high dose of nitrogen, imbalance use of
fertilizers.
Analysis of epidemics: Increase in the amount of disease at any time depends upon:
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

1. Initial amount of disease or inculum (Xo)

2. Rate of disease increase (r)
3. The duration or time of disease increase (t)
If we know the initial inoculums of pathogen, and the role of environment in disease increment,
we can guess the disease at any time by using simple formula

X= Xo ert, where X= Final disease reading

Xo= Initial inoculums

e= nature logarithm or logarithm infection rate
t= time factor
r= rate of multiplication

The epidemic can be classified as i) Simple interest disease and ii) Compound interest disease

Van- der plank has pointed out that an epidemic always starts with the first diseased plant in
population. When there is an ideal condition for disease development, the amount of disease in a
susceptible population increase logarithemically in the beginning until the remaining infected
plant population decreases, there by limiting disease increase. The disease epidemics can be
classified into the following 3 zones.

• Exponential zone: This is a stage when disease development is slow due to environmental
factor.
• Logistic phase: As the environment becomes favorable the disease rises very rapidly till
the host tissues are exhausted.
• Terminal phase: Starts when tissues are used up by pathogen they reach the peak and
slow downs.
Once the epidemic has reached the peak, the disease decreases rapidly, because of the following
i) Lack of un-infected tissues
ii) Due to unfavorable environmental conditions
Compiled by Prakash Pantha

Use of Epidemiology for disease management

1. Forecasting of the disease incidence on he basis of primary, inoculums
and heenvironmental conditions
2. Fixing strategies to reduce the final diseases

A) Control measures to reduce initial noculum (Xo)

a. Roughing
b. Hot water treatment
c. Soil fumigation
d. Destroying infected plant debris
e. Vertical resistant varieties
f. Control insect vector
g. Summer ploughing
h. Soil solarization

B) Control measures to reduce (r)

a. Use of horizontal resistant varieties
b. Modification or improvement of cultural practices
c. Avoid over crowding

C) Control measure to reduce (t)

a. Plant early or late in the season or early or late maturing varieties.