OUTOKUMPU’S CORROSION KNOWLEDGE GUIDE

Atmospheric
corrosion
Atmospheric corrosion is not a unique form
of corrosion. Instead, it is a collective term
to denote the corrosion of all surfaces in the
atmosphere. It can take place in indoor or
outdoor environments, and all corrosion forms
can, in principle, be involved.

ARTICLE: ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION outokumpu.com

 Contents

Classification of atmospheric corrosion resistance class...........4

Factors affecting atmospheric corrosion of stainless steels.......5

Moisture................................................................................................................5
Aggressive contaminants......................................................................................5
Microclimate..........................................................................................................5
Surface roughness................................................................................................6
Surface orientation and design............................................................................6
Surface characteristics.........................................................................................6

Material selection...................................................................7

Guidelines for stainless steel selection.....................................8

Application examples..............................................................8

ARTICLE: ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION 2

 Corrosion of stainless steels in the atmosphere is most
often induced by halides, and especially chlorides.
This is due to their abundance in coastal and marine
environments as well as close roads from de-icing
activities. When stainless steel is exposed to an aggressive
atmosphere it is primarily stained, this is sometimes
referred to as tea staining, see Figure 1. But it can also be
attacked by localized corrosion over time, particularly at
high chloride levels. Discoloration of stainless steel is not
automatically the result of atmospheric corrosion or even
corrosion attack at all. It can result from dirt or extraneous
rust that does not affect the stainless steel.

There are two main applications where knowledge of

atmospheric corrosion is essential: in architectural and in
structural use.

The surface appearance is of high importance in

architectural applications, while superficial corrosion attack
can be often be neglected in structural applications. The
long-term durability and the very low dissolution rate of
metal ions make stainless steels a very environmental-
friendly choice of material with a low life-cycle cost.

Fig. 1. Slight tea staining on a stainless steel railing on Tenerife, Canary Islands.

ARTICLE: ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION 3

 Classification of
atmospheric corrosion
resistance class
For classification of atmospheric corrosion resistance
class, there are several standards available, such as ISO
9223 and EN 1993-1-4 Annex A (Eurocode 3) standard.
In the ISO 9223 standard the corrosivity of different
atmospheres is classified from C1 to CX, where C1 is the
least aggressive and CX the most aggressive atmosphere.
These classes are a good tool for selecting materials that
suffer uniform corrosion under atmospheric conditions,
such as carbon steel or zinc. However, stainless steels
exhibit a totally different corrosion mechanism. Therefore, it
is not easy to transfer the corrosivity classes in ISO 9223
to stainless steels as the limits between the different
classes are more diffuse.

The design standard EN 1993-1-4 Annex A sets out a

methodology for selecting an appropriate grade of stainless
steel for the service environment, using five Corrosion
Resistance Classes (CRC I to V). The CRC system takes into
account chloride and sulfur dioxide exposure and washing
of stainless steels by rain. Exposure to marine chlorides
is defined by distance from the coast. In contrast, the ISO
9223 C-class system defines the corrosiveness class by
the quantitative measurement of chloride deposit rates.

