Re PORT RESUHES ED 010 483 oa ‘A SKETCH OF MALAGASY GRANHAR. BY- GARVEY, CATHERINE 3. CENTER FOR APPLIED LINGUISTICS, WASHINGTON, D.C. REPORT NUMOER NDEA-VI-269-2 PUB DATE — SEP 64 EDRS PRICE HF-$0.18 HC-$3.52 88. DESCRIPTORS- ¥CRAMMAR MORPHOLOGY, SYNTAX, COLUMBIA SHALAGASY, BIBLIOGRAPHY, #PHONOLOGY, NGUAGES, MERINA DIALECT, DISTRICT OF THE RESULTS OF A PROGRAM TO BUILD A MALAGASY GRAMMAR, BASED MAINLY ON: THE HERINA DIALECT, ARE PRESENTED. INCLUDED ARE SECTIONS ON PHONOLGOY, MORPHOLOGY, AND SYNTAX. (AN ACCOMPANYING MALAGASY INTRODUCTORY COURSE I$ ED 010 482.) (eo)® EDolo 1GZ V.8. ora oF nea, cuennon mo waive 94-2 Ya SKETCH OF MALAGASY GRAMMAR by Catherine J. Garvey This work was developed pursuant to a contract | between the United States Office of Education and the Center for Applied Linguistics of the Modern Language Association of America. WASHINGTON, D.C. SEPTEMBER 1964 ~ :AUTHOR'S NOTE Malagasy is the language of the Malagasy Republic (Madagascar) and shares, with French, the status of official language of that island, which is situated in the Indian Ocean off the southeast coast of Africa, The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed in 1958 and became officially independent of its former French rule on June 26, 1960. The dialect of the capital, Tananarive, and of the central plateau region is Merina. The regional dialects are said to be largely mutually intelligible with Merina. Malagasy is related to the Indonesian languages of the Southwest Pacific. However, closer specification of its historic.1 source has not been agreed upon. (See Dahl, Otto C, Malgache et manjaan. Oslo: Egede Institutet, 1951, for a listing of the studies on the position of Malagasy in the Malayo-Polynesian language family.) The present study was conducted in Washington, D.C. The principal informants, Jacky Radifera and Mireille Razafindrazaka, are native speakers of Merina wio are presently studying in the United States. Several other speakers of Merina contributed varying amounts of time to the project. All of the speckers who cooperated in this work vere fluent speakers of French which in most cases had been their primary language of instruction in Madagascar. The continual assistance and interest of the principal informants and of the other Malagasy speakers is gratefully acknowledged. The Publi- cations Section of the Center for Applied Linguistics and especially Mr. John Hamer, Editorial Assistant, and Mrs. Peggy Moffett, Publi. cations Clerk, deserve special thanks for their help in the preparation of the manuscript. I particularly wish to thank Dr. William W. Gage of the Center staff who read and provided most helpful criticism of the entire manuscript.TABLE OF CONTENTS Author's Note . « Phonology... Morphology . . » Syntax»... Bibliography . . iit 20 48 821.0 Lat La 1.12 1.2 2.0 21 2.11 2.12 2.2 2.21 2.22 2.23 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.26 3.25 3.3 3.4 4.0 41 4.1L 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.2 4.3 4.31 Phonology Phonemes Segmental phonemes Vocalic Consonantal Prosodic Larger units Stress groups distributions Stress groups and stre: Internal juncture Contours Pitch External juncture Emphatic contours Vowel allophones Stressed vowels Unstressed vowels Unstressed vowels following /./ or /h/ Unstressed vowels between C and external juncture Unstressed vowels between consonants Unstressed vowels contiguous to stressed and unstressed vowels Unstressed vowels initially before consonant Nasalization of vowels Symbolization of vowel allophones Consonant allophones Stops Oral stops Nasal stops Nasalized stops Additional contrasts Spirants Affricates Oral affricates qa)4,32 ® 4.33 4.34 44 4.5 4.51 4.52 4.53 5.0 6.0 6.1 6.12 6.2 Additional contrasts Nasalized affricates Additional contrasts Resonants Sets of consonant allophones Aspirated release Palatalization Labialization Syllables Distribution of segmental phonemes Vowels Vowel sequences Consonant @)e 1.0 Phonemes 1.1 Segmental phonemes 1.11 Vocalic Front High i Mid e Low 1,12 Consonantal Labial nasality stopping voice-stopping nasality-stepping nasality-voice-stopping friction voice-friction stopping-friction voice-stopping-friction nasality-stopping-friction nasality-voice-stopping-friction Resonant 1.2 Accentual: Prosodic phonemes “(heavy stress) Junetural: Internal. External. , 5 Contour modifying Pitche Emphatics: ! 22 owe oe 12.3 (from low to high) “(weak stress) The phonemes of Malagasy. Central Back u ° a Dento-Alveolar Alveolar —Vellar a t ap k 4 8 t & 4 zg s b 2 ts tr az ar ts tr ae ar 1 r (lack of stress is not indicated) @)2.0 Larger units ® 2.1 Stress groups ‘The segmental phonemes occur in sequences called stress groups, which contain one heavy stress, with or without weak stresses, and which are delimited by a pause, actual or potential. 2.11 Stress groups and stress distributions The position of heavy stress in a stress group is not predictable. E.1 tsisiténana ‘no hands’ E.2 tsisitandéna —'no country! ; A weak stress usually occurs on alternate vowels preceding the heavy stress, but other distributions of weak stress may be found. E.3 mAlalafdba ‘polite’ E.4 mipetréha ‘sit down' 2.12 Internal juncture @ the internal juncture /./ occurs between vowels within the stress group. The phonetic characteristic of /./ is vowel hiatus. Vowel hiatus occurs consistently between any two stressed vowels, but its occurrence is not pre- : dictable between a stressed and an unstressed vowel. E.5 4.itra 'grass' E.6° a.fritra ‘stingy’ E.7 4iza ‘where?! E.8 u.fzi ‘he says’ 2.2 Contours Stress groups accompanied by pitch phonemes are called contours. In the contour : the highest pitch usually occurs at the position of the heavy stress. Other pitch phonemes occur at the position of weak stress and as components of external juncture. : )2.21 Pitch Pitch phonemes /1 2 3/ have allophones [1* 2* 3%] when occurring with heavy stress. /3/ has an allophone [4] when occurring with heavy stress in the enphatic contour /!/. (See E-14) 2x 221 E.9 [l&sfzi ] /l&asf2i / ‘He's gone.' Oeste teats tal E,10 [1asf2i ] /lasfzi / ‘Is he gone?' 2.22 External juncture Patterns of pitch phonémes from the heavy stress to the eni of the contour are subsumed under the external junctures. 7,/ indicates sustention of pitch from the pitch level of the heavy stress. A slight terminal rise in pitch is considered an optional, non-distinctive characteristic of this juncture. A pause accompanies this juncture only at the end of an utterance. 2 22 E.1l /vitanirard "The work is finished.' J;/ indicates fall in pitch from the pitch level of the heavy stress. The fall does not reach the lowest level of phonemic pitch. A pause ac- companies this juncture only at the end of an utterance. 2 23 E.12 /vitaniriré ;/ 'The,work is finished.' J-// indicates fall in pitch from the pitch level of the heavy stress. The fall reaches the lowest level of phonemic pitch, A pause always ac- companies this juncture, which signals the end of an utterance. 203 E.13 /amistvi ./ ‘At nine.' 2.23 Emphatic contours Three types of modifications have been noted that affect the stress or pitch distributions of the entire contour. An emphatic contour may be compared to ‘a contour lacking the emphatic modification, «s)/1/ is written before a contour to indicate an over-all upward shift in a the pitch levels of the contour. 23 7 E14 /! threndu ;/ ‘You're Late: 3 42 [tdrendu ] and lacking the modification: 203 : E.15 /tirendu ;/ ‘You're late.’ 7 /2] 4s weitten before a contour to indicate a shift in the stress pattern. Aay “initial /*/ becomes /’/ and any final /’/ becomes /*/. The higher pitch is associated with the heavy (now relocated) stress. 2 3 E.16 /? tsaradetsdra ;/ ‘Very, very beautiful!" x 22 itsdradets’ra ] and lacking the modification: 2 3 : E.17 /tsaradetsdra ;/ ‘Very beautiful.' /21/ i weitten before a contour to indicate a shift in the stress pattern in which /’/ becomes /*/ and a new /’/ is added to the last vowel of the contour. High pitch accompanies the new heavy stress. 