Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 10 0 0 06

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Geosystems and Geoenvironment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geogeo

The India-Eurasia convergence system: Late Oligocene to early

Miocene passive roof thrusting driven by deep-rooted duplex stacking
Xiaoyu Guo a,b, Chunsen Li a,b, Rui Gao a,b,∗, Sanzhong Li c,d, Xiao Xu a,b, Zhanwu Lu e,
Wenhui Li e, Bo Xiang a,b
a
School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
b
Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Zhuhai 519080, China
c
Key Lab of Submarine Geosciences and Prospecting Techniques/Institute for Advanced Ocean Study, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
d
Laboratory for Marine Mineral Resources, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
e
Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Late Oligocene-Early Miocene epoch represents a critical stage in the collisional history of the India-
Received 28 September 2021 Eurasia dominant collision zone. Within this timeframe, a set of tectonic events occurred simultaneously
Accepted 29 September 2021
or progressively. However, the key responsible for triggering these nearly coeval events remains unclear.
This study used an integrated analysis of both geological and geophysical data to document the tectonic
Keywords: interactions throughout the Himalayan Orogenic Belt from west to east. Deep seismic reflection profiles
India-Eurasia convergence system outline crustal geometry of a decoupled Indian subduction front, and the overlying sheets over the Main
Crustal-scale architecture Himalayan Thrust (MHT) is evidenced with a sequence of detachment-associated ramp-anticlines. Mean-
Post-Eocene deformation while, regional magnetotelluric (MT) profiles document rheologic connections in the form of a high-
Tectonic interactions
conductivity anomaly running top-to-the south between the southernmost Tibet and the areas beyond
the Yarlung-Zangbo Suture Zone to the south. The overall architecture provides a complete picture of the
complex deformation pattern beneath the tectonic convergence system. Together with previous studies
in surface geological investigations, we propose that the enhanced duplex stacking of the underthrusting
Indian crust increased crustal shortening of the convergence system. The consequent sudden exposure of
the northern Himalayan domes released the accumulated stress to trigger the onset of a south-dipping
passive roof thrusting through the convergence system to the southernmost Tibetan Plateau. Recognition
of this exchange pattern from crustal duplex stacking to passive roof thrusting replenished an under-
standing of the tectonic interactions of the ongoing India-Eurasia collision.
© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Ocean University of China.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

1. Introduction Robinson and Pearson, 2006) and widespread anatexis which

Post-Eocene deformation of the India-Eurasia dominant colli-
sion zone has brought the convergence system to its current con-
figuration (Windley, 1983) (Fig. 1). The convergence system is
prominently characterized by coeval tectonic events during Late
Oligocene-Early Miocene epoch to produce some orogen-scale,
east-trending fault zones in both the northern Himalayas and
southernmost Tibet (Hubbard and Harrison, 1989; Kellett et al.,
2019; Kellett and Grujic, 2012; Li et al., 2008; Quidelleur et al.,
1997; Yin et al., 1999, 1994), as well as the northern Himalayan
inverted high-grade metamorphism (Harrison et al., 1999b;
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ruigao126@126.com (R. Gao).
induced the emplacement of leucogranites (Gao et al., 2017;
Harrison et al., 1999b; Searle et al., 2003). The tectonism was ac-
companied in southern Tibet by early Miocene emplacement of
adakites (Chung et al., 2003) that emplaced within the widespread
Gangdese Magmatic Arc.
The collisional history of the Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen dur-
ing Late Oligocene to Early Miocene has also attracted several
structural investigations aimed at constraining the geodynamic in-
teractions occurring at depths. This approach has led to some
observation-based mechanisms. In terms of mechanisms for ana-
texis beneath the Himalayas, previous researchers have proposed
(1) shearing heating (Harrison et al., 1999a, 1999b), (2) decom-
pression melting (Davidson et al., 1997), (3) radiogenic heating
(Molnar et al., 1983), (4) radiogenic heating after crustal thickening

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geogeo.2021.09.005
2772-8838/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Ocean University of China. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
X. Guo, C. Li, R. Gao et al. Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100006

Fig. 1. (a) Simplified geological map of the study area (edited after 1:5 Million International Geological Map of Asia by Ren et al. (2013)). The inset shows the study area in
the larger context of the Tibetan Plateau. MT lines (A to F) were from studies by Xie et al. (2017), Liang et al. (2018) and Sheng et al. (2019). Seismic reflection lines cover
the western Himalayan-Tibetan orogenic belt (line I) (Gao et al., 2016), the middle orogenic belt (lines II and III) (Guo et al., 2017), and the eastern orogenic belt (line IV)
(Dong et al., 2020). (b) Zoomed-in geological map in the central part of the convergence zone to show more details on the surface geological structures. TP: Tibetan Plateau;
JSS: Jinsha Suture; BNS: Bangong-Nujiang Suture; IP: Indian Plate; MFT: Main Frontal Thrust; MBT: Main Boundary Thrust; MCT: Main Central Thrust; STDS: South Tibetan
Detachment System; CR: Cona-Qiga Rift; YG Rift: Yadong-Gulu Rift; XD Rift: Xainza-Dingjye Rift; NT Rift: Nyima-Tingri Rift; LG Rift: Longgar Rift; YR Rift: Yare Rift; KKF:
Karakorum Fault; GCT: Gangdese Counter Thrust; GT: Gangdese Thrust; LMF: Luobadui-Milashan Fault; YS: Yarlung-Zangbo Suture; XB: Xigaze Basin (same abbreviations
below).

(Searle et al., 2003) and (5) partial melting of the Himalayan lower
crust during channel flow or heat transfer that migrated from
southern Tibet to the Himalayas (Robinson and Pearson, 2006;
Yin and Harrison, 20 0 0; Zheng et al., 2016). For the exhumation of
some northern Himalayan gneissic domes, some researchers have
proposed diapirism (Teyssier and Whitney, 2002), extensional ex-
humation (Guo et al., 2008), contractional exhumation (Burg et al.,
1984) and/or a combination of these processes (Lee et al., 2004;
Zhang, 2007). The Gangdese Counter Thrust to the southern
edge of the Gangdese Batholith is proposed to initiate as a re-
sponse of the tectonic activities of the South Tibetan Detachment
(Zhang, 2007), a process has brought flexural bending of south-
ern Tibet to result in a currently asymmetrical wedge architecture
(Wang et al., 2015).
Although the various mechanisms were proposed to explain the
variety of the observed structures, the overall Himalayan-Tibetan
Orogen lacks a comprehensive analysis with multidiscipline
datasets on the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene tectonic events.
The Himalayas and southern Tibet have interacted ever since the
collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate. The domi-
nant collision zone in this region underwent the strongest strain
localization which is thus the ideal place to study the triggering
mechanism of the coeval tectonic events. These tectonic events
can be yielded by some geochronological data obtained in recent
decades. In light of these new constraints, this study evaluates
deep seismic reflection profiles and magnetotelluric (MT) profiles
from the western Himalayas to the eastern to re-interpret crustal-
scale architecture beneath the dominant convergence system. This
paper combines geophysical data with previous geochronologic
and petrologic data to clarify what mechanism triggered the
onset of nearly coeval tectonic events and how the deep process
controlled the shallow-level deformation.
2. Regional geological setting
The Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen consists primarily of the Hi-
malayan Fold-thrust Belt and the Gangdese Magmatic Arc in the
southern Tibetan Plateau, which are separated by the south-
dipping Yarlung-Zangbo Suture Zone (Fig. 1, abbreviated as YZSZ).
This orogen formed mainly from Cenozoic amalgamation of the In-
dian and Eurasian plates (Yin and Harrison, 20 0 0). Fig. 2 shows all
available geochronological data for major structural features in the
study area. Detailed descriptions of tectonic units are given as fol-
lows.
2.1. The Himalayan fold-thrust belt
The Himalayan Block south of the Yarlung-Zangbo Suture Zone
is presented mostly with folds and thrusts (Fig. 1). The gneissic
domes and inverted metamorphism are accommodated by a set
of orogen-scale imbricate thrusts (Yin and Harrison, 20 0 0). From
south to north, the block consists of four orogen-parallel tectonic
units, including the Late-Cretaceous- Paleogene Sub-Himalayan
Foreland Basin, the greenschist-facies Lesser Himalayan Sequence,
and the gneissic Greater Himalayan Sequence, as well as the north-
ern Himalayan belt that comprises of the lightly-metamorphosed
to unmetamorphosed Tethyan Himalayan Sequence and the north-
ern Himalayan Gneissic Domes (Kellett et al., 2019; Kellett and
Grujic, 2012). Additionally, two 1500 km-long, E-W-striking intru-
sive belts containing anatexis-derived leucogranites develop within
the northern Himalayan Gneissic Domes and along the Southern
Tibetan Detachment of the Himalayas, respectively (Fig. 1).
2.1.1. The east-striking, Orogen-scale tectonic units
The active Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) separates the Sub-
Himalaya from the Indian Craton to the south, while the Main
Boundary Fault (MBT) separates it from the Lesser Himalayan Se-
quence (Fig. 1). The Lesser Himalayan Sequence abuts the Greater
Himalayan Sequence along the Main Central Thrust (MCT). The
Greater Himalayan Sequence represents the core of the Himalayan
fold-thrust belt, which consists of Neoproterozoic to Early Cam-
brian units and Cambrian to Ordovician plutons (Windley, 1983).
The exhumation of the Greater Himalayas is thought to have
occurred through south-vergent channel flow from mid-crustal