ARTICLE: HIGH
ATMOSPHERIC
TEMPERATURE
CORROSION
CORROSION 4

Factors affecting
atmospheric corrosion of
stainless steels
Moisture
As a conductive electrolyte is needed for atmospheric
corrosion to occur, the temperature, relative humidity, dew
point and other conditions will influence the corrosion
process. The amount and availability of moisture present
is an important factor. One of the measures of moisture is
the time of wetness (TOW). A combination of high humidity,
such as in tropical climates and high temperature creates
the worst conditions for the occurrence of atmospheric
corrosion.
High humidity generates a film of moisture on the steel
surface that dissolves any salt deposits and creates a
corrosive electrolyte. On the other hand, atmospheric
corrosion is rarely a problem in atmospheres with low
humidity and absence of corrosive deposits such as
chlorides, such as indoor environments.
Aggressive contaminants
The second most important factor in atmospheric corrosion
is the contaminants found in the air such as chlorides
and sulfur dioxide (SO2). Chlorides are present in droplets
formed by seawater. They evaporate and leave a residue of
sea salt. The presence of salt on the surface is one of the
ARTICLE: ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION
major causes of atmospheric corrosion on stainless steels.
Sea salt remains wet up to very low relative humidity. The
result is that the steel surface stays wet longer with sea
salt compared to pure sodium chloride.
Industrial pollutants such as sulfur dioxide can dissolve
into and affect the electrolyte. This lowers the pH of
the electrolyte, as sulfuric acid is formed, making the
electrolyte more aggressive.
Microclimate
Steels exposed to sheltered areas or fully exposed to
the atmosphere can give rise to very different amounts
of staining and corrosion. The difference in resistance
between fully exposed and sheltered positions is
geographically dependent. A sheltered position is often
more severe because the steel is protected from rain
so there is no natural run off, so natural cleaning. In
combination with a humid atmosphere this makes the
situation even more severe as there is an electrolyte
present that may also contain aggressive pollutants. If the
conditions are very aggressive in sheltered areas such as
the underside of sloping roofs, downpipes under eaves or
in rain shadow, this can cause significant tea staining or
discoloration.
The situation may also be the opposite, with more
corrosion on the fully exposed surface compared to the
sheltered. This is particularly likely in areas where there is
little rainfall, so natural washing of the surface is minimal.
5
 Surface roughness
A smoother surface tends to increase the resistance of
stainless steel to atmospheric corrosion. This is due to
several factors. One is that, on the microscopic scale,
a smoother surface will have a smaller effective area
compared to a rougher surface. This decreases the
probability of an initiation site being present. Another factor
is that dirt and moisture are retained more efficiently on
a rough surface compared to a smooth surface. Rough
grinding can also form surface micro-crevices that increase
the risk of staining and attack.
Surface orientation and design
A ground surface with a vertical grinding direction is often
found to have a higher corrosion resistance compared
to a surface with horizontal grinding. This is because the
vertical grinding direction is more easily cleaned by rain,
while horizontal grinding traps moisture and contaminants.
Designs with corners or crevices (such as intermittent
welds) can trap water and lead to more serious corrosion.
ARTICLE: ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION
Surface characteristics
To achieve the best corrosion performance for stainless
steel, the surface should be clean, free of contamination
and have a continuous passive layer. Acid pickling,
passivation or electropolishing will remove contaminants
and inclusions from the steel surface. This will restore the
passive layer and form a clean and corrosion resistant
surface.
If a stainless steel is welded, the heat input will locally
destroy the passive layer and form a thick nonprotective
oxide in the weld area. This thick oxide will decrease the
corrosion resistance in the weld area and to achieve
optimal corrosion performance, not only the weld oxide
but also the underlying chromium-depleted layer, must be
removed such as by pickling.
6
 Material selection
A different approach, compared to the corrosivity classes,
is to suggest suitable steels for environments with different
levels of harshness by ranking them according to their
Pitting Resistance Equivalent, (PRE). The most common
PRE formula is based on the content of Cr, Mo and N in
the steel, and the higher the PRE value, the higher the
resistance to atmospheric corrosion. For Outokumpu
products, the PRE ranges from 12 for the lowest alloyed
steels up to 56 for the highest alloyed Ultra 654 SMO.

Outokumpu Moda range steels are generally better

suited for indoor use, but with some caution and the
right measures they may be used in some outdoor
environments, especially the molybdenum alloyed Supra
444/4521. In rural environments and in smaller towns
the Core range steels may be used, while the Supra range
steels or Forta DX 2304 should be chosen for cities. Forta
LDX 2101 and Supra 444/4521 may also be alternatives
for both groups. Special applications, for example statues
and sculptures, might need a higher alloyed steel than
usual to guarantee to maintain a pristine surface - see
Figure 2.

When selecting stainless steel for road environments

the aggressiveness is very much dependent on location,
distance from the road, de-icing frequency and traffic load.

Fig. 2. God, our Father, on the Rainbow, Nacka Strand, Stockholm, Sweden.
Sculpture designed by Carl Milles. Stainless steel Ultra 254 SMO.

ARTICLE: ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION 7

 Guidelines for stainless
steel selection
For selecting stainless steel for structural and architectural
applications, there are several guidelines and standards
available, such as EN 1993-1-4 Annex A (Eurocode 3),
AISI Steel Design Guide 27 and the IMOA Site and Design
Evaluation System tool (IMAO program).

The corrosion resistance class (CRC) system in EN 1993-

1-4 standard and the IMOA guide are developed specifically
for stainless steels in built environment applications.
The CRC system suggests stainless steel that does not
suffer structurally damaging corrosion in the particular
environment. The CRC does not consider the appearance
of the parts or aesthetic concerns such as rust or staining.
Fig. 3. Supra 316L/4404 for flooring at Suvarnabhumi Airport in
The IMOA program is designed to help specifiers select Bangkok, Thailand.
appropriate stainless steels and surface finishes for
applications where corrosion staining is aesthetically
unacceptable, even if there is no structural deterioration. Materials selection for indoor use is not as difficult as
it can be for outdoor use, especially in near-coastal
environments. The architectural purpose decides the finish,
Application examples and the material is selected according to the environmental
conditions and the maintenance regime. If a very coarse
For architectural use, applications include the cladding surface is desired, it might be necessary to use a higher
of facades, roofs, lifts and entrances. Stainless steel alloyed steel or increase the cleaning frequency, as the
handrails and staircases are increasingly popular, both surface finish influences the corrosion resistance and
indoors and outdoors – see Figure 3. cleanness.