2 2 E.18 /%? amisfvi ;/ ‘At nine, did you say?" 2 232 Lamisivt ] and lacking the modification: 2 2 E.19 /&mistvi ;/ ‘At nine." (6)E.15, if modified by /?2/ results in: s eee! E.20 /2? tarendu ;/ You're late?" 2 232 [tarenaé ] 3.0 Vowel _allophones 3.1 Stressed vowels, i.e, vowels occurring with either heavy or weak stress, have the following allophones: /4/ high front unrounded vowel E.21 [ff]lu ‘needle’ i Jef high back rounded vowel E.22 [f6]lu ‘ten’ E.23 [mé]di ‘goes home! @ ef higher-mid front unrounded vowel E.24 [vé¥]ri ‘lost! /o/ mid back rounded vowel, ranging from lower-mid to mid [0] ~ [a’] E.25 [£4"]na ‘always! An optional centering offglide may accompany the lower variant [0%] E.26. [Satra] ‘resembles’ . Ja/ low central unrounded vowel E.27 [vé]ri "rice! 3.2 Unstressed vowel _allophones = ”3.21 Unstressed and following internal juncture, or /h/, vowel allophones are ® lax and sometimes centralized: /i/ [1] ~ [4] lower-high front ~ centralized unrounded vowel E.28 [4-1]tra 'grass' /s/ [US] lower high back rounded vowel E.29 [sé-usJtra ‘sigh’ Je/ [s] mid-front unrounded vowel £.30 mi[ré’-e]tra ‘burns! Jal [a] ~ [oe] higher-low central ~ mid central unrounded vowel , E31 [té-a*]tra 'stairs' ° E.32 [ma-f-9] 'thin' (/of is not noted in this position) 3.22 Unstressed, between a consonant and external juncture, /i u a/ are weakly articulated and often voiceless. In this position, the vowel allo~ phone may be localized only in the release of the Preceding consonant. ~ 3.23 Unstressed, between consonants, excepting /h/, /i/ and /u/ have weakly articulated, often voiceless allophones or allophones which may be localized only in the release of the preceding consonant or as the quality of a syl- labic consonant. Allophones described in 3.22 and 3.23 are indicated phonetically by a subscript dot, e.g. [u]. 2 3 2 E.33 [1] /kArakarén{i], vél[i] ./ ‘Take care of the plants.' 2 3 £.34 [y] /saedun{i], vél(ul ./ ‘Wash-your hair.’ 2 2 8.35 [9] /ts{{]tefun{i], vil[a] ./ ‘Spend the money. carefully.' @)2 2 E.36 [i] /ke1[i]£6nla] ./ ‘just a litele! Stee: E.37 [u] /ran[y]fits[i] ./ ‘white water’ 3.24 Unstressed, contiguous to a stressed or unstressed vowel other than Jil or ful, respectively, /i/ and /u/ have tense glide allophones [i] and yl, respectively. 23 £.38 /i0/ /ndkél{ilaza ./ "just a little! pete 3 5.39 /Vi/ /alilzanitséna ;/ ‘Where's the market?! 2 E.40 /ul/ /ablyldrina ./ fixed" 2 2 B.41 /¥u/ /£2:izé{u] ,/ "but, now..." 2 E.42 /if/ /labliléra ./ ‘beer’ 3 E43 /uv/ /[ulatrfnuna ;/ how much?" 2 E44 /AV/ /[iJand[u] ./ "you" 3.25 Unstressed, in absolute initial position before a consonant, /e/ and /a/ have allophones similar to the stressed allophones, [e”] and [a], reapectively. /i/ and /u/ have weakly articulated, weakly voiced allophones [4] and [y], respectively. /o/ is not noted in this position. 2 E.45 /[i]tfkatra ./ ‘this! 2 E46 /[y]méli ./ yesterday’ 2 .47 /[a}rivu ./ "thousand" 2 E48 /[e"]rt ./ "that" 3.3 Nasalization of vowels ALL vowels have weak nasalization preceding a nasal consonant. Heavy nagalization of vowels may occur preceding nasalized consonants. @)3.4 Symbolization of vowel _allophones For subsequent reference, three sets of vowel allophones will be assigned special cover symbols. V, = tense glide allophones of /i/ and /u/. Vy = weak or voiceless allophones of /i/ and Ju/ between consonants. V3 = weak or voiceless. allophones of /i/, /u/, or /a/ following a consonant, and preceding external juncture, 4.0 Con: t_allophones 4.1, Stops 4.11 Oral stops /p/ is an unaspirated: voiceless! bilabial-atop. E.49 papdi- ‘papaya’ /b/ is a voiced bilabial stop. E.50 babéi ‘(name of a mountain)! /t/ is an unaspirated voiceless dento-alveolar stop. E.51 f4ti ‘dead person’ /a/ is voiced dento-alveolar stop. E.52 f4di "taboo! = < “s/s an unaspirated voiceless palato-velar stop with palatal offglide [Ki]. E.53 altka ‘dog! E.54 ikstu "(boy's name)! /k/ is an unaspirated voiceless velar stop. E.55 madzupfka ‘cloudy! E.56 tikutukd ‘I like very much’ ao)ae Preceding /i/, /k/ has a slightly palatalized stop E.57 akfpaka ‘shoo away’ Ie] is a voiced velar stop. E.58 géga ‘surprised’ allophone [ig]. Following: /i/,-/g/ has a palato-velar stop allophone followed by a palatal offglide (sil i E.59 migéka 'swallows'. The lack of parallelism in the distribution of the palatal variants of Msl, Tel, and /g/ may represent a relatively iew development in the language. Otto Dahl (1953) interprets the palato-velar stop with offglide [ij] as the allophone of /k/ following /i/, and the velar stop /k/ following /i/ as actually following a sequeace /ia/ in which the /a/ has been reduced to voicelessness. Thus Dahl would Phonemicize E.46 as /alfka/ and £.48 as /tlakutuké/. No instance of velar [g] following /i/ has been noted in the speech of the present informants. 4.12 Nasal stops (uf ta a nasal bilabial stop. £.60 mami ‘sweet! Following pause and preceding a sequence ,VC, a syllabic allophone [m] say represent both /m/ and the following V,. E61 [mlséera ‘thanks' (v, = /i/, See sec. 4.52) E.62 [mlsé 'Mr.! (W, = /u/, See Sec. 4.53) (il)Go” dn/ is a nasla dento-alveolar stop. £.63 ananandi ‘what-we-possess’ Following pause and preceding a sequence V,C, or in the environment V,-= Vg» @ syllabic allophone [n] may represent both /n/ and the following Vp. E.64 [p]tadi@vini 'was-looked-for-by-hin' (WV, = /i/, See Se E.65 [n]réisiku "we 4.52) -received-by-me' (V, = /ul, See Sec. 4.53) 4.13 Nasalized stops 761 is a nasalized voiceless bilabial stop, either ["p], a voiceless bilabial stop with short homorganic nasal onse 3 or, less frequently, @ voiceless bilabial stop following any heavily nasalized vowel. B.66 [a"p]ita ‘across from’ or E.67 [ap]ita ‘across from’ /b/ 4s @ nasalized voiced bilabial stop, either ["b]. a voiced bilabial stop with homorganic nasal onset of longer duration than the oral Portion of the stop; or, [Vb], a voiced bilabial stop follaving any heavily nasalized vowel. : E.68 man{é™b]uka "begins' or £.69 man[db]uka "begins" // is a nasalized voiceless dento-alveolar stop, either ["t], a voice- les or [Ve], a voiceless dento-alveolar stop following any heavily nasalized vowel. dento-alveolar stop with short homorganic nasal onse! £.70 [a™t]4nana "in the hand’ or E.71 [&t]4nana in the hand’ JA] is a nasalized voiced dento-alveolar stop, either ["d]} in which the nasal onset is of longer duration than the oral portion of the stop; or [Vd], a voiced dento-alveolar stop following any heavily ‘lized vowel. a2)E.72 [a"é]4lana ‘on the way’ or E.73 [Ad]4lana ‘on the way? W%/ 48 a nasalized voiceless velar stop, either [%) or [Vk], a voice- less velar stop following any hesvily nasalized vowel. E.74 fa%k}fzi ‘child! or £75 (ak]tet ‘child! Following /4/, /ef bas a palato-velar allophone with palatal offglide risky, £.76 ean(7kAjétsa ‘field for cransplanting rice! J8/ is a nasalized voiced velar stop, either [%], in which the nasal onset is of longer duration than the oral portion of the stop; o [¥gl, a voiced velar stop following any heavily nasalized vowel. 2 E.77 al Mg}aba "maybe! Following /1/, /8/ has a palato-velar allophone with palatal offglide (G4). £.78 4i("§Hana fast" No example of a redistribution of /k/ allophones parallel to that of Vf and /k/ is noted in the corpus. 4.14 Oral-nasal-nasalized stop contrasts Fuzther examples are provided to illustrate the stops in the labial series. E79 /B/ ranupéri ‘sugar ce juice’ E80 /b/ tanibéri "rice field' : E.81 /nib/ renibé "grandmother' E.82 /3/ ba "(polite particle)’ E.83 /mib/ [mb] mibéta "lifts and carries' E.84 /nim/ eanimgeter 4.2 Spirants #£/ is a voiceless labio-dental spirant. E.85 félu ‘ten! Wv/ is-a voiced labio-dental spirant. E.86 vqlu ‘hair! 7 // i a voiceless alveolar spirant, slightly grooved with spread lip Position E.87 efi ‘remainder! /2] is a voiced alveolar spirant, slightly grooved with spread lip position. E.88 zfzu "moans* Following pause and preceding V,C, the syllabic allophones [fv ¢ 7 represent /£ v 6 2/ a9 well as the following V,. Jef 8.89 [s]magézu ‘and kasava' (2 = /4/, See Sec. 4.52) WI 8.90 [y]it "dishes' (Vy = /4/, See Sec. 4.52) /h/ is a weak glottal spirant, voiceless [h], or with slight voicing [A]. E.91 alahédi ‘Sunday’ ala{h]4di. "sunday' or’ ala[fi]4di "Sunday For some speakers, intervocalic /h/ may be a glottal stop [7]. E,92 ala[?)4di "Sunday' Following /i/, /3/ has a lightly voiced velar spirant allophone vith palatal offglide [y4]. E.93 filvi}inana edibles" quay\ 4.3 Affricates 4.31 Oral Affricates /ts/ is a voiceless apical dento-alveolar affricate. E.94 tsdra "beautiful! /dz/ is a voiced apical dento-alveolar affricate. E.95 defru "Light! /tr/ is a voiceless blade alveolar affricate. E.96 trénu ‘house’ /dr/ is a voiced blade alveolar affricate. E.97 dradradr4dra "Lament! 