2
X. Guo, C. Li, R. Gao et al. Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100006

Fig. 2. Geochronologic constraints on post-collisional tectonism within the Himalayan-Tibetan orogenic belt. Symbol shapes shown in the upper right corner represent indi-
vidual dating methods and are filled with different colors according to rocks/mineral type analyzed. Age estimates for individual tectonic units of the Gangdese Counter Thrust
and Gangdese Thrust from Yin et al. (1994), of the Luobadui-Milashan Fault Zone from Xiang et al. (2012), of the Southern Tibetan Detachment from Kellett et al. (2019),
of the Main Central Thrust by Hubbard and Harrison (1989), of the Karakorum Fault by Li et al. (2008), of leucogranites by Guo and Wilson (2012), of the Gurla Mandhata
Dome in western Tibet from Murphy et al. (2002) and of Himalayan uplift at ∼22 Ma from Ding et al. (2017). NH: Northern Himalayas; SLT: Southern Lhasa Terrane.

depths (Robinson and Pearson, 2006). This accommodated thrust-
ing of the MCT in the footwall (Robinson and Pearson, 2006) and a
north-dipping, low-angle normal-sense Southern Tibetan Detach-
ment System (STDS) (Kellett et al., 2019) along the Greater Hi-
malaya’s northern edge. The Lesser Himalayan Sequence that in-
cludes Paleoproterozoic to Mesoproterozoic rocks lies beneath in
the footwall of the MCT (Yang et al., 2019). Initial motion along
the MCT occurred at ∼ 20–22 Ma (Hubbard and Harrison, 1989),
while U-Pb dating of zircon and monazite and 40 Ar/39 Ar mus-
covite cooling ages estimate a coeval ∼ 22–12 Ma shearing for
the STDS (Fig. 2; Kellett et al., 2009). The shearing along the STDS
may have extended further northward to accommodate exhuma-
tion of the northern Himalayan Gneissic Dome Belt (Kellett et al.,
2019). This belt consists of intermittent domes (Fig. 1) and has
also been referred to as the northern Himalayan granitic-gneissic
dome belt (Yin et al., 1999). Many domes are composed of 8–
18 Ma (Yin and Harrison, 20 0 0; Zhang, 20 07) mica granites or
leucogranites of the Miocene age. Some of them even emplaced
at ca. 44 Ma and 28 Ma in a way of dike swarms (Liu et al., 2014).
These overlie Ordovician to Eocene low-grade metamorphic units
of the Tethyan origin (Lee et al., 20 04; Zhang, 20 07). The domes
show diverse contact relationships with the Tethyan Himalayan
country rock, including intrusive contacts (Burg et al., 1984), core-
cover unconformable contacts modified after extensional exhuma-
tion (Lee et al., 2004) and fault contacts with north-dipping de-
tachment structures (Zhang, 2007). Various local mechanisms have
thus been proposed to explain the exhumation of the north-
ern Himalayan Gneissic Dome. These include diapiric processes
(Teyssier and Whitney, 2002), extensional exhumation (Guo et al.,
2008), contractional exhumation (Burg et al., 1984) and/or a com-
bination of these processes (Lee et al., 2004; Zhang, 2007).
All the main accommodating faults, i.e. the MFT, MBT and MCT,
as well as the STDS, appear to sole into the Main Himalayan Thrust
(MHT) at depth (Zhao et al., 1993), while the STDS is also proposed
to have extended to the north, breaching as the Great Counter
Thrust (Yin, 2006). The MHT is seismically active to perform a
southward extrusion through crustal-scale duplexing which in turn
transports the Indian crustal material southward from the lower
plate to the upper plate (Gao et al., 2016).
2.1.2. Leucogranite
Two sub-parallel Oligocene-Miocene leucogranite belts appear
within the Himalayan fold-thrust belt. One occurs along the
northern edge of the Greater Himalayan Sequence and the other
within the Tethyan Himalayan Sequence of the northern Himalayas
(Figs. 1 and 2). Both of them contain highly fractionated or evolved
granites (Wu et al., 2015). The leucogranites intruding into the
Greater Himalayas appear as a discontinuous chain of sills and
dikes adjacent to the STDS (Harrison et al., 1999b; Searle et al.,
2003). One pluton intruding into the Tethyan Himalayan Sequence
penetrated either the axial zone of the gneissic dome or the
Tethyan sedimentary sequence (Fig. 1). Previous studies have gen-
erally categorized the leucogranites as mica-bearing, tourmaline-
bearing and garnet-bearing peraluminous rocks (Wu et al., 2015).
Although these intrusive belts share a number of structural fea-
tures (Guo and Wilson, 2012; Zhang et al., 2005; Zheng et al.,
2016), the belts express a number of unique features as well.
Researchers have estimated different melting temperatures for the
two leucogranite belts (Harrison et al., 1997; Montel, 1993), includ-
ing ∼700 °C along the crest of the Greater Himalayas and > 750 °C
along the northern Himalayan belt. The Greater Himalayan Se-
quence appears to have been emplaced at lower temperatures
relative to those estimated for the north Himalayan granite belt