ARTICLE: ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION 8


Fig. 4. C
 ore 304/4301 cladding on Chrysler
building in New York, erected 1930.
The cladding has only been cleaned
twice.
ARTICLE: ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION
Stainless steels have been used for architectural purposes
for many decades, and perhaps the most famous use is
the cladding at the top of the Chrysler building in New York
City, built in 1930 – see Figure 4.
Outokumpu also manufactured the cladding for Petronas
Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, where a
combination of glass and stainless steel forms the cladding
– see Figure 5.
Special applications such as sculptures can make higher
alloyed steels appropriate even in mild environments. The
Sibelius Monument in Helsinki by the Finnish sculptor Eila
Hiltunen was made in Supra 316/4436 despite its urban
location. The Sun Flower Field located in a lagoon outside
of Jeddah is also a Hiltunen creation. This sculpture
was made in Ultra 254 SMO due to the harsh marine
environment. The sculpture in Figure 2, imaging God on
the rainbow placing new stars on heaven, is located in
Stockholm, is surrounded by brackish water which is why it
was made in Ultra 254 SMO.
When stainless steels are used for structural applications,
the strength and ductility of the material are in focus.
There are many benefits associated with the use of
stainless steel instead of other less corrosion-resistant
materials. One example is the construction of bridges.
The use of mild steel means a continuous war against
corrosion, often by painting of the surface to avoid severe
Fig. 5. Petronas Twin Towers, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia, completed in 1998. Cladding
in Supra 316/4401. Designed by
César Peli.
9
 corrosion and in the worst-case scenario, material
failure with a collapsed bridge as the result. Stainless steel
For more details about stainless steel
offers long-term durability at a fraction of the maintenance
costs of mild steel, resulting in an environment-friendly and corrosion please request a copy
outokumpu.com
material with a low lifecycle cost. of Outokumpu’s Corrosion Handbook.

The first stainless steel road bridge in the world, the

Cala Galdana bridge, was finished in 2005 in Menorca,
Spain. Outokumpu cooperated with the consultants, main
contractor and subcontractors to deliver Forta DX 2205
selected due to the harsh coastal environment.

Forta DX 2304 and Forta DX 2205 have been used for

several footbridges since 2002 and major Forta LDX 2101
was used for a footbridge in Siena, Italy, built in 2006. The
material was chosen to match the moderately corrosive
environment in an inland city with low pollution levels.

Figure 6 shows Europe’s longest (760 m) pedestrian bridge

crossing Ljungaviken in Sölvesborg, Sweden. The bridge
is built from hot rolled Forta LDX 2101 with 1D surface
finish. By using stainless steel no surface treatment was
necessary and repainting every 15 years is avoided. In
addition, this prevents environmental problems associated
with paint flakes and grinding dust entering the bay of
Sölvesborg, which is a bird sanctuary.

Fig. 6. Hot rolled Forta LDX 2101 was used for Europe’s longest (760 m)
pedestrian bridge crossing Ljungaviken in Sölvesborg, Sweden.

ARTICLE: ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION 10

Working towards

ARTICLE: ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION

a world that
lasts forever
We work with our customers and partners to create
long lasting solutions for the tools of modern life
and the world’s most critical problems: clean energy,
clean water, and efficient infrastructure. Because we
believe in a world that lasts forever.

Information given in this document may be subject to alterations without notice. Care has been taken to
ensure that the contents of this publication are accurate but Outokumpu and its affiliated companies do
not accept responsibility for errors or for information which is found to be misleading. Suggestions for
or descriptions of the end use or application of products or methods of working are for information only
and Outokumpu and its affiliated companies accept no liability in respect thereof. Before using products
supplied or manufactured by the company the customer should satisfy himself of their suitability.

MODA, CORE, SUPRA, FORTA, ULTRA, DURA, THERMA and DECO are trademarks of Outokumpu Oyj.

PRODEC, EDX, FDX, FDX 25, FDX 27, LDX, 253 MA, 254 SMO, 654 SMO, LDX 2101, LDX 2404 are registered
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