4.32 Contrasts between affricates and CV,¢ Further examples are provided to illustrate the affricates in contrast with sequences of consonant-voiceless vowel-consonant. The sequence /tis/ has a released palatalized /t/, [5], as a function of Vp, and /s/ is a grooved spirant [3]. /ts/ E.98 ma-atsdra ‘can make beautiful’ /tis/ £.99 matisdsatra ‘dead tired’ ee The sequence /tir/ has a released palatalized /t/, [t], as a function of V,, and /r/ isa voiced trill. /tr/ E.100 matrétra "reaches' /tix/ E.101 matiréi ‘dead (is) father’ 4.33 Nasalized affricates /ts/ is a nasalized voiceless apical-dento-alveolar affricate, with short homorganic nasal onset ["ts]; or [Vts], a voiceless apical dento- qs)Feel fel feel 4.36 alveolar affricate following any heavily nasalized vowel. £.102 f4("tsJika ‘nail' or fldes}ika ‘nail! is a nasalized voiced apical dento. homorganic nasal onset ["dz]; or [Vdz], a voiced apical dento-alveolar affricate following any heavily nasalized vowel. ‘Iveolar affricate, with longer £.103 a["dz]4ra ‘part’ or (dz ]4ra ‘part! ig ja nasalized voiceless blade alveolar affricate, ["tr]; or [¥tr], a voiceless blade alveolar affricate following any heavily nasalized vowel. E104 ma-4{"trJa ‘poor! or ma-(4trJa ‘poor is a nasalized voiced blade alveolar affricate with longer homorganic nasal onset, [“dr]: or [Var], a voiced blade alveolar affricate following any heavily nasalized vowel. E.105 ma("dr]4i takes" or m[@dr]4i ‘takes’ Affricate-nasalized affricate contrasts Additional examples are provided to illustrate the nasalized affricates in contrast with non-nasalized affricates and the sequence /n/-voiceless vowel-affricate. Jta/ E.106 magatetka cold" Fis/ §.107 féteika "nail! /nitr/ £,108 1lénitra "sky! éx/ £.109 ma-étra "poor" Jtr/ B.110 piénatra "student! -i) 4.4 Resonants MMI is a voiced dento-alveolar lateral E.111 1épa "palace' st] is a voiced tongue-tip trill with cohtact in the alveolar region. The trill may vary from a single flap to four or five contacts. E.lli raparépa "gropes* 4.5 Systematic sets of consonant allophones before V, and v, 4,51 Aspirated release All consonants occurring in voiceless-voiced pairs have voiceless aspirated release in the environment -. Jk] £.113 edpulke'y) ‘sir! Jel E114 gate? al ‘surprised’ fee] B15 Lanier: ‘sky! Poi Bas este? ‘y) "small pond’ In the environment --V,C, voiceless aspirated release of these consonants Preceding Va is audible if C is either a voiceless oral stop or affricate. Je k t/ E.117 (a2? ‘uk ‘ue‘uké] —'T understand indeed." of B.118- fmandb? “uk ‘a] "begins' fay eela9 fata? ‘ter sg) comes in’ In the environments --V,C and --V,, /r/ and /1/ may have voiceless, option- ally aspirated, allophones {r], [1] or [r+], [1+]. Je] B.120 (yatéy ‘uk ‘u) "I'LL show! AL E121 Aupivdl y] “Wash your ‘ai: a7)t rt 4.52 Palatalization ALL consonants except /h/ are slightly palatalized [¢] before V,, V), or V, allophones of /i/. Jaf Vy E122 [regi] ‘mother vo vy e123 69? 11 ‘cattle! WI Vy E124 [oty? 4] ‘nine! WI vy, Bolas [ayiée y] ‘from here’ /p] Vy E4126 [pidnate ‘a] "student! Jal V, 8.127 [sagd 6] ‘or tea’ /t] Vy E128 (mag indy site fl ‘nice’ 4.53 Labialization All consonants except /h/ may show weak labialization [C°] before vb Vor and V3 allophones of /u/. JB) vy 8129 [ee%g8" yer sg] "footstep" Fac} Vy £130 [maar * yes) "come in! AL Vy £131 [da61* yl ‘all! : M/W, £132 [ata yg? ‘i) "I hate him.' : Jo] V, £133. [ran "ubosdy +4] "orange juice! Fil Vy Bel36 [héde* “*y] ‘suddenly’ wY“*u] ‘rather yellow' ye WI Vy Vz 8.135 [mav! “una 5.0 syllables Syllables consist of a simple vowel (V) or of a complex vowel, (V,V or W,), with or without an initial consonant (C). ed vowels may result, phonetically, Although the devoicing of unstr in consonant clusters or in final consonants, the phonemic presence of these vowels has been assumed in statements of distribution. 6.0 Distribution of segmental phonemes 6.1 Vowels All stressed vowels occur in stress group initial, medial, and final pos- itions. All unetressed vowels except /o/ occur in stress group initial 18)position. All unstressed vowels occur in stress group medial position. Only / 1 u a/ occur unstressed in stress grovy final position. 6.12 Vowel sequences within stress groups No sequences of identical vowels occur. The following sequences of vowels have been noted. Only the sequence stressed /a/ followed by /i/ functions as a stable diphthong, i.e. a sequence of vowels that retains the stress pattern WV, rather than becoming V-¥ under conditions of suffixing stem formation. 7 iy we ai aid id idi audi du ud udi duéu oi id ta uf a ié éu ué 16 6.2 Consonants All consonants may occur in stress group medial position. All consonants except the voiceless nasalized consonants may occur in stress group initial position. However /h/ does not occur initially for the majority of infor- mants, and only rarely medially for the same informants. /K/ is rare in all positions for the majority of informaits. Consonant clusters and final consonants are generally not permitted. However, som loan words of French and English origin have been noted with the following conso- nant clusters /g1/ /aglfsi/ ‘English’, /fr/ /frats4i/ ‘French’. as)O eee O.1L 1.0 La 1,2 1.21 13 14 2.0 22 2.11 2.2 2.21 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.5 4.0 4 4.12 4.2 4.21 4.22 4.3 5.0 5.1 5.2 6.0 7.0 7 7.12 Morphology Words Phonologically conditioned morphophonemics Phonologically conditioned alternates Word composition Simple words Roots Morphophonemics of extended roots Complex words Compound words Stems Prefixing stems Morphophonemics of the nasalizing’ prefix {aN-} Suffixing stems Morphophonemic alternations of vowels Derivational affixes Suffix position -1 Prefix position +1 Prefix position +2 Prefix position +3 Prefix position +4 The verb: Inflection Active verbs (Imperative) Active verbs: Types Passive-relative verbs (Imperative) Passive verbs: Types Relative verbs: Types Tense of verbs Adjectives and participles Adjectives: Types Participles: Types Locatives Post-clitic person-markers (PM) Allomorphs of PM Allomorphs of extended roots before PM 20)8.0 8.1 9.0 O1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.41 10.0 10.1 10.2 11.0 lL 11.2 Nouns Noun types Substitutes Independent personal pronouns Dependent personal pronouns Familiar forms Demonstrative pronouns Other demonstrative pronouns Nunbers Cardinal numbers (Roots) Non-root numbers Additional morphophonemic statements Morphophonemics of {R} Occurrence of ka, tra and p-modifications ay) J 0. Words in Malagasy are free forms composed of one or more morphemes, accompanied by word stress.* Words are either independent words, that is, they may occupy subject or predicate position in a sentence, or satellite words, that is, words which may not occupy subject or predicate position. 0.1 Phonologically conditioned morphophonemics are those changes in the established shape of morphemes contingent on the phonological environment and not restricted to any class or group of morphemes. The speed of speech is closely correlaged with the selection of phonologically conditioned alternates. there las of course, a continuum ranging from slow deliberate speech to rapid conversational speech. In the following statements, if an alternate is assigned to conversational sty", it is implied that that alternate shows a tendency to occur in rapid conversation, rather than in slow deliberate speech. Since alternates which tend to occur in slow deliberate speech are cited less frequently in the following sections, only these will be marked, e.g. 4/ / = deliberate. Conversational style will not be marked. 0.11 Phonologically conditioned alternates are the following.” (a) Identical vowels are simplified to a single vowel in words in sequence, e.g., {ka} ‘and’ /ade/ 'go' + /kadé/; or within words, e.g., {vfdi-} 'sell' + {-ina} ‘passive suffix' ~ /vidina/ ‘sold’; or with loss of /./ in conversational style, e.g. 4/m&.atsdra/ "can-make-good' + /natséra/. (b) Certain sequences of stressed’ vowel followed by unstressed /a/ or /i/ or by /.a/ or /.1/ have preferred alternates in stressed vowel in conversational style. These are the following: S/é.af = 18) Sfnalé.a/ ~ /nalé/ ——_"gone=(to)" Stat = 14) AYma.tas + foa.t/ ‘skinny? Sats > 16 48. = 14) "boy? 4fsaf ~/i/ — Afeukia/ = /euks/ ‘very! ape.if = Pf 4/18.1bé/ + /1db6/ "large’ (22)(c) Facultatively unstressed sequences of /i/ + /a/ ~ /e/ between words, e.g. “/éni ‘there’ + “/amertya/ ‘America’ + /anenertka/; or within words, e.g. “/iangu/ tyou! + /ené/. (d) The phonetic diphthong S60 ~ /o/ sporadically in conversational style, e.g. “/iandu/ tyou' ~ /end/; “/izdu/ tnow' ~ /iz6/. (e) Loss of /-/ in conversational style results in sporadic loss of unstressed vowels, e.g. °/fa-éfani/ ~ /£6fani/ ‘quarter’. (And see (b) above.) (f£) The voiceless prenasalized consonants /f, t, t8, tr, k/ are frequently replaced by /p, t, ts, tr, k/ respectively, in con- versational style, e.g. “/akavfa/ 'to-the-left' ~ /akavt/. 