3
X. Guo, C. Li, R. Gao et al.
by Gao et al. (2020) and Harrison et al. (1997). Higher melting
temperatures could produce more buoyant magmas with greater
ability to ascend (Harrison et al., 1997). Meanwhile, leucogranites
of the northern Himalayan domes required a low rate of fluid infil-
tration (Guo and Wilson, 2012; Le Fort et al., 1987) during mantle-
derived heating (Zheng et al., 2016). The leucogranites in two
belts originated either from in-situ partial melting of metapelites
(Harrison et al., 1999b; Molnar et al., 1983; Searle et al., 2003)
or from a high temperature magma that experienced extensive
fractional crystallization after long-distance migration from the
locality of anatexis (Wu et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2019).
2.2. The southern Tibetan Plateau
The southern Tibetan Plateau consists primarily of the Lhasa
Block (Fig. 1). The Lhasa Block divides into three micro-blocks
(Li et al., 2018), including the southern, the central and the north-
ern Lhasa micro-blocks. The E-W- striking Luobadui-Milashan Fault
and the Shiquanhe-Namco mélange zone intervenes between these
three micro-blocks (Fig. 1; Zhu et al., 2011). The large-scale dex-
tral Karakoram Fault appears in western Tibet (Fig. 1; Li et al.,
2008). Additionally, the south-dipping Gangdese Counter thrust
and the Gangdese Thrust developed and juxtaposed against the
Xigaze forearc strata (Yin et al., 1999, 1994).
2.2.1. Regional-scale faulting
Deep seismic reflection profiles outline the deep contact re-
lationships among the Yarlung-Zangbo Suture Zone (YZSZ), the
Gangdese Counter Thrust (GCT) and the Gangdese Thrust (GT)
(Fig. 1b), which appear as upper-crustal features with south-
dipping orientations. Moreover, the YZSZ and GCT are truncated
by the GT at depth (Guo et al., 2017). Stratigraphic constraints
indicate the GT to form at ∼30 to 24 Ma or approximately dur-
ing Late Oligocene to Early Miocene epochs (Fig. 2; Meng et al.,
2016; Yin et al., 1999). While its initiation age of 19 to10 Ma is
not well constrained, the south-dipping GCT accommodates the
deformation along the southernmost edge of the plateau (Fig. 2;
Quidelleur et al., 1997). The Luobadui-Milashan Fault (LMF) may
have accommodated additional uplift of the Tibetan Plateau in the
Lhasa Block (Xiang et al., 2012; Zhu et al., 2011). Fission-track anal-
yses indicate Early Miocene initiation of this fault zone (Fig. 2;
Xiang et al., 2012). Another large-scale fault zone west of south-
ern Tibet, the Karakoram Fault, displays NNW-SSE-trending dex-
tral shearing along its ∼10 0 0 km in length (Fig. 1). Surface geol-
ogy includes a set of greenschist-facies, granitic mylonite and my-
lonitized gneiss along the fault zone, which show a strong rota-
tional strain and some nearly horizontal lineations (Li et al., 2008).
Microstructural studies have shown that the mylonite formed co-
evally with syntectonic leucogranite (Li et al., 2008). The emplace-
ment of the leucogranite implies syntectonic melting accompanied
by an initiation of the Karakoram Fault (Li et al., 2008). U-Pb ion
micro-probe dating of zircons from leucogranites gave an age of
27–33 Ma (Fig. 2), which also serves as an estimate for the initia-
tion of dextral shearing along the Karakoram Fault (Li et al., 2008).
A cooling age of 21–15 Ma from 40 Ar/39 Ar K-feldspar analysis may
thus represent a minimum age estimate for movement along the
fault zone (Fig. 2; Li et al., 2008).
2.2.2. Magmatism
The Lhasa Block of the southern Tibetan Plateau has experi-
enced extensive magmatism. The block consists primarily of the
Gangdese batholith and the Linzizong volcanic successions (Fig. 1;
Mo et al., 2008; Zhu et al., 2011). It also hosts lesser volumes
of Triassic-Cretaceous volcano-sedimentary units exposed east of
the southern Lhasa Block and occasional adakites that appear in
the Gangdese batholith (Fig. 1; Chung et al., 2003). Zircons from
4
Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100006
the Gandgese batholith give U-Pb ages ranging from 210 to 14 Ma
(Zhang et al., 2019). This range includes four age peaks, indicat-
ing magmatic pulses at 200 ± 5 Ma, 90 ± 5 Ma, 50 ± 3 Ma
and 15 ± 2 Ma (Lee et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2019; Zhu et al.,
2011, 2017). These magmatic episodes correspond (respectively)
to the subduction of the Neo-Tethyan oceanic crust beneath the
Lhasa Block during the Late Triassic, mid-oceanic ridge subduc-
tion, delamination of the oceanic slab and partial melting of the
lower crust beneath the southernmost Tibet after crustal thicken-
ing (Chung et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2015). The
southward-younging Paleocene to Eocene Gangdese granite occu-
pies the largest area of the southern Lhasa Micro-block (Fig. 1).
It is proposed to reflect magmatism associated with astheno-
spheric upwelling during a subduction roll-back of the oceanic
slab (Zhu et al., 2015, 2017). The Linzizong volcanics were em-
placed contemporaneously from 65 to 45 Ma within this domain
(Lee et al., 2009; Zhu et al., 2015). Hou et al. (2015) performed
Hf isotopic mapping of 210–40 Ma felsic rocks of the southern
Lhasa Micro-block. The elevated zircon ε Hf (t) and positive ε Nd
(t) values for the Gangdese batholith in western Tibet and the
area around the Xigaze indicate a juvenile crust for the regions
(Hou et al., 2015; Mo et al., 2007; Niu et al., 2013; Zhang et al.,
2019; Zhu et al., 2015).
3. Crustal rheology revealed by Magnetotelluric data
Previous geochemical and petrologic studies have elucidated ex-
tensive magmatic activity in southern Tibet and widespread crustal
anatexis beneath the Himalayas. Magnetotelluric (MT) data provide
geophysical evidence of crustal fluid distributions and can thus
help constrain rheology of the study area (Unsworth et al., 2005).
Since the first MT study of southern Tibet (Pham et al., 1986), sev-
eral studies have deployed N-striking MT lines that traverse the
Yarlung-Zangbo Suture Zone (YZSZ) (Liang et al., 2018; Sheng et al.,
2019; Xie et al., 2017). These detected conductive layers at depth
(Fig. 3).
Xie et al. (2017) summarized the available MT stations used to
collect data since 1995. After 3D inversion, the resultant N-striking
broadband MT (BBMT) and long period MT (LMT) profiles across
the YZSZ divide into three groups, including one profile running at
∼80°E (black solid line A in Fig. 1), two profiles roughly at ∼85°E
and ∼87°E (black solid lines B and C in Fig. 1), and the profile at
∼89.5°E (black solid line E in Fig. 1). The line along ∼91.6°E was
adopted from Unsworth et al. (2005) (black solid line F in Fig. 1).
Fig. 3 shows the MT images generated by these surveys. Dense
broadband and long period MT studies by Liang et al. (2018) and
Sheng et al. (2019) (black solid line D in Fig. 1) provide additional
information to a more complete understanding regarding subsur-
face electrical resistivity and the extent of geodynamic flow at
depth.
The electrical horizontal images reported in
Xie et al. (2017) show a clear vertical variation in resistivity
beneath southernmost Tibet with a clear boundary between high
and low resistivity at ∼15 km depth. The conductive layer pro-
ceeds discontinuously down to the depths greater than ∼50 km
where the Gangdese Magmatic Arc resides. Horizontally, the
irregular conductive layer interpreted to represent the Gangdese
Magmatic Arc that generally appears along the subducting front
of the Indian crust and south of the Bangong-Nujiang Suture
Zone (Fig. 3). This scenario indicates an asthenospheric upwelling
that is either ongoing (Liang et al., 2018) or terminated but still
experiences cooling. This conductive barrier extends continuously
southward beyond the YZSZ to the Himalayas but with decreasing
conductivity. The linear feature extends to the surface among the
exposures of the northern Himalayan gneissic domes (Fig. 3). The
MT profiles B to F show that the conductive feature traces further
X. Guo, C. Li, R. Gao et al.
Fig. 3. Available N-striking magnetotelluric (MT) profiles that traverse the Yarlung-Zangbo Suture Zone from the Himalayas to southernmost Tibet. From west to the east,
the MT lines are numbered according to how they appear in the main text. See text for detailed discussion. The MT lines were obtained by and described in studies by
Unsworth et al. (2005), Xie et al. (2017), Liang et al. (2018) and Sheng et al. (2019). Same abbreviations as in Fig. 1. YSZ: Yarlung-Zangbo Suture Zone; MHT: Main Himalayan
Thrust.
southward into the Greater Himalayan Sequence (Fig. 3). Beneath
this less conductive zone, a domain characterized by north-dipping
high resistivity features at depths of 30 km and below outlines
the subducting Indian crust (Liang et al., 2018; Sheng et al., 2019;
Unsworth et al., 2005) (profiles C-F in Fig. 3). The intervening
boundary generally coincides with the Main Himalayan Thrust as
identified in seismic records (Fig. 3; Zhao et al., 1993). The high
conductivity layers beneath the Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen outline
some significant rheological properties of the subsurface.
All the high-conductive anomalies might be driven by par-
tial melting from radiogenic heat after thickened crust. How-
ever, if this is the case, what drove lateral heterogeneities in
spatial distribution of the conductive anomalies within the oro-
genic wedge, where crustal thickness reaches ∼78 km on both
sides of the YZSZ (Fig. 3)? Secondly, the crustal-scale high-
conductive barrier beneath the southern Tibetan Plateau is pro-
posed to be associated with currently ongoing upwelling of the
asthenospheric materials. However, it conflicts to the appearance
of discrete crust-mantle boundary (Moho) at the base (Guo et al.,
2017). Therefore, the synthetic analysis leads us to propose that,
with some inputs from radiogenic heat, the high-conductive bar-
rier represents a rheological weak crust that has previously ex-
perienced intense mantle-crust exchange (Mo et al., 2007) but
currently is undergoing fractional crystallization and southward
migration.
4. Structural response to conductive flow revealed by seismic
profiles
High-resolution deep seismic reflection profiles can reveal sub-
surface architecture at depth (Clowes et al., 1968). Several hundred
kilometers of seismic reflection lines have been deployed around
5
Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100006
the Tibetan Plateau (Gao et al., 2016; Guo et al., 2016, 2013, 2015;
Guo et al., 2017; Zhao et al., 1993). Four major lines traverse the
YZSZ from the Himalayas to southern Tibet (Fig. 1). These include
the seismic line at 92°E (yellow solid line I in Fig. 1), an area that
nearly coincides with the INDEPTH MT line to the east (Line F in
Fig. 3), and two seismic lines that coincide with the MT line (Line
D in Fig. 3) in the middle study area at around 88.5°E (yellow solid
lines II and III in Fig. 1), as well as the seismic line adjacent to the
MT line at around 80°E in western Tibet (yellow solid line IV in
Fig. 1).
4.1. Structures across the eastern Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen
The easternmost seismic line occurs at 92° E across the YZSZ
(seismic line I in Fig. 1; Dong et al., 2020). This provides rela-
tively comprehensive information regarding the exhumation of the
Yarlhashamp Dome in the eastern segment of the orogenic belt.
Additionally, the INDEPTH deep seismic reflection profile in the
Himalayas (Hauck et al., 1998) provides a high-resolution seis-
mic supplement to the crustal structure beneath the Greater Hi-
malayan Sequence in the further south. The MT line collected by
INDEPTH crosses this area (MT line F in Fig. 1) (Unsworth et al.,
2005; Xie et al., 2017). The superposition of these three profiles
(Fig. 4a) and the highlighting of high-amplitude signals of the seis-
mic profile (Fig. 4b) confirm some overlapping and backthrust fea-
tures within the domain between the YD and the YZSZ (Fig. 4c).
The overall seismic profile shows crustal-scale structures associ-
ated with an exhumation within the Himalayan fold-thrust belt.
Several clusters of linear, high-amplitude reflections appear in
the domains beneath the Yarlhashamp Dome at depths of 0–10 s
(two-way traveltime or TWT) (Fig. 4a). They generally show the
structures of ramp-anticlines with top-to-the south fault propa-
X. Guo, C. Li, R. Gao et al. Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100006