1.0 Word Composition 1,1 Simple words are monomorphemic free forms that do not enter into the composition of complex words, e.g. “/st/ ‘and’, “/vé/ ‘question marker', 4/4) ‘definite pre-modifier', “/nt/ ‘definite pre-nodifier'. Although usually phonologically enclitic and frequently unstressed, these words may occur free and with stress. 1.2 Roots may be free forms (root words) or bound roots. Bound roots occur as the nucleus of complex words. Roots are of three types. Primary roots are monomorphemic and most frequently bisyllabic. Secondary roots may be analyzed as a primary root with (1) one of a set of nonproductive prefixes*, e.g. {ku-} + {f4fa} ~ /kuf4£a/ 'broom'; (2) one of a set of nonproductive infixes®, e.g. {-om-} + {téni} ~ /toméni/ 'tears'; (3) doubling of a bound root, e.g. {taba} ~ /tabatdba/ ‘noises’. A third type of root, the extended root, terminates in root extensions /ka/, /tra/, or /na/, and more rarely /ni/. The majority of these roots are trisyllabic with antepenultimate stress. A few bisyllabic roots with re also treated as extended roots. Extended roots penultimate stress have combinatory forms lacking the root extensions or with modification of the root extensions, e.g. free form, /zdnaka/ 'child', combinatory form I (zana) + /ralé/ ‘brother! ~ /zdnadral4/ ‘son of a brother’; (23)combinatory form II (zanak) + /dluna/ ‘human being’ ~ /zdnakéluna/ ‘child of a human being". 1.21 Morphophonemics of extended roots Combinatory form II occurs with /ka, tra/ and /na/ or /ni/ extended roots before a following vowel-initial word. Combinatory form I occurs with /ka/ and /tra/ extended roots before a following consonant-initial word. Initial consonants are modified as follows (hereafter called ‘ka, tra modifications’): f>p 1-4 sts vob or dr 2-4 az Ha Other consonants are not modified. Combinatory form I occurs with /na/ or /ni/ extended roots before a following consonant initial. word. Initial consonants are modified as, follows: or 2) p (rarely) 1) a tr ) tr (rarely) & )& (rarely) > r yg, or YE rar t ) t (rarely @) 5) ts (rarely is) ts or fH) k (rarely &) 7 dz? @ Other consonants are not modified. Since the modifications of initial consonants listed under combinatory form I for /na/ extended roots are found under other conditions as well, these modifications will be subse~ quently referred to as ‘n-modifications'. The conditions under which the combinatory forms I, II and the ‘ka, tra modifications' occur are ‘summarized in Sec. 11.2. 1.3 Complex words are composed of a nucleus, which may be a root or a reduplicated root,” plus inflectional or derivational affixes. Only one which are class of complex words consistently adds the inflectional affixe: (24)added to the outer layer of the derived word. The order of the principal derivational affixes is represented schematically in Sec. 3.0. 1.4 Compound words are composed of two or (rarely) three nuclei. The nuclei may be two different roots, e.g. {réni} 'mother' + {vi-itra} ‘hill! + /enivé-itra/ ‘capital’, or a complex word plus a root, e.g. {m-4nana} 'has' + {vddi} ‘spouse’ + /minabédi/ 'is married’. some compound words are subject to inflection, e.g. {m-ana-bédi-} + {-a} ‘imperative suffix! + /manabad£/ "get-married!' The compound words often resemble phrases in construction and are frequently similar to phrases in that both phrases and compound words share the same combinatory modifications. 2.0 The stem is the form of the nucleus to which inflectional or deriva- tional affixes are added. Stems may be characterized by the word class membership that results from affixation, e.g. 'an active verb stem'. ¥ Usually two, rarely three, stem types are formed from a root. The two are called the prefixing stem and the suffixing sten. If a third stem is formed, the suffixing stem has both a long and short form. 2.1 The prefixing stem is the form of the stem to which prefixes are added (in the absence of suffixes). The position of stress of the prefix- ing stem is the same as that of the nucleus. The shape of the prefixing stem is the same as that of the nucleus except for modifications: contin- gent on the nasalizing prefix or for ka, tra or R- modifications. 2.11 Morphophonemics of stems with the 'nasalizing' prefix {aN-} After the verbal prefix {aN-}, or any prefix complex terminating in this prefix, prefixing stems undergo the following modifications: (a) Initial consonants /p, £, v/ and sometimes /b/ are replaced by /m/: {m-aN-} + {~pétraka} + /mamétraka/ ‘places’ + {-fénu} + /maménu/ "fills" + (-vaki} + /mamaki/ "breaks" + (-bisibisika) + /manbsibésika/ ‘eats-hurriedly’ (25)(b) /s, t, ts, k, H/ are replaced by /n/: {m-aN-} + {-sdsa}_ + /mandsa/ ‘washes* + {-téri} = /manéri/ "tightens' + {-ts4gana}~ /mandgana/ "erects' + {-kétsa} + /manétsa/ ‘transplants-rice! (c) /1/ or /d/ is replaced by /d/: {m-aN-} + {-16-a} + /madé/ "goes" {m-aN-} + {-dfdi} + /madfai/ ‘operates’ (a) /t/ is replaced by /ar/: {m-aN-} + {-réva} + /madrdva/ ‘destroys’ (e) /2/ or /dz/ is replaced by /dz/: {m-aN-}] + {-2éitra} + /madeditra/ ‘sews! {m-aN-} + {-dzdbuna} + /madzdbuna/ "grows-dark' (4) Hlor /g/ is replaced by /g/:° {m-aN-} + {-H4taka} + /wagdtaka/ "requests" {m-an-} + {-gfna} + /magfna/ ‘stays-silent’ (8) /v/ and /b/ are sometimes replaced by /b, {m-aN-} + {-véli} + /mabsli/ "plants! + {mean-} + (-béraka} + /mabraka/ ‘unties! 2.2 The suffixing stem is the only form of-the stem to which suffixes may be added. A suffixing stem mayshowever, also add prefixes.+ Suffix- ing stems are stressed on the last vowel before the suffix. Suffixing stems will be described as derived from the root form by a number of changes.” (The following list is not exhaustive, but represents the principal types of suffixing stems.) ‘Type I. Stress change only. Monosyllabic stems do not undergo stress change. oot form suffixing stem a {rés 7 {rosé-} {vita} = {vud-} (xg = {rey (26)Type II.a. Stress change and addition of consonantal stem formant ¢ Wy, 2, 8, nf. {tt-a} > ftt-dve} {fara} 7 {fu-dz-} {£énu} ~~ {éunds-} {1é-a} > {lesdn-} {rai} 7 {rdis-} /4i/ is. 2 dipathong, thus (r4i} is a monosyllabic stem and may not undergo stress change. ‘Type II.b, Stress change with addition of consonantal stem formant and change of root final vowel: /i/ ~ /é/, /i/ + /4/, /éu/ + /6/. {4ni} ~ — {anés-} {4dri} ~ {adirés-} {laléu} ~ flalov-} {eau} 7 {tév-} L e Type III. Stress change with change of root final vowel: /i/ ~ /é/. {azért} - {dzeré-} {vali} > {vulé-} Type IV. Stress change with vowel and consonant stem formant /an/ or /av/. {taai} ~ — {tadiav-} {vtai} ~~ {vidign-} Type V includes all suffixing stems from underlying extended roots. This type shares in common (1) stress change and (2) derivation from combinatory form II of the extended root. Special consonant ; and vowel changes are indicated under each sub-type of Type V. Type V. Suffixing stems from /ka/ extended roots: /k/ ~ H; and /i/ ~ /ié/, /6/ ~ /ud/; or /k/ /£/ less frequently. a (27)root form tL} (combinatory form IZ) {pétrak-} {stk-} {6x-} {eé-ak-} ‘Type V.b. suffixing stem {petran-} {siaH-} {uau-) {te-ae-} Suffixing stems from /tra/ extended roots: /tr/ + /r/; and /6/ + /u*é/; or /tr/ + /t/ less frequently. {s6tr-} {anatr-} {té-uer-} {16er-} {rdvier-} ‘Type V.c. {dzdnun-} {térun-} {vérin-} {4dran-} {1én-} {sér-} {andr-} {ta-ér-} {lu-ér-} {ruvte-} Suffixing stems from /na/ extended roots; No ‘consonant change; and /i/ + /6/; or /n/ ~ /m/ less frequently. {dzantin-} {furdn-} {verén-} {adran-} {em} 2.21 Morphophonemic alternations of vowels in roots and derived suffixing stems are summarized below. Root vowel ‘6 ‘6 au t e 3.0 Derivational Affixes complex words. (Stress changes alone are omitted.) sere vowel of suffixing sten Many rooté ate bound, that is, they occur only as the nucleus of It is convenient to list first of all the principal (28)derivational affixes that function as components of forms that will be criteria. Derivational affixes-suffixes,. prefi in fixed positions relative to the stem. affix positions: HABH24L root assigned to word classes, on the basis of either inflectional or syntactic ‘ixes, and prefix complexes- occur Following is a diagram of the Seer steal EHTS tstem formant + {R} 1-4 Derivational affixes of positions +4 and -1 are mutually exclusive with the inflectional affixes. The symb person'marker position. Root + {R} is a a root word. 3.1 Suffix position -1 includes the fol! 01 =PM indicates post-clitic reduplicated root formed from lowing derivationai suffixe: -11 {-ina} 'passive-adjectiva’ Jsutréina/ ‘drunk! 