Fig. 4. (a) Superposition of the MT profile (MT line F in Fig. 1) with the uninterpreted deep seismic reflection profile (seismic line I in Fig. 1) east of the Himalayan-Tibetan
orogenic belt (Dong et al., 2020) and INDEPTH deep seismic profile (Hauck et al., 1998). (b) Superposition of the MT profile with the high-amplitude seismic structural
information. (c) Overall crustal structures of the Himalayas from the Greater Himalayan Sequence through the Yarlungshampo Dome to the southernmost Tibetan Platea.
(d) Overlapping electrical features from the MT profile and seismic structures in the seismic reflection profile indicating geometrical divisions of the underthrusting Indian
crust which displays a duplex style of antiformal stacks over regional detachments. The high conductivity barrier in the MT profile shows top-to-the south migration in the
form of ramp-anticlines of thrust system that intersect the surface. TH: Tethyan Himalayas; GMA: Gangdese Magmatic Arc; YZ Suture: Yarlung-Zangbo Suture; GHS: Greater
Himalayan Sequence. Same abbreviations below

6
X. Guo, C. Li, R. Gao et al.
gation (Fig. 4c). The reflections in association with these folds
are progressively replaced and truncated by some clusters of re-
flections with open folds at depths of 10–14 s (TWT) (Figs. 4b
and c). Correspondingly, the ramp-anticlines can be further de-
scribed in detail as the antiformal stacks. Together with the seis-
mic reflections from the INDEPTH data, the basal dominant detach-
ment shear zone can be traced continuously to the south until it
emerges to the surface, where is coincident with the surface ex-
posure of the South Tibetan Detachment System (STDS) (Fig. 4c).
At further depths of 14–22 s (TWT), some reflections appear par-
allel beneath the STDS and gradually diminish. The boundary be-
tween the strong vs. weak reflection domains thus represents the
Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT). Together with the Moho at depth,
these reflections indicate relatively flat underthrusting of the In-
dian crust, but seem in a limited domain (Fig. 4c). The domain to
the further north appears with some transparent reflections until
to the area beneath the central Lhasa Micro-block where several
north-dipping linear reflections are present (Fig. 4c).
In the larger context of the Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen, the do-
main with the highest conductivity in the MT profile and some
transparent reflections in the seismic profile appear beneath the
southernmost Tibetan Plateau, where coincides the Gangdese Mag-
matic Arc (Fig. 4d). The high-conductivity domain represents the
high temperature crust which interferes with seismic reflections.
The conductive barrier abuts the underthrusting part of the Indian
crust and traces upward towards the Yarlhashamp Dome (Fig. 4d).
The MT features are thus consistent with an intrusive contact re-
lationship (Infante-Paez and Marfurt, 2017) apparent in the seis-
mic reflection profile (Fig. 4d). The Yarlhashamp Dome appears
with some fault-propagation folds, the domain where also displays
relatively higher-conductivity anomalies. This scenario implies the
rheological behavior of the overlying sheet by thermal weakening
(Li et al., 2021).
In the northern segment of the seismic reflection profile, a se-
quence of the south-dipping seismic reflections appears, which is
located beneath the surface expressions of the GCT and the GT ap-
pear at 6–10 s depth (Fig. 6b). These south-dipping seismic clus-
ters can be continuously traced to the frontal wall of the north-
ern Himalayas. In the upper crust of the seismic transect between
the Yarlhashamp Dome and the YZSZ, overlapping seismic reflec-
tions appear with some variegated dip angles (Fig. 4b–d). Together
with the southern extent of the GCT and GT, it indicates a regional
adjustment of overlapping and back-thrusting that accommodated
the exhumation of the Yarlhashamp Dome (Fig. 4c and d). This do-
main also exhibits a high-resistivity anomaly (Fig. 4d). The bound-
ary between the low resistivity barrier to the north and high con-
ductivity barrier to the south is marked by the northern edges of
the antiformal stacks (Fig. 4d).
4.2. Structures across the middle Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen
Along with the extended MT line at ∼88.5° E, (Liang et al.,
2018; Sheng et al., 2019), two N-striking long, deep seismic
reflection lines traverse the YZSZ (Fig. 1; Guo et al., 2017).
Guo et al. (2017) provides a detailed interpretation of the seismic
profiles which documented the limited extent of horizontal ad-
vance for the subducting Indian crust beneath the southern Tibetan
Plateau. This part of the discussion focuses instead on what seis-
mic images reveal about the exhumation style of the Indian crust
and its contact relationship against the southernmost Lhasa Block.
Superimposing the MT profile on the seismic profiles shows
that the eastern seismic line (seismic Line II in Fig. 1) coincides
mostly with the southern segment of the MT line (Figs. 1 and
5a). The former extends to the area adjacent to the Mabja Dome
(Fig. 1). The seismic reflection profile (Fig. 5a) includes some clear
high-amplitude signals (Fig. 5b) near the high conductivity do-
7
Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100006
main that forms the anomaly evident in the MT profile (Fig. 5b
and c). The north-dipping seismic reflections above the MHT (14–
18 s, TWT) also divide into two domains with different structural
styles and separated by the strongly linear STDS at 6–14 s depths
(Fig. 5b and c). The domains include a lower domain of weak
reflections and an upper domain of strong reflections that both
show north-dipping orientations. The upper domain shows a fault
contact with the overlying Tethyan sedimentary sequence (Figs. 1
and 5d), which itself exhibits a convex-upward geometry at 6–
10 s depth and a subsequent south-dipping sequence at shallower
depths (Figs. 5b and d). Together with the apparent Moho, some
reflections beneath the MHT outline the northward underthrusting
of the Indian crust (Fig. 5b and d).
The three apparent seismic domains are consistent with the do-
mains identified in the MT profile, which themselves display a de-
crease in conductivity (Fig. 5d). The seismically identified upper
domain overlaps with a high conductivity linear belt that extends
continuously southward to the surface where it reaches the Mabja
Dome (Fig. 5d). The seismically identified underthrusting of the In-
dian crust overlaps with the low conductivity edges adjacent to
the high conductivity barrier beneath southernmost Tibet along its
front (Fig. 5d).
Combining the MT profile and the western seismic reflection
profile (III in Fig. 1) further elucidates the contact relationships
between the high conductivity barrier beneath southernmost Ti-
bet and the underthrusting Indian crust. The western seismic pro-
file coincides with the northern segment of the MT line, which
crosses most of southernmost Tibet (Figs. 1 and 6a). In addition
to the underthrusting Indian crust outlined by the MHT (14–22 s)
and the Moho at depth, the seismic reflection profile shows a se-
quence of north-dipping reflections in its southernmost region at
10–18 s depth (Fig. 6b). The sequence of some north-dipping re-
flections disappears gradually to become a cluster of linear, high-
amplitude reflections at 6–10 s depth (Fig. 6b). This boundary rep-
resents the proposed STDS. We thus interpret the high-amplitude
reflections as representing the northern edge of the antiformal
stacks that constitute an exhumation of the northern Himalayan
gneissic domes. In the upper crust beneath the YZSZ, a sequence of
south-dipping to progressively oblique convex-upward structures
appear. These trace continuously to the north of the seismic tran-
sects (Fig. 6b)
In the middle segment of the seismic reflection profile, the seis-
mic reflections beneath the surface expressions of the GCT and the
GT appear at 6–10 s depth and dip to the south (Fig. 6b). Beneath,
it becomes a domain with nearly transparent reflections (10–22 s;
Fig. 6b). However, in the intervening area beneath the YZSZ, a clus-
ter of reflections exhibit a convex-up geometry that rises from the
apparent MHT boundary (6–18 s; Fig. 6b). The southern limb of
the convex-upward geometry gradually disappears into a sequence
of north-dipping reflections in the southernmost segment which
show intrusive contact relationships (Fig. 6b). Fig. 6c shows these
features at close range.
Of the eastern and western seismic reflection profiles, three
segments appear in association with the underthrusting processes
of the Indian crust (Figs. 5d and 6d). The underthrusting Indian
crust divides into the lower part beneath the MHT which experi-
ences the continuous underthrusting. The middle part between the
MHT and STDS experiences the low-angle duplexing. The upper
part above the STDS shows some similar structures of antiformal
stacks, a prominent duplex style that exhumed the Mabja Domes
(Figs. 5d and 6d). Consistent with the MT profile, the penetration
of the Indian crust beneath southernmost Tibet is outlined by a
high resistivity barrier (Figs. 5d and 6d). Above the underthrust
zone, the overlying crust displays some weak seismic reflections
but high conductivity. The high conductivity barrier generally abuts
the underthrusting Indian crust and displays a top-to-the south de-
X. Guo, C. Li, R. Gao et al. Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100006

Fig. 5. (a) Superposition of the MT profile (MT line D in Fig. 1) with the uninterpreted deep seismic reflection profile (seismic line II in Fig. 1) in the middle Himalayan-
Tibetan orogenic belt. (b) Superposition of the MT profile with the high-amplitude seismic structural information. (c) Close-up of the domain that marks the underthrusting
front of the Indian crust in the middle to upper crust. (d) Overlapping electrical features from the MT profile and seismic structures from the seismic reflection profile which
indicate similar rheologic properties for southernmost Tibet and top-to-the south migration of seismic structures.

crease in conductivity until merging with the antiformal stacking
sequences, where the Mabja Dome was exposed above at the sur-
face (Figs. 5d and 6d).
4.3. Structures across the western Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen
Gao et al. (2016) have documented the flat underthrusting
of the Indian crust beneath the Eurasian Plate in western Tibet.
They further describe crustal-scale duplexing in transferring ma-
terials from the subducting front of the Indian crust upward into
the upper crust. This study focuses on some interpreting crustal
structures in the Himalayan fold-thrust belt (seismic line IV in
Fig. 1). Fig. 7a shows an uninterpreted high-resolution seismic pro-
file. Figs. 7b and 7c show some extracted high-amplitude signals.
Fig. 7d shows the high-amplitude signals interpreted in terms of
surface geology. The MHT separates the nearly transparent reflec-
tion domains below from rich reflection domains above (Gao et al.,
2016). The images show the domains with two different reflection
structures (Fig. 7d). The domain at depths of 6–10 s (TWT) con-
sists of reflections that run relatively parallel to the adjacent MHT
boundary, which exhibits a low-angle, north-dipping orientation
(Fig. 7d). Another domain at depths of 0–6 s (TWT) includes some
asymmetric fold structures that imply top-to-the south thrusting
(Fig. 7d). A cluster of nearly asymmetric folds can be traced con-
tinuously upward to the surface where the Gurla Mandhata Gneiss
Dome is exposed (Figs. 7c and d). These also sole out gradually
downward to a boundary that differs from that of the MHT (Fig. 7c
and d). Here, this boundary is coincident with the seismically
identified STDS in Figs. 4–6. Moreover, the MHT and STDS iden-
tified in western Tibet also divide the underthrusting Indian crust
into three segments, including the subhorizontally underthrusting
Indian crust beneath the MHT, as well as the low-angle north-
dipping overthrusting Indian crust between the MHT and STDS
and the overthrusting sheets with structures of antiformal stacks
above the STDS (Fig. 7c and d). The ramp-anticlines with antifor-
mal stacks are generally present. Meanwhile, excepting the under-
thrusting Indian crust, which has shown a penetration into the
Eurasian Plate, the other two segments of the Indian crust exhibit
an obvious contact boundary against the Gangdese Magmatic Arc
of southern Tibet in the middle to upper crust. Correspondingly,
from top to bottom, the electrical conductivity gradually decreases
in these units consistent with seismic properties that highlight the
geometry.
Overall, as seen in the four deep seismic reflection profiles,
the underthrusting Indian crust seismically divides into three seg-
ments, including the subducting lower crust, the middle crust
and the upper crust that comprises the northern gneissic domes
(Figs. 4d–7d). The latter two segments show ramp-anticlines with
a similar duplex style of antiformal stacks (Figs. 4d–7d). On the
other hand, the MT and available seismic reflection profiles show
that the middle to lower crust of southernmost Tibet exhibits some
high conductivity and weak reflections which indicate high tem-
peratures for the region. The high conductivity barrier abuts the
underthrusting Indian crust and shows a top-to-the south migra-
tion in connection with the northern Himalayan gneissic domes.
The convergence system between the northern Himalayan dome
belt and the YZSZ appears with some overlapping and back-
thrusting structures, while some reflections in the upper crust of
southernmost Tibet, including the GCT and the GT, consistently dip
to the south and show a truncation relationship at depths.

8
X. Guo, C. Li, R. Gao et al. Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100006

Fig. 6. (a) Superposition of the MT profile (MT line D in Fig. 1) with the uninterpreted deep seismic reflection profile (seismic line III in Fig. 1) in the middle of the
Himalayan-Tibetan orogenic belt. (b) Superposition of the MT profile with the high-amplitude seismic structural information. (c) Enlarged view of contact relationships
between the high-conductivity zone abutting the underthrusting front of the Indian crust. (d) Overlapping electrical features from the MT profile and seismic structures from
the seismic reflection profile indicate an intrusive contact between the southern edge of the high-conductivity barrier and the middle crust of the underthrusting Indian
crust. The Indian lower crust continuously penetrates beneath the southernmost Tibetan Plateau; GMB: Gangdese Magmatic Batholith.

5. Deep-shallow tectonic coupling during the Indian-Eurasian
collision
5.1. Underthrusting of the Indian crust
The onset of the India-Eurasia collision at ∼50 Ma resulted in
a sudden decrease in relative convergent rate from ∼15–25 cm/yr
to ∼13–18 cm/yr (Patriat and Achache, 1984). The onset of colli-
sion with the buoyant continental slab after the delamination of
the intervening oceanic slab (Zhu et al., 2018) or the reduction in
force from the waning Reunion Plume in the Indian mid-oceanic
ridge (Pusok and Stegman, 2020) caused this reduction. The ab-
sence in slab-pull or ridge push specifically reduced the northward
movement of the Indian Plate from 18 to 19 cm/yr to 4.5 cm/yr
(Klootwijk et al., 1992). The reduction in underthrusting of the In-
dian crust allowed more time for the buoyant felsic continental
crust to exhume. Subsequently, the overthrusting occurred due to a
subduction resistance, while a mafic lower crust would be subject
to underthrusting. This architecture causes a potential division in
the underthrusting geometry of the Indian crust apparent in seis-
mic records.
5.2. Structural responses of the Gangdese magmatic arc
Previous studies describe long-term, episodic magmatism that
formed the Gangdese Magmatic Arc (GMA) of the southernmost Ti-
betan Plateau (Lee et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2015).
The triggering mechanisms for this magmatism include (1) an ini-
tial subduction of the Neo-Tethyan oceanic crust during the Late
Triassic (Zhang et al., 2019), (2) an subduction of the mid-ocean
ridge at around 90 Ma (Ma et al., 2013), (3) an subduction roll-back
of oceanic crust at ∼70 Ma (Lee et al., 2009; Zhu et al., 2015), (4)
a delamination of the oceanic crust at ∼45 Ma (Zhu et al., 2017)
and (5) a partial melting in the lower crust of southernmost Ti-
bet after crustal thickening at ∼23–12 Ma (Chung et al., 2003).
Meanwhile, the crustal anatexis beneath the Himalayas occurred
as early as ca. 46 Ma (Gao et al., 2020). This has been attributed
to all kinds of mechanism, including (1) a heating by thrusting
and shearing (Harrison et al., 1999a, 1999b), (2) an exhumation
to cause decompressive melting (Davidson et al., 1997; King et al.,
2011), (3) a natural radiogenic decay/heating of continental crust
(Molnar et al., 1983), (4) an intracrustal partial melting by crustal
thickening (Searle et al., 2003) and (5) an anatexis generating from
mantle-derived heating after MASH (melting, assimilation, magma
storage and homogenization) (Wu et al., 2015; Zheng et al., 2016).
A higher anatexis temperature of 850 °C has been estimated
for a partial melting of metasedimentary rocks in the northern
Himalayas (Gao et al., 2020; Zheng et al., 2016). Additionally,
the Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen has undergone at least 30 Myrs of
high temperature metamorphism and partial melting in the mid-
dle crust (Zeng et al., 2011). The internal heating of the thickened
crust could not create this duration of high temperature conditions
and the mechanisms thus require some additional mantle-derived
sources (Gao et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2020; Zheng et al., 2016).
Previous deep crustal MT studies have documented a conduc-
tive barrier beneath southernmost Tibet, i.e. the GMA. This sce-
nario is consistent with previous geochemical and petrologic stud-
ies of long-term episodic magmatism. A linear, high conductiv-
ity belt connects the GMA and domains to both the northern Hi-
malayan gneissic domes. Below this linear belt, the relatively low