12 {-ana} —'passive-adjectival' /ana/ /lémana/ ‘damp’ lavé-ana/ 'dug" - fal after stressed vowels: /dzeréna/ 'looked-at' 13, {-ana}'relative-nominal' Janaf ——/ilalévana/ ‘play' ~ Ina after stressed vowel: Jaduréna/ "burn! on analogy with -11 {-ina}: Jadrustina/ or /adrusdina/ Jina/ is a rare optional free variant of this morpheme, perhaps ‘improve! The morphemes -11, -12, -13 are treated as na root extentions e occurring in combinatory forms I and II. and /a/. Thus, before the post-clitic person markers these morphemes have, respectively, the allomorphs /i, a/ The allomorph of =12 and -13 after stressed vowels, has the (29)allomorph phonemic zero /¢/ before the post-clitic person markers: ¢ 11 /sutrdiyu/ ——'drunk-by-me! +12 /lavé-aku/ ——"dug-by-me! Jdzeréku/ +13 ilalévaku/ —_'played=by-me' 3.2 Prefix position +1 includes the following derivational prefixes: +11 {ra} ‘proper noun-formal’ Jra/ /radzéna/ 'Rajoana' +12 {in-} ‘multiplicative! /inéfatra/ ‘four times’ ‘This morpheme produces n-modifications in following stems: /fdlu/ 'ten' HPslu/ ‘ten times’ . 413° {Ha-} ‘nominal’ e Jaf before consonants and /+/: Jabétsaka/ ‘state of being many’ ~ — I9] before vowels: sean /énatra/ 'shaie! +4 {m-} ‘adjectival’ Im&ika/ "hurried" The following forms, +15 to +17, are tentatively analyzed as prefixes: +5 {i-} ‘demonstrative’ Hil /itt/ 'this' #6 {e-} "locative-seen’ : Jef [étu/ ther" 417 {a-} "locative-unseen’ Jal /4tuf ‘here’ +18 {an-} ‘prepositional’ Jan/ before vowels e Jol6na/ (bound root) /anuléna/ 'in-front-of! ~ (30)3.3 3.4 ee =f This morpheme produces n-modifications in following stems, e.g. /trénu/ ‘house’ /atranu/ ‘at home' /fesdna/ 'tool' /apesdna/ ‘at the office! Prefix position +2 includes the following derivational prefixes: #21 {aN-} ‘verbal’ (usually transitive) Jan{ before vowel initial stems and unmodified prefixing stems: {m-aN-asa} /mandsa/ ‘invites’ ~ Jaf before modified prefixing stems (Sec. 2.11): {m-an- {m-aN-sasa} /mandsa/ ‘washes’ jagana} /mandgana/ ‘erects' 422 {ana-} ‘verbal’ (usually transitive) Jana/ {m-ana-tsétra} /manatstitra/ 'makes- (hair)- straight’ {m-ana-futsi} /manafétsi/ 'makes-white' {m-ana-m-aika} /manamdika/ 'makes-hurry' +23 {aka-} ‘verbal’ *jakia/ vefore /+/ (not noted before consonants): {m-afif-akia-tita} /m&pifaka-fta/ 'make-(2) people-meet' /ak/ before vowels: {meaka-e-ri} /makerf/ 'goes-there' 424 {ix} ‘verbal’ (usually intransitive) Mil | {m-i-anatra} /midnatra/ ‘studies’ 425 {ae} "verbal-passive' fal Jatéu/ ‘done! 426 {a-} ‘adjectival! fal {m-a-zutua} /maztitu/ ‘industrious’ Prefix position 43 includes the following derivational prefixes: +31 {ap-} ‘verbal-causative’ “rap {m-af-aN-Hufa} /mapandfa/ 'rents-out' {m-af-i-adri) /mapiddri/ ‘'makes-wait! (31)4320 (it-} ‘verbal-reciprocal' ° He/ {m-if-aN-tau} /mifandu/ 'do-mutually! And the two morpheme complexes: 433° {apif-} ‘verbal, causative-reciprocal' S/apiey {m-apif-aN-H'alatra} /mapifagélatra/ 'make-each-other-steal' 434 {ifaB-} verbal, reciprocal-causative' 4/057 * {m-ifaB-aNesasa} /mifapandsa/ ‘mutually-cause-to-wash’ 435 {vo-} ‘adjectival-perfective' (indicates action recently completed): lof {vo-tuga) /votdga/ 'just-arrived' 436 {tafa-} ‘adjectival-perfective' (indicates action completed) /tafa/ e {tafa-vuri} /tafavéri/ ‘assembled’ /taf/ before a vowel initial stem: {tafa-iditra} /taffditra/ ‘entered’ 3.5 Prefix position +4 includes the following derivational prefixes: +41 {t+} ‘nominal’ (abstract or instrumental nouns derived from verbs): /t/ {f-aN-vaki} /famdki/ ‘ax' {f-a-Ha-ratsi} /f&-arétsi/ badness’ {f-ietia) /fitt/ ‘way-of-loving' +42 {p-} "nominal' (agent nouns derived from verbs): Jel ~ {pri-anatra} /pidnatra/ ‘student! {p-aB-i-anatra} /papiénatra/ ‘teacher! +43 {m-} “active! Jaf {m-i-anatra} /midnatra/ 'studie:{m-} serves a dual function in marking active verbs, and marking e the present tense of active verbs and many adjectives. {m-} is thus both derivational and inflectional and is replaced by both derivational prefixes (+41, #42) and inflectional prefixes of tense; see Sec. 4. 4.0 The Verb: Inflection The verb is the only major form class defined by inflection. The verb is defined by inflection for the imperative. Two major voices of verbs are defined by the imperative suffixes: (1) active verbs and (2) Passive-relative verbs. 4.1 Active verbs: Imperative Active verb stems add the imperative suffix {-a]} directly to the suffixing stem, {-a} /9/ after stems terminating in /é/: . {m-i-dzere-} + {-a} /midzeré/ 'look-at' ~ Jaf elsewhere: {m-aN-fu'az-} + {-a} /mamu-4za/ ‘wake-up (someone)! " : 1 4.12 Active verbs: Types . The major types of active verbs are listed below according to the morphological composition of tie derivational prefixes. All examples are present tense indicative. : Root_Verb Jai "comes" Prefixed verbs . e +43 {m-iditra} Jmtditra/ ‘enters’ +43426 {m-a-turi} dmatéri/ ‘sleeps’ (33)Hi3421 {m-aN-tau} fmandu/ "does! e 43422 {m-ana-tsara} /manatséra/ "beautifies’ 43423417 {m-aka-a-ti} makati/ "comes-here' 443424 {m-i-adri} fui ddri/ ‘awaits’ 443426418 {m-i-an-tsena} Imetséna/ "goes-to-market! 443431426 {m-aB-a-ta‘utra} /mapat4-utra/ ‘makes-afraid' +43431421 {m-af-aN-Hufa} /mapandfa/ ‘rents-out' : H43431426 {m-af-i-se-u} /mapisé-u/ ‘makes-shown' 43432421 {m-if-aN-tau} /mifanéu/ "do-mutually" os > 443433423 if-aka-Hita} /mipifaka-{ta/ 'cause-to-see-mutually' 443434421 {m-ifap-aN-sasa} —_/mifapandsa/ ‘mutual ly-cause-to-wash' 43426413 Ina: 6£aka/ ‘can-pass 443426413406, /ma-amémi / ‘can-sweeten' 4.2 Passive and relative verbs: Imperative Passive and relative verbs suffix the imperative suffix {-u} to the suffixing stem of the verb. e (-u} /i/ after stems from roots containing /u/ or /o/: | {rusu-} + {-u} /rusti/ serve!" /u/ elsewhere: {dzere-} + {-u} /dzeréu/ '1ook-at!! J 4.21 Passive verbs: Types Passive verbs are of two principal types: (1) prefixing passives and (2) suffixing passives. All examples are present tense indicative. Prefixing passive: - #25 {a-verina} /avérina/ ‘returned’ {a-petraka} /apétraka/ ‘placed’ Suffixing passives e ll {duru-ina} /durdina/ ‘burned’ +12 {lem-ana} /lémana/ ‘damp’ {anar-ana} /{anarana/ ‘Learned! (34)= 4.22 Relative verbs: Types e Relative verbs are formed with the suffixing stem of an active verb, without the active verb prefix #43, by the addition of suffix -13. All examples are present tense indicative. 713° {aN-H'atat-ana} /agaténa/ —'ask' (active verb) — /magdtaka/ —‘asks* {arita-ana} /aritdna/ — 'see" Jactive verb) —/ma-fta/ ‘sees’ {i-tudra-ana} /itudrdna/ ‘bring! (active verb) /mitddra/ ‘brings’ {aB-a-ta-ur-ana} /Apata-drana/ ‘make-soneone-afraid’ (active verb) /mapat4-utra/ 'makes-soneone-afraid' e {ana-ratsi-ana} /anarats{na/ ‘malign’ (active verb) /manar4tsi/ ' 'maligns' 4.3 Tense inflection of verbs Verbs are inflected for three tenses: present, past and future. The tense morphemes share the position +4 with the derivational prefixes. {m-} ‘present! In] with active (prefixed) verbs ~ /9/ with passive, relative, and root verbs {n-} ‘past! /n/ with active (prefixed) verbs, relative verbs, and passive verbs with vowel initial. ~ /ou/ with passive (suffixed) verbs with consonantal initial ~ [9 with root verbs {Hu-} ‘future’ e Ju/ with passive (suffixed) verbs and root verbs ~ /9/ with active (prefixed) verbs, relative verbs, and passive (prefixed) verbs (35)Summary of tense inflection: Present {m-} Past {n-} Future {Hu-} root verbs /4viJ *comes* Jévil Jedvi/ active (prefixed) fvantri/ 'grows' — /nanfri/ Jantri/ Passive (prefixed) /atdu/ ‘done! Jnatéu/ Jatéu/ passive (suffixed) fasfina/ ‘worked' /nasdina/ /vas4ina/ (vowel initial) Passive (suffixed) /vuntina/ 'killed' /nuvundina/ /uvundina/ (consonant initial) relative Hitudréna/ ‘bring’ /nitudréna/ /ttudréna/ 5.0 Adjectives and Participles A group of words share some aspects of the morphological composition of verbs as well as some inflectional characteristics. Although the group- ing as such is based on the syntactic properties of the words, the group will be described here because of their morphological relationship to the verbs. The group is made up of adjectives, which are similar to active verbs, and participles, which are similar to passive verbs, and a few roots of both types. 5.1 Adjectives Some adjectives are inflected for the imperative with the meaning ‘optative or hortative'. The imperative suffix is identical in form with the active verb imperative {-a}. Adjectives are not inflected for tense when used as modifiers, ‘Types Imperative Tense Root /tsdra/ "good" /uts4ra/ (future) (éari/ ‘wise! Jedré/ 404 {m-ami} Indi / ‘eweet! —__ (er) {m-ati} dndtif ‘dead’ /matésa/ HA {m-edrika} /médrika/ ‘deserving’ See (36)Form of active verb Present 43426 {m-a-zutue} /mazicu/ ‘industrious’ ./mazutd/ Past Future Present H'atsika} /mafatsika/ ‘cold’ Past : Future 443421 463426 dmifdza/ ‘dignified’ —/medz4/_ Present (only) 5.2 Participles Participles are generally inflected only for future tense. No imperative forms have been noted. Types Tense Boot [eal ‘seen’ Future /u-fta/ [tépaka/ Feut! Future /utépaka/ Wvita/ ‘finished’ Juvita/ -u {kiri-ina} /kirina/ ‘stubborn’ {vulu-ina} vuldina/ "hairy! 212 {fere-ana} /feréna/ ‘scarred’ /uférena/ {bika-ana} Jbikéna/ ‘shapely’ +35 {vo-rai} /vordi/ ‘received' +36 {tafa-vuri} /tafavéri/ ‘assembled’ {dtafavéri/ 6.0 Locatives Locatives are a small group of words formed from a set of stems with the prefixes + 16 and + 17. Along with the unanalyzed stem {4mina} ‘for, with' and {iza} 'where', these words are inflected for past tense by addi- tion of a prefix {t-}. The future is formed with, the verbal future prefix tnu-}, /u/. For example, /étu/ 'here' (present); /tétu/ 'here' (past); Juétu/ ‘here’ (future). ‘The stems are ranked in two columns. f:ems with prefix +16 indicate @ location unseen by the speaker. Stems with prefix +17 indicate a location (37)seen or recalled as seen by the speaker. The stems are ordered in the columns according to distance from the speaker, although for the last three ‘there! items the order may differ for different speakers. fe} 16 stem {a-} 417 Jett] {oti} Jatt} "here" (very near) Jéuf {-tu} [atu ‘here’ (near) /éaf {-u} [4s ‘there’ (near) /étsi/ {-tsi} (desi ‘there’ (not far) (éni/ {-ni} (éni/ ‘there’ (far or vague) feré/ {-ru} far6/ ‘there’ (far) Jert/ {-ri} fart] ‘there’ (very far) {-iza} /Siza/ ‘where?! 7.0 Posteclitic Person-markers The post-clitic person-markers (PM) occur with root words, or prefix- ing or suffixing stems. When the PM occur with suffixing stems, the suffixes +11, -12, -13 occur in non-final form. Within brackets PM are preceded by the symbol =, e.g. {Hfta} + {=ku} ~ /hftaku/ 'seen-by-me'. The PM bear stress, except for lst sg. and 3rd person and imply reduction of stem primary stress to secondary stress. 7.1 Allomorphs of PM Alternates of PM include two sets of forms. Set A is added to stems in vowel final and to extended roots in /na/. Set B is added to extended roots in /ka/ and /tra/. The 2nd plural forms are bimorphemic, containing an infixed morpheme {-ré-} (which also occurs with the demonstrative sub- stitutes) which means ‘plural’. Bt Set A Example Set B Ist sq. {=ku} [ku/ “fel 2nd sq. {=néu} Indu/ “/éu/ 3rd sq. & pl. {=ni} /nif ~/ni/ Ist pl. exclusive {=n4i} Indi/ “/4i/ Ist pl. inclusive {=Estka} “/stka/ ~/tstka/ —~/ts tka/ 2nd plura. {sna-ré-u} /naréu/ “faréu/ (38)7-12 Allomorphs of /ka/ /tra/ and /na/ extended roots before 2M are as follows: {1ésuna} "Lesson? Combinatory form I (1ésu) before set A, e.g, /lésuku/ 'my-lesson' (édtatra} 'known' {z4naka} child Combinatory form II (fatatra) and (zanak) occur before Set B members beginning with a vowel. Combinatory form I (fata) and (zana) occur be= fore Set B members beginning with a consonant, e.g., /fdtatru/ "known-by-me' /8tani/ "known-by-him'. 8.0 Nouns Nouns are a major word class which is not marked by inflection. Nouns are defined by their potential cooccurrence with the PM in the relationship "possessed noun’, e.g. /zdnaka/ ‘child’, /z4naku/ '‘my-child', Nouns may be proper nouns if preceded by the definite pre-modifier /i/ or if prefixed. by the proper noun prefix +11, {ra-}, Otherwise, nouns are common nouns. A fely bisyllabic nouns ending in /é/ or /6/ add /-a/ before the Pi: {kate} ‘coffee’ + {sku} + “/katé-aku/ 'ay-coftee'; {paké} ‘package’ + {enau} + ¢/pakd-andu/ 'your-package'. 8.1 Noun types Root Noun Wavif "(a) female! /sdratra/ ‘writing’ /azu/ "wood! Derived Nouns 411 {ra-} + {zaza-vavi} young girl! + /tazazav4vi/ "bride! ! Abstract nouns from adjectives: - +13 {Ha-} + {betsaka} ‘numerous’ + /abétsaka/ ‘state of being numerous! 413.4013 {ha~} + {betsati-j numerous! + {ana} ~ /abets4-ana/ ‘quantity’ (39)Agent nouns from active verbs: 42424 {p-] + {m-i-anatra} 'studies' + /pidnatra/ ‘student! 42431424 {p-] + {m-af-i-anatra} 'teaches' + /papiénatra/ ‘teacher’ 442421 {p-} + {m-aN-vagi} ‘visits’ ~ /pamdgi/ ‘visitor’ Abstract nouns from active verbs: 441424 {£-} + {m-i-tia} ‘loves! + /fitt/ ‘way-of-loving' #41421 {£-} + {m-aN-vaki} 'cuts' + /faméki/ "ax" 441426 {£-] + (m-a-Hita} 'sees' + /fa-tta/ "(things)-seen' #41426413 (£-} + {m-a-iia-ratsi} ‘makes bad' + /fA-ardtsi/ ‘badness! Abstract nouns from passive (prefixed) verbs: #41425 {£-] + {a-Lea} ‘gone’ ~ “/ead-andi/ "place-gone-to-by-us! Abstract nouns from relative verbs: +41421...-13 {é-} + {aN-tov-ana} 'do' = /fandvana/ ‘action, manner-of-doing" MHL426413..4-13 {f+} + [artia-afati-ana} tset free! + 4/ra.até-ana/ ‘Liberty! 9.0 Substitutes Several groups of words function as substitutes for nouns or noun | Phrases. These ere the personal pronouns and the demonstrative pronouns There are two kinds of personal pronouns: (1) independent pronouns, which ; may replace nouns functioning as subjects, and (2) dependent pronouns, which may replace nouns functioning as complements. The same categories’ as those of the PM are represented. The demonstrative pronouns are based on the same Stems as the locatives and exhibit the same dimensions of distance from the speaker. 9.1 Independent Personal Pronouns The independent personal pronouns (IP) are made up of the demonstrative Prefix {i-} #15 and the pronoun stems. The pronoun stems share a component. with the PM and are morphologically complex. ‘The stems, however, are not further analyzed, 0)Prefix IP stem e 415 {i-} /9/ before {4u} > /éu/ "Ist sg.' /1] before {zu} /izduf "Ist sg." (in initial subject {-anau} + /ian4uf "2nd gg.* Position) {eet} > /tet/ "ard (sg. and pl.)! {-zai} + /izdis "Ist pl. exclusive’ {-tsika} ~ /itsfka/ ‘Ist pl. inclusive! ~ {-sika} + /istka/ (Same, rare) {-anareu} ~ /ianaréu/ ‘2nd pl.' 9.2 Dependent personal pronouns _ The dependent personal pronouns (DP) are morphologically complex. All begin with /a/, and all but 1st sg. share components with the IP and FM. Several problems are invloved in the analysis of these forms, however, and they will be presented here as unanalyzed words. aid ‘Ist sg. e Janéu/ "and sg. fé2i/ "3rd (sg. and pl.) /andi/ ‘Ist pl. exclusive! Sjatstka/ ‘1st pl. inclusive’ /anaréu/ "and ple! 9.3 Familiar pronoun forms In place of the formal or polite 2nd sg. IP and DP, several terms nay be used in familiar direct address. These are composed of the prefix {i-] +15 or {ra-} +11, and the following stems: #5 {i-} Jil + {-ala} + /el4/ used between boys, classmates + {-letsi} ~ /ilétsi/ used in reply to person addressed as /el4/ + {-se} + /isé/ used between boys, adult males (more formal than /elé/) + {-dri} + /idrt/ used between girls, classmates + {-kala} + /ikéla/ used between girls + {-retsi} ~ /irétsi/ used between adult females, (more formal than /idrf/) @D+11 {ra-} /ra/ + {-Za} + /raga/ used between adult males or brothers 9.4 Demonstrative pronouns The demonstrative pronouns are composed of the demonstrative prefix {i-] #15, and che locative stems. The demonstratives are ranked according to distance from the speaker. However, some variation in ranking exists from speaker to speaker for the last three demonstratives. +15 (i-}] + {-locative stems} ~ /itf/ 'this' (very near) (/-tu/ not used) 146] 'that" (near) Htsi/ ‘that! (not far) /{ni/ 'that' (far or vague) Hiré/ "that" (far) Hixt/ ‘that (very far) The stems with final vowel stress may combine with a morpheme {-katra} to form the following demonstratives, which may be used in place of the shorter forms: Jitfkatra/ ‘this' /irdkatra/ "that" /irtkatra/ ‘that! 9.41 Other demonstrative pronouns Three morphemes may occur with the demonstratives forming (1) plurals {-re-}, (2) unseens {-24-}, and (3) seen but unknowns {-in-}. Of these, {-tin-} is an infix, occurring between the consonant and last vowel of the locative stem. {-re-} and {-z4-}, which may be analyzed as bound roots, occur between the demonstrative prefix {i-} #15 and the locative stem. Demonstrative (1) Plural {-re-} (2) Unseen {-24-} (3) Unkriown {-1in-} Jiet/ /ittni/ Jitu (ect used) /ixétu/ (/ré/) — /izdtu/ /id/ /iréu/ Jizéu/ Z /fesi/ firétsi/ /izdtsi/ (42)Mail /ixéni/ /izdni/ Hird] Hixers/ (~/re/) fixt/ fizert/ (“/re/) /iréni/ The same forms are used as demonstrative adjectives, preceding and following a noun, e.g., “/itk dluna itt/ ‘this person this'. °/izant futéna izdni/ ‘that time that', in which °/diuna/ and °/guténa/ are nouns. 10.0 Nunbers Numbers are grouped together primarily on the basis of semantic criteria. Morphologically the cardinal numbers 1-10, 100 and 1000 are roots that uniformly function as stems with the derivational prefix {in-} +12 ‘multiplicative’ and form a complex word with the bound root {anaki-} ‘number grouped as a unit', e.g. /anakitélu/ ‘three together’. The cardinal numbers, roots and others, also form ordinal numbers with the prefix com- plex {f-a-Ha-} +41426+13, e.g. /f-afvlu/ ‘tenth’. 10.1 The cardinal numbers (roots only) are: Fixdi/ “/edil "1 feo] nee /e61u/ "3" /éfatra/ 4 tail ‘5! ‘ (éninaf ‘or a ’ Leftu/ a WNaluf "et z Ietvif ‘9 : /edluf "10" fedtuf "100" /artvu/ "1000' Another form, /{sa/ 'one' composed of the demonstrative prefix {i-]} +15 and a stem {-sa}, may be used in place of /réi/ in counting. (43)10.2 Non-root numbers Other cardinal numbers (and ordinal numbers with prefix /fa-a/) are © cscher compound words or phrases composed of numbers and the connective /&i/ 'plus'. Preceding /45i/, the number /réi/ 'one' has the alteinate Hrdika/. The numbers 20, 30,...90, and 200, 300,...900 may be considered com= Pound words with /fdlu/ '10' or /zatu/ '100' as the second element. A tew irregular modifications similar to n- modifications occur in both the first and second elements of the compounds. Compound words Spetpétu/ ~ /xdpsiu/ "20" /avardpsiu/ "20th" /tdlupélu/ "30! ete. /2fapslu/ "40" /aimapélu/ "50" Pnipélu/ "60" /sLtupslu/ "70" (valupslu/ "80" /sivifélu/ "90" Sprdadledtu/ ~ /rddedeu/ '200" /eBludzdeu/ "300" Pfadedeu/ "400" t /dimadzdtu/ "500" Penidedtu/ "600! /#leudzdeu/ "700" | Waludzdtu/ *g00' (sividedtu/ "900" 110, Additional Morphophonemic Statements 11.1 Morphophonemics of {x} {R} occurs with adjective, participle and verb roots with the meaning ‘attenuation of root meaning’ or 'repetition'. The first part of the reduplication form bears secondary stress, the secong part bears primary © rvess. vous! final roots are doubled: (44){1éfu} ‘expensive’ + {R} + /1Aful4fu/ 'somewhat-expensive! {tsdra} 'nice' + {R} + /tsratsdra/ ‘rather-nice' Extended roots occur in combinatory form I or II, depending on the initial Phoneme of the root, and with 'ka, tra and n-modifications': {lévitra} ‘far! + {R} + /1aviddvitra/ ‘rather-far' {m-i-résaka} 'talks' + {R} + /mirtsadrésaka/ 'chats-for-a-little-while’ {m-i-H4tuna} "hangs, stops’ + {R} + /midtukétuna/ (with prefix +43+24) In a few instances the entire active verb is reduplicated except that the prefix +43 occurs only in the first part: {m-aN-16-a} 'goes' + {R} + “/madd-adé/ 'keeps-going, goes-repeatedly' (with #43421 from the root {1é-a} ‘go's 11.2 Occurrence of ‘ka, tra, and n-modifications' ‘ka, tra and n-modifications' occur under the following conditions: (a.) As a result of {R} (See examples in Sec. 11,1) (b.) In compound words {tapaka} 'cut' + (wévitra} 'thought' + /dpakévitra/ 'be-decided' (c.) When the extended root is followed by any word in construction with it and no juncture intervenes, e.g. {éfatra} 'four' and {14} 'boy' + /&fad4/ ‘four boys! {p-i-vérutra} 'vendor' and {véri} ‘rice’ + /pivarubéri/ 'vendor-of-rice! {mdnana} 'has' and {sdina} 'intelligence' ~ /m’natsdina/ ‘has-intelligence' (a.) When any word is the head of a possessive construction or an agent construction, and a construction marker {n} 'n-link' occurs between the head and the agent or possessive atcribute, 'n-modifications' occur, e.g. {n-aléfa} ‘was sent' + {n} 'marker' and {rabé} 'Rabe (name)' + /nalbfadrabé/ ‘was sent by Rabe’ It should be noted that in the case of (c.) above,‘n-modifications’may not eccur consistently for certain consonants. Especially /d/ /g/ /ér/ /dz/ /ts/ tend to remain unmodified under these conditions. @sNOTES Word stress in Malagasy may be interpreted as stress superfixes. For simplicity of notation, however, stress superfixes of words will mot be written separately, The convention is adopted of writing stress on all phonemic notations of words, Stress is written on morphemes cited in brackets only for those morphemes that are always stressed and on citations which are not accompanied by a phonemic notation (only, of course, if those morphemes bear stress). { ] indicates a morpheme; ~ should be read "results in'; + preceding a form in { } or / / indicates addition of a following morpheme to the Preceding morpheme to form a word; + preceding a number indicates 4 position class of prefixes; ~ should be read ‘alternates with’ (and is used in referring to allomorphs only.) ~ indicates a point of morpheme juncture and is used in Malagasy forms . brackets only. In English glosses - indicates that the translation corresponds to a single morphological word in Malagasy. By stressed vowel is meant a vowel bearing either primary or secondary stress; the symbol # may indicate either /é/ or /&/. Some other members of the set include /da, ki, ta, sa/. Some other members of the set include /or, ar, in, on/. H is a morphophonemic symbol indicating phonemic /+/ or zero that alternates with /k/, (and with /n/ after the verbal prefix {aN-}). Reduplicated roots are, unlike doubled secondary roots, made up of 4 root plus a reduplicative morpheme {R} 'the meaning of the root to a lesser degree’. The roots which occur with {R}. are usually root words. The morphophonemic symbol H' indicates a stem initial phonemic /+/ or zero which alternates with /g/ after the verbal prefix {aN-}. H alternates with /n/ in this environment, see Sec. 2.11.b above. (46)10. i. 12. 13, The principal reasons for stating the relationship in this direction are (1) the difficulty of predicting the position of root stress from the position of stress of the suffixing stem in Type IV and (2) the difficulty of predicting the root final consonant in Type V. The root {vidi} is the underlying root of the short suffixing stem (Type 1) {vidt-}, and of the long suffixing stem (Type Iv) {vididn-}. A stem initi may be interpreted as the morpheme 414, or as a part of the adjective 1 consonant /m/ occurring only on (bound) adjective roots root. We will designate this initial consonant as 404 in order to Preserve the prefix position order, only when the /m/ is Preceded by prefixes of order +1; otherwise, it is designated as +14. {vo-} sometimes has the meaning of action perforned by an agent, by intention. {tafa-} lacks reference to an agent or intentional action, but sometimes has the meaning ‘an action forced by circumstance! . This prefix complex {mea-Ha-} forms verbs for which no imperative is noted. These forms are nevertheless included as verbs for syntactic reasons. (47)1.0 2.0 21 2.11 2.2 2.21 2.22 2.23 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 4.0 4. 4a 4.12 4.13 42 4.21 4.3 4.31 4.32 4.33 464 4.41 4.42 4.43 4.46 4.45 5.0 5.1 Syntax Sentences Clauses Intrinsic properties of clauses Clause types Clauses in sequence Dependent clauses Relative clauses Subjoined clauses Expressions Nominal expressions Adjectival expressions Verbal expressions Functions of expressions Adjuncts - Clauses as subjects Syntactic words and constructions Nominais Endocentric nominal constructions The directive construction Noun and direct object complement Adjectivals Endocentric adjectival construction Verbals Endocentric verbal construction The agent construction The direct object complement construction Additional constructions The appositive construction The intensive construction The ‘approximate’ construction The nominalization The coordinate construction Satellite words Satellite modifiers (48)5.1 5.12 5.13 5.2 5.3 5.31 5.32 5.33 564 5.5 6.0 Definite pre-modifiers Modal pre-modi fiers Post-modifiers Parentheticals Relational words Coordinate relational words Connectives The relative /izdi/ Nominalizers Markers Sample analysis (49)o Cc. Syntax 1.0 Sentences are utterances that are phonologically complete, i.e. bounded by terminal juncture, and grammatically independent, i.e. not in construction with any other utterance or utterance part. The sentence, in addition to its intonation, is composed of a clause or a sequence of clauses. 2.0 Clauses are full clauses, minor clauses or fragment clauses. Full clauses are minimally composed of a predicate (P) and a subject ($). Minor clauses are minimally composed of a predicate. Fragment ‘clauses are clauses that lack a predicate. Fragment clauses are functionally responses (answers or comments) or exclamations. These are briefly illustrated here and will not be further described.t 4 (responses) ié "Yes" tsfa ‘no! éni 4ri "Yes, indeed." (exclamations) drat ‘ont 4i vé ‘Oh, really?!" 2.1 Intrinsic properties of ¢lauses include composition and order of clause elements. The full clause is composed of P +S. The normal order has P as clause initial element. If either aS or an adjunct occurs as clause initial, the displaced P is usually preceded by an order marker, /dfa/ or /nu/. $ (with the exception of a clause functioning as S$) must be indicated as definite, i.e. preceded by a definite pre-modifier, unless § is intrinsically definite, 4.€, a pronoun or a proper name, P may be definite or indefinite in an equational clause, but in other types of clauses P is indefinite. In general, clauses in sequence containing $ in the first clause omit $ in subsequent clauses if the subject remains the same throughout the sequence. 2.11 Four clause types are distinguished on the basis of the predicate-subject relationship, which is determined by the composition of the predicate. The types are (1) equational clause (2) descriptive clause (3) action clause (4) existential clause. In the following examples the complete P is under- lined twice (B), the complete § is underlined once (§). Clause adjuncts (50)and other elements are not underlined in Section 2. Should the discussion require identification of the central word of the P or $, P or $ will be written directly above that word. Clause boundaries are indicated by a slant line, /. 1) The equational clause contains a nominal predicate. The meaning is P equals s. paBignatra f2i ‘He's a teacher.’ bikizku itt "This is my book." * "pb andy id "That's yours." 2) The descriptive clause contains an adjectival predicate. The meaning is P specifies or describes Ss. "The weather is very hot.' xi_rabé ‘Are the Rabes in? ami_oi_efvy ni_fivuri=ndi ‘our meeting is at seven.’ 3) The action clause contains a verbal predicate. Three subtypes of action clauses are distinguished according to the predicate verb. a). The predicate is an active verb. The meaning of the clause is $ performs P. izi ‘He approached him.' a. mignatra du "1'm studying." b) The predicate is a passive verb. The meaning of the clause is $ is the goal or recipient of action P. ‘the tea was drunk by him.! ‘The lesson isn't being studied by him.’ c) The predicate is a relative verb. The meaning of the clause is $ is the circumstance of action P. : (1) Tether oeadru,dtacku_taratési ména "Mama is the cause of my writing this letter, ami ni _télu nu angvacku rdsard-a "Three o'clock is (when) I do (this) work." @ 4) The existential clause contains the verb /mfsi/ ‘there is, are’ or one of its inflected forms. The meaning of the clause is that the existence in the realm of discourse of the direct object complement of /m{si/ is confirmed or emphasized. If the clause includes 8, 8 stands in apposition to P. isi_tluna_bétsaka ani atrénu ‘There are lots of people at home." P= mfsi (verb) + luna (direct object complement with modifier’ /bétsaka/) teiwnlel viékani i1ai fikabénana ‘There were no results from that effort," P= tsi nfsi (verb) + vidkani (direct object complement) Dbivitsivitsi t8ni afsd-a "Some cattle were there in the field.’ P= nfsi (verb) + sbi (direct object complement with modifier /vitsivftsi/.) 2.2 Clauses in sequence are either joined clauses or subjoined clauses. Joined clauses ate clauses that lack a connective, esg. nadé-aizi ddru aman lina / tsi mideénuna "He walked day and night, F doesn't stop.’ The first clause is a full clause, the second is a minor clause: Both are action clauses. "There wasn't a boat, there wasn't anything." Both clauses are minor clauses and existential clauses. (52)oO eo Subjoined clauses are clauses joined to another clause by a connective. If the clause with introdvcing connective may not function as a sentence, that clause is a dependent clause (DC). Dependent clauses with a single, and usually contiguous, antecedent are relative clauses (RC). If the clause with introducing connective may function as a sentence, it is an indepen- dent clause (IC). Clauses lacking connectives (joined clauses) that may function as sentences are also independent >lauses. 2.21 Dependent clauses with the exception of relative clauses, share the normal order, PS, of independent clauses. A DC normally follows the IC. I£ the DC occurs before the IC, the IC is preceded by the order marker /dfa/. Ie De f41i du / r& atdengu ni asaenfu -—«'I"11 be happy ££ you do your work.! 8 Ic rh gtdendu ni Asasndu / dia / ufgli du "If you do your work, I'11 be happy." 2.22 Relative clauses are introduced by the relative connective /izdi/. Ié /izdi/ is omitted, the former relative clause is then interpreted as a word or phrase modifier of the antecedent of the former relative clause. ‘The antecedent is a nominal expression. Ic RC fidiza ni ndmaendu / izdt nad’ ‘where was your friend going who passed by here?! or nakdiga ni ndmacndu naddlu tétu "(Same as above)' . In the example above, the RC occurs after the IC. The Re may also be embedded in the IC, e.g. (53)Ic RC Ic oO nitandna / izAi nalé-a=ku / dia / ndsafindritra "The village which I went to was pleasant.’ If /izdi/ serves as the $ of the relative clause, the normal order is SP with no order marker before the (displaced) P. "That person (whom) I was waiting ‘iq 418i dluna / izai . for arrived.’ ‘| 2.23 Subjoined clauses may be either full clauses, e.g. i De lta_akdri au /.satrfa tna nu vudi id ranu id ‘I can't cross , at all because y this river is full of crocodile = ami ni ndma=ndu iandu / ra yftg ni fianbra~néu ‘You may play at your friend's (ho Et if your studies a’ finished." or minor clauses, e.g. Ic , pe a . = ~ disu_fanatengna méfi_dia mAfi rafj4 / ka 1&sa_addla "The gentleman was terribly disappointed - and went mad.' Ie ‘i pe "I almost didn't recognize you, re because (you) have changed a lot. 3.0 Expressions FH (54)3,1 A nominal expression may function as a nominal predicate. the nominal expression is composed of (1) @ noun, a substitute (independent’ pronaun (IP), dependent, pronoun (DP) a person marker (FM), a demonstrative pronoun (Dem P) ox the interrogative substitutes /fnuna/ ‘what’ or /fza/ ‘who'); (2) a noun Phrase, which is an endocentric construction with nominal head; or (3) a nominalization, which is a construction composed of an independent word or Phrase preceded by a definite pre-nodifier. (See sec. 4.44) 3.2 An adjectival expression may function as an adjectival predicate. The adjectival expression is composed of (1) an adjective or participle, a nunber, or a locative; (2) an adjective, participle, number, or locative phrase, which is an endocentric construction with an adjectival head, or (3) a directive construction (See Sec. 4.12). 3.3. A verbal expression may function as a verbal predicate. The verbal expression is composed of (1) a verb which may be an active verb (Va), @ passive verb (Vp) or a relative verb (Vr); or (2) a verb phrase, which ia a construction with verbal focus or with a verbal head,” e.g. a verb plus direct complement. 3.4 Any expression may function as a predicate. A subject (except for a clause functioning as subject) is normally a nominal expression except for the subject of an active clause consisting of a verbal predicate with relative verb (Vr). The $ of Vr frequently corresponds to an adjunct in @ clause with Va or Vp, (Adjuncts are marked by a single broken underline:) Action clause with Va "You'll find a taxi there in front of the station.' Action clause with Vr: "There in front of the station éu ald.an ni gdra nu ua, is (the circumstance of) your finding a taxi." . (55)