9
X. Guo, C. Li, R. Gao et al. Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100006

Fig. 7. Structural interpretation and tectonic implications for the deep seismic reflection profile (seismic line IV in Fig. 1) in western Tibet. (a) uninterpreted seismic reflection
profile; (b) extraction of high-amplitude signals in the seismic profile; (c) high-amplitude signals interpreted for structural significance; (d) tectonic implication obtained from
seismic structures. GM Dome: Gurla Mandhata Gneiss Dome; YOP: Yungbowa Ophiolite; LVS: Linzizong volcanic system.

resistivity layers appear in the lower reaches of the Indian crust.
The MHT marks the boundary. Together with the MHT and the
Moho, the low resistivity linear belt outlines the underthrusting of
the Indian crust beneath southernmost Tibet.
The high conductivity barrier beneath the GMA appears in
seismic reflection profiles with transparent reflections, indicat-
ing temperatures high enough to erase deformation-related struc-
tures. Furthermore, the high conductivity linear belt connecting
the southernmost Tibet and the northern Himalayas appears in
seismic reflections with some varied seismic responses. It divides
further into two groups of linear reflections separated by the STDS.
The reflections resting above ramps of the STDS show some an-
tiformal structures that constitute the northern Himalayan gneissic
domes. The bottoms of these antiformal structures are truncated
by the STDS. Thereafter, some reflections are outlined by the STDS
above and the MHT below, which show top-to-the south elonga-
tion structures. Beneath, the underthrusting of the Indian crust
appears in seismic reflection profiles. Correspondingly, the under-
thrusting Indian crust divides into three parts which include the
underthrusting lower crust between the MHT and the Moho, the
elongated crust between the STDS and the MHT and the folded
crust above the STDS. As a response, the high conductivity bar-
rier beneath the GMA abuts the underthrusting front of the Indian
crust and continuously migrates upward towards the surface.
Technically speaking, an imbricate fan represents a thrust sys-
tem with different branched thrusts from a common detachment
which terminates up-dip without a merging into an upper detach-
ment, while a duplex is an imbricate family of thrust horses be-
tween roof and floor thrusts (Boyer and Elliott, 1982). Seismic im-
ages outline a clear structural association with antiformal struc-
tures, which is truncated by the STDS at its base. Meanwhile, the
STDS does not appear to sole into the basal MHT (Figs. 4d–7d).
The individual linear surface exposure of the northern Himalayan
Gneiss Domes and the widespread Tethyan sedimentary rocks in-
dicate a crustal thickening of the Himalayas through a particular
duplex style with the spaced ramp-anticlines of the overthrusting
sheets.
To further interpret the MT and seismic structures discussed
above, we generate three N-striking, crustal cross-sections that tra-
verse the western Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen (Fig. 8a), the central
(Fig. 8b) and eastern orogens (Fig. 8c). Major features include the
dominant thermal source beneath southernmost Tibet, the under-
thrusting Indian crust, and the electrical and seismic structures as-
sociated with an exhumation of the northern Himalayan gneissic
domes, as well as the sequence of the south-dipping fault system
at the upper crustal scale. The intrusive contact relationships out-
lined by deep crustal structures imply heat/mass transfer to the
overlying crust above the MHT beneath the Himalayas, a process

10
X. Guo, C. Li, R. Gao et al. Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100006

Fig. 8. (a) Crustal-scale cross-section for crustal architecture of the western Himalayan-Tibetan orogenic belt. (b) Crustal-scale cross-section for the central Himalayan-
Tibetan orogenic belt. The southern segment regarding exhumation of the Greater Himalayan Sequence is adapted from Elliott et al. (2016). (c) Crustal-scale cross-section
for the eastern Himalayan-Tibetan orogenic belt. Previous studies of INDEPTH MT profile (Unsworth et al., 2005) and deep seismic reflection profiles (Hauck et al., 1998) are
employed. In three domains, the individually spaced ramp-anticlines in a way of antiformal stacks formed from underthrusting resistance has played an important role in
thickening the Himalayas and bringing inverted high-grade metamorphism to the surface; GMB: Gangdese Magmatic Batholith; XB: Xigaze Basin.

that probably induced a partial melting. Dioritic enclaves within
the Langkazi leucogranites in the northern Himalayas (Zheng et al.,
2016), together with the 850 °C regional anatexis temperature
(Gao et al., 2020), represent mantle inputs and thus lend a sup-
port to this interpretation. The YZSZ dips to the south indicating a
tectonic inversion. Spatial and temporal relationships with the GCT
and GT, as well as the LMF indicate that this process was accom-
modated by a sequence of thrusts in southern Tibet.
The overall electrical and seismic crustal architectures indicate,
together with the subduction resistance, the additional mantle-
derived sources have promoted an enhanced crustal duplexing dis-
placement. Additionally, the overturned YZSZ, together with the
south-dipping GCT, GT and LMF, outlines a thrust system.
5.3. Passive roof thrust system
Passive roof thrust system is generally represented by a roof
sequence that is featured with a relative back-thrusting sense of
displacement with respect to the forelandward propagating duplex
(Banks and Warburton, 1986; Bonini, 2001). In this study, our deep
seismic reflection profiles outline a crustal-scale architecture of the
India-Eurasia Convergence System. The data show the steep and
highly elevated northern Himalayas is underlain by oblique duplex
stacks. It is situated immediately to the south of the folded Tethyan
Himalayas and the adjacent overturned YZSZ, where is truncated
at the base by the GCT and GT. A roof sequence of a passive-roof
thrust system is thus recognized to have a sequence of the back-
thrusting sense displacement with respect to the forelandward du-
plexing. This process has overturned the YZSZ and has gone north-
ward over 100 km into the southernmost Tibetan Plateau. Fig. 9
shows the overall geodynamic scenario interpreted here.
The GMA has experienced episodic magmatism since the Late
Triassic with the initial subduction of the Neo-Tethyan oceanic
plate (Zhang et al., 2019). This continued until the Early Eocene
(∼50 Ma) when the additional magmatic activity occurred within
the GMA and the Linzizong volcanic successions (Lee et al., 2009;
Zhu et al., 2015) (Fig. 9a). Researchers have proposed that this
reflected break-off of the intervening oceanic slab (Fig. 9a). The
coeval, northward movement of the Indian crust slowed down
(Klootwijk et al., 1992; Patriat and Achache, 1984). Together with
a subduction of the continental crust, the underthrusting Indian
crust may have been cleaved due to vertical variation in crustal
property between the mafic lower crust and the overlying felsic
crust (Fig. 9a). Mantle-derived, heat/mass transfer may have oc-
curred through weak zones beneath the northern Himalayas, a pro-
cess that has triggered anatexis at temperatures over 850 °C start-
ing at ∼46 Ma (Fig. 9a; Gao et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2014).
Subduction resistance eventually creates a break-forward se-
quence of ramp-anticlines cutting upward from the MHT, while the
mafic lower crust has undergone the continuous northward sub-
duction beneath (Fig. 9b). Meanwhile, the anatexis in the middle-
crust along the MHT and beneath the Himalayas reduced a fric-
tion and increased the buoyancy of the overlying crust. The crustal
duplexing promotes regional-scale ramp-anticlines beneath the
Northern Himalayan Gneiss Domes. With a continuous supply of
duplexed crustal materials along the basal detachment and the
coevally northward compression from the underthrusting Indian
crust, these detachment-associated duplex stacks were fully en-
hanced over time, which accumulated a shortening in the conver-
gence system to produce a passive roof thrust (Fig. 9b).
The eventual intersection of the incremented duplex stacks
with the surface was accompanied with a dramatic exhumation

11
X. Guo, C. Li, R. Gao et al. Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100006

Fig. 9. (a) Geodynamic evolution from initial tectonic interactions, intense magmatism beneath southernmost Tibet and underthrusting resistance of the Indian crust. An
enhanced crustal duplexing is promoted. (b) These processes have induced contemporaneous anatexis and subsequent leucogranite dike swarms; the Main Himalayan thrust
formed from coeval northward underthrusting in the mafic lower crust and southward overthrusting in the felsic overlying crust; passive roof thrust is progressively devel-
oped toward the convergence zone in the frontal culmination wall of the northern Himalayas. (c) Enhanced antiformal stacks within individually spaced ramp-anticlines over
regional detachments brought the northern Himalayan Gneiss Dome to the surface. Simultaneous uplift with accommodation of passive roof thrust created a sequence of
south-dipping thrust system, which has extended to the southern edge of the plateau. The Gangdese Counter Thrust, the Gangdese Thrust, and the Luobadui-Milanshan Fault
were initiated as a response. Sketch not to scale. See text for details of references. Lithologies: 1-Tethyan Himalayas; 2-Accretionary wedge; 3- Metasediments; 4-Gangdese
batholith; 5-Linzizong volcanic succession; 6-crystalline basement beneath the central Lhasa Terrane; 7-Cretaceous Gangdese granitoid; 8-Ophiolitic mélange; 9-Leucogranite;
STD: Southern Tibetan Detachment; TH: Tethyan Himalayas; NHD: Northern Himalayan Dome; YZS: Yarlung-Zangbo Suture Zone; XB: Xigaze Basin; MHT: Main Himalayan
Thrust; GMA: Gangdese Magmatic Arc; GCT: Gangdese Counter Thrust; GT: Gangdese Thrust; LMF: Luobadui-Milashan Fault.

12
X. Guo, C. Li, R. Gao et al.
of the Himalayas at around ∼22 Ma (Fig. 9c; Ding et al., 2017).
From this point on, some massive volumes of leucogranite from
anatexis exposed at the surface. Meanwhile, the focused shorten-
ing in the convergence system brought a thrusting to go north-
ward over 100 km to the southern edge of the plateau. Together
with a sudden disequilibrium caused by lithospheric delamination
beneath southernmost Tibet, the GCT and the GT, as well as the
Luobadui-Milashan Fault in southern Tibet were initiated coevally
to accommodate the development of this passive roof thrust sys-
tem (Fig. 9c).
6. Conclusions
Subduction resistance due to delamination of the intervening
Tethyan oceanic slab affected the subducting Indian continental
crust. The underthrusting Indian crust was separated by the Main
Himalayan Thrust (MHT) into a lower mafic lower crust that un-
dergoes continuous underthrusting and a felsic upper crust that
developed ramp-anticlines over regional detachments within the
overthrusting sheets. Meanwhile, the excess heat/mass transfer mi-
grated from the Gangdese Magmatic Arc through the MHT to
the Himalayas and triggered anatexis. Together with the increased
buoyancy of the felsic upper crust from anatexis, an enhanced
crustal duplexing in a way of antiformal stacking developed. Con-
tinuous northward crustal shortening promoted a potential cre-
ation of passive roof thrusts in the convergence system. Finally,
the duplex horses of the northern Himalayas are overthrust. This
sudden uplift in the Himalayas released the accumulated shorten-
ing in the convergence system as a way of northward roof thrust-
ing to the southern Tibetan Plateau. This passive roof thrusting in-
versed the Yarlung-Zangbo Suture Zone and initiated the Gangdese
Counter Thrust and the Gangdese Thrust, as well as the Luobadui-
Milashan Fault in the southern edge of the plateau. Recognition of
this crustal-scale systematic tectonism from top to bottom replen-
ished the tectonic coupling between the underthrusting Indian slab
and the overlying Eurasian Plate.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Xiaoyu Guo: Data curation, Conceptualization, Writing – origi-
nal draft. Chunsen Li: Data curation, Conceptualization, Writing –
review & editing. Rui Gao: Writing – original draft. Sanzhong Li:
Data curation, Conceptualization, Writing – original draft. Xiao Xu:
Writing – review & editing. Zhanwu Lu: Writing – review & edit-
ing. Wenhui Li: Writing – review & editing. Bo Xiang: Writing –
review & editing.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Alex Webb for the valuable comments on an
earlier version of this manuscript. We thank all the colleagues who
collected the research data in the field. This study was financially
supported by the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and
Research Program (STEP, 2019QZKK0701), by the National Natu-
ral Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 41874102, 41974097,
91958214, 42121005), by the Introduction of Innovation and En-
trepreneurship Team Project of the “Pearl River Talent Program”
of Guangdong Province (2017ZT07Z066) and by Innovation Group
Project of Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong
Laboratory (Zhuhai) (Grant No. 311021003).
References
Banks, C.J., Warburton, J., 1986. ‘Passive-roof’ duplex geometry in the frontal struc-
tures of the Kirthar and Sulaiman mountain belts. Pakistan. J. Struct. Geol. 8
(3–4), 229–237.
13
Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100006
Bonini, M., 2001. Passive roof thrusting and forelandward fold propagation in scaled
brittle-ductile physical models of thrust wedges. J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea. 106
(B2), 2291–2311.
Boyer, S.E., Elliott, D., 1982. Thrust systems. Bull. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. 66 (99),
1196–1230.
Burg, J.P., Brunel, M., Gapais, D., Chen, G.M., Liu, G.H., 1984. Deformation of
leucogranites of the crystalline Main Central Sheet in southern Tibet (China).
J. Struct. Geol. 6 (5), 535–542.
Chung, S.L., Liu, D.Y., Ji, J.Q., Chu, M.F., Lee, H.Y., Wen, D.J., Lo, C.H., Lee, T.Y., Qian, Q.,
Zhang, Q., 2003. Adakites from continental collision zones: melting of thickened
lower crust beneath southern Tibet. Geology 31, 1021–1024.
Clowes, R.M., Kanasewich, E.R., Cumming, G.L., 1968. Deep crustal seismic reflec-
tions at near-vertical incidence. Geophysics 33 (3), 441–451.
Davidson, C., Crujic, D.E., Hollister, L.S., Schmid, S.M., 1997. Metamorphic reactions
related to decompression and synkinematic intrusion of leucogranite, High Hi-
malayan Crystallines. Bhutan. J. Metamorph. Geol. 15 (5), 593–612.
Ding, L., Spicer, R.A., Yang, J., Xu, Q., Cai, F., Li, S., Lai, Q., Wang, H., Spicer, T.E.V.,
Yue, Y., Shukla, A., Srivastava, G., Khan, M.A., Bera, S., Mehrotra, R., 2017. Quan-
tifying the rise of the Himalaya orogen and implications for the South Asian
monsoon. Geology 45 (3), 215–218.
Dong, X., Li, W., Lu, Z., Huang, X., Gao, R., 2020. Seismic reflection imaging of
crustal deformation within the eastern Yarlung-Zangbo suture zone. Tectono-
physics 780, 228395.
Elliott, J.R., Jolivet, R., González, P.J., Avouac, J.P., Hollingsworth, J., Searle, M.P.,
Stevens, V.L., 2016. Himalayan megathrust geometry and relation to topography
revealed by the Gorkha earthquake. Nat. Geosci. 9, 174–180.
Gao, L.E., Zeng, L., Asimow, P.D., 2017. Contrasting geochemical signatures of flu-
id-absent versus fluid-fluxed melting of muscovite in metasedimentary sources:
the Himalayan leucogranites. Geology 45 (1), 39–42.
Gao, P., Zheng, Y.F., Mayne, M.J., Zhao, .Z..-F., 2020. Miocene high-temperature
leucogranite magmatism in the Himalayan orogen. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 133
(3–4), 679–690.
Gao, R., Lu, Z., Klemperer, S.L., Wang, H., Dong, S., Li, W., Li, H., 2016. Crustal-s-
cale duplexing beneath the Yarlung Zangbo suture in the western Himalaya. Nat.
Geosci. 9, 555–560.
Guo, L., Zhang, J., Zhang, B., 2008. Structures, kinematics, thermochronology and
tectonic evolution of the Ramba gneiss dome in the northern Himalaya. Prog.
Nat. Sci. 18 (7), 851–860.
Guo, X., Gao, R., Li, S., Xu, X., Huang, X., Wang, H., Li, W., Zhao, S., Li, X., 2016. Litho-
spheric architecture and deformation of NE Tibet: new insights on the interplay
of regional tectonic processes. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 449, 89–95.
Guo, X., Gao, R., Randy Keller, G., Xu, X., Wang, H., Li, W., 2013. Imaging the crustal
structure beneath the eastern Tibetan Plateau and implications for the uplift of
the Longmen Shan range. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 379, 72–80.
Guo, X., Gao, R., Wang, H., Li, W., Keller, G.R., Xu, X., Li, H., Encarnacion, J., 2015.
Crustal architecture beneath the Tibet-Ordos transition zone, NE Tibet, and the
implications for plateau expansion. Geophys. Res. Lett. 42 (24), 10631–10639.
Guo, X., Li, W., Gao, R., Xu, X., Li, H., Huang, X., Ye, Z., Lu, Z., Klemperer, S.L., 2017.
Nonuniform subduction of the Indian crust beneath the Himalayas. Sci. Rep. 7,
12497.
Guo, Z., Wilson, M., 2012. The Himalayan leucogranites: constraints on the nature
of their crustal source region and geodynamic setting. Gondwana Res. 22 (2),
360–376.
Harrison, M.T., Grove, M., Mckeegan, K.D., Coath, C.D., Lovera, O.M., Fort, P.L., 1999a.
Origin and episodic emplacement of the Manaslu intrusive complex, central Hi-
malaya. J. Petrol. 40 (1), 3–19.
Harrison, T.M., Lovera, O.M., Grove, M., 1997. New insights into the origin of two
contrasting Himalayan granite belts. Geology 25 (10), 899–902.
Harrison, T.M., Grove, M., Lovera, O.M., Catlos, E.J., D’Andrea, J., 1999b. The origin
of Himalayan anatexis and inverted metamorphism: models and constraints. J.
Asian Earth Sci. 17 (5–6), 755–772.
Hauck, M.L., Nelson, K.D., Brown, L.D., Zhao, W., Ross, A.R., 1998. Crustal structure
of the Himalayan orogen at ∼90° east longitude from Project INDEPTH deep
reflection profiles. Tectonics 17 (4), 481–500.
Hou, Z., Duan, L., Lu, Y., Zheng, Y., Zhu, D., Yang, Z., Yang, Z., Wang, B., Pei, Y.,
Zhao, Z., McCuaig, T.C., 2015. Lithospheric architecture of the Lhasa terrane and
its control on ore deposits in the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen. Econ. Geol. 110,
1541–1575.
Hubbard, M.S., Harrison, T.M., 1989. 40Ar/39Ar age constraints on deformation and
metamorphism in the Main Central Thrust zone and Tibetan Slab, eastern Nepal
Himalaya. Tectonics 8 (4), 865–880.
Infante-Paez, L., Marfurt, K.J., 2017. Seismic expression and geomorphology of ig-
neous bodies: a Taranaki Basin, New Zealand. Case Study. Interpret. 5 (3),
SK121–SK140.
Kellett, D.A., Cottle, J.M., Larson, K.P., 2019. The South Tibetan Detachment System:
history, advances, definition and future directions. Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ.
483, 377–400.
Kellett, D.A., Grujic, D., Erdmann, S., 2009. Miocene structural reorganization of the
South Tibetan detachment, eastern Himalaya: implications for continental colli-
sion. Lithosphere 1 (5), 259–281.
Kellett, D.A., Grujic, D.J.T., 2012. New insight into the South Tibetan detachment sys-
tem: not a single progressive deformation. Tectonics 31 (2).
King, J., Harris, N., Argles, T., Parrish, R., Zhang, H., 2011. Contribution of crustal ana-
texis to the tectonic evolution of Indian crust beneath southern Tibet. Geol. Soc.
Am. Bull. 123 (1–2), 218–239.
X. Guo, C. Li, R. Gao et al.
Klootwijk, C.T., Gee, J.S., Peirce, J.W., Smith, G.M., McFadden, P.L., 1992. An early In-
dia-Asia contact: paleomagnetic constraints from Ninetyeast ridge, ODP Leg 121.
Geology 20 (5), 395–398.
Le Fort, P., Cuney, M., Deniel, C., France-Lanord, C., Sheppard, S.M.F., Upreti, B.N., Vi-
dal, P., 1987. Crustal generation of the Himalayan leucogranites. Tectonophysics
134 (1–3), 39–57.
Lee, H.Y., Chung, S.L., Lo, C.H., Ji, J., Lee, T.Y., Qian, Q., Zhang, Q., 2009. Eocene
Neotethyan slab breakoff in southern Tibet inferred from the Linzizong volcanic
record. Tectonophysics 477 (1–2), 20–35.
Lee, J., Hacker, B., Wang, Y., 2004. Evolution of North Himalayan gneiss domes:
structural and metamorphic studies in Mabja Dome, southern. Tibet. J. Struct.
Geol. 26 (12), 2297–2316.
Li, H., Franck, V., Arnaud, N., Chen, S., Xu, Z., Paul, T., Robin, L., Si, J., Qiu, Z., 2008.
Rapid uplifting in the process of strike-slip along the Karakorum fault zone in
western Tibet: evidence from 40 Ar/39Ar thermochronology. Acta Petrol. Sin. 24
(7), 1552–1556 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Li, J., Cao, S., Cheng, X., Neubauer, F., Wang, H., Lv, M., 2021. Migmatite and
leucogranite in a continental-scale exhumed strike-slip shear zone: implications
for tectonic evolution and initiation of shearing. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull.
Li, S., Suo, Y., Li, X., Liu, B., Dai, L., Wang, G., Zhou, J., Li, Y., Liu, Y., Cao, X.,
Somerville, I., Mu, D., Zhao, S., Liu, J., Meng, F., Zhen, L., Zhao, L., Zhu, J., Yu, S.,
Liu, Y., Zhang, G., 2018. Microplate tectonics: new insights from micro-blocks
in the global oceans, continental margins and deep mantle. Earth-Sci. Rev. 185,
1029–1064.
Liang, H., Jin, S., Wei, W., Gao, R., Ye, G., Zhang, L., Yin, Y., Lu, Z., 2018. Lithospheric
electrical structure of the middle Lhasa terrane in the south Tibetan plateau.
Tectonophysics 731, 95–103.
Liu, Z.C., Wu, F.Y., Ji, W.Q., Wang, J.G., Liu, .C..-Z., 2014. Petrogenesis of the Ramba
leucogranite in the Tethyan Himalaya and constraints on the channel flow
model. Lithos 208, 118–136.
Ma, L., Wang, Q., Wyman, D.A., Li, Z.X., Jiang, Z.Q., Yang, J.H., Gou, G.N., Guo, .H.F.,
2013. Late Cretaceous (100–89 Ma) magnesian charnockites with adakitic affini-
ties in the Milin area, eastern Gangdese: partial melting of subducted oceanic
crust and implications for crustal growth in southern Tibet. Lithos 175, 315–332.
Meng, Y., Xu, Z., Ma, S., Yang, F., 2016. The 40Ar /39Ar Geochronological Constraints
on the Xaitongmoin—Quxu Ductile Shear Zone in the Gangdese Batholith,
Southern Xizang(Tibet). Geol. Rev. 62 (4), 795–806 (in Chinese with English ab-
stract).
Mo, X., Hou, Z., Niu, Y., Dong, G., Qu, X., Zhao, Z., Yang, Z., 2007. Mantle contribu-
tions to crustal thickening during continental collision: evidence from Cenozoic
igneous rocks in southern Tibet. Lithos 96, 225–242 1–2.
Mo, X., Niu, Y., Dong, G., Zhao, Z., Hou, Z., Zhou, S., Ke, S., 2008. Contribution of
syncollisional felsic magmatism to continental crust growth: a case study of
the Paleogene Linzizong volcanic Succession in southern Tibet. Chem. Geol. 250,
49–67.
Molnar, P., Chen, W.P., Padovani, E., 1983. Calculated temperatures in overthrust ter-
rains and possible combinations of heat sources responsible for the Tertiary
granites in the Greater Himalaya. J. Geophys. Res. Sol. Ea. 88 (B8), 6415–6429.
Montel, J.M., 1993. A model for monazite/melt equilibrium and application to the
generation of granitic magmas. Chem. Geol. 110, 127–146 1–3.
Murphy, M., Yin, A., Kapp, P., Harrison, T.M., Manning, C.E., Ryerson, F.J., Lin, D.,
Guo, J., 2002. Structural evolution of the Gurla Mandhata detachment system,
southwest Tibet: implications for the eastward extent of the Karakoram fault
system. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 114 (4), 428–447.
Niu, Y., Zhao, Z., Zhu, D.C., Mo, X., 2013. Continental collision zones are primary
sites for net continental crust growth—A testable hypothesis. Earth Sci. Rev. 127,
96–110.
Patriat, P., Achache, J., 1984. India–Eurasia collision chronology has implications for
crustal shortening and driving mechanism of plates. Nature 311, 615–621.
Pham, V.N., Boyer, D., Therme, P., Yuan, X.C., Li, L., Jin, G.Y., 1986. Partial melting
zones in the crust in southern Tibet from magnetotelluric results. Nature 319,
310–314.
Pusok, A.E., Stegman, D.R., 2020. The convergence history of India-Eurasia records
multiple subduction dynamics processes. Sci. Adv. 6 (19), eaaz8681.
Quidelleur, X., Grove, M., Lovera, O.M., Harrison, T.M., Yin, A., Ryerson, F.J., 1997.
Thermal evolution and slip history of the Renbu Zedong Thrust, southeastern
Tibet. J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea. 102 (B2), 2659–2679.
Ren, J., Niu, B., Wang, J., Jin, X., Zhao, L., Liu, R., 2013. Advances in research of Asian
geology—A summary of 1:5 M International Geological Map of Asia project. J.
Asian Earth Sci. 72, 3–11.
Robinson, D., Pearson, O., 2006. Exhumation of Greater Himalayan rock along the
main central thrust in Nepal: implications for channel flow. Geol. Soc. London
Spec. Publ. 268, 255–267.
14
Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100006
Searle, M.P., Simpson, R.L., Law, R.D., Parrish, R.R., Waters, D.J., 2003. The structural
geometry, metamorphic and magmatic evolution of the Everest massif, High Hi-
malaya of Nepal–South Tibet. J. Geol. Soc. London 160, 345–366.
Sheng, Y., Jin, S., Wei, W., Ye, G., Dong, H., Zhang, L., Liang, H., Lu, Z., 2019. Litho-
spheric electrical structure in the central Tibetan Plateau and its tectonic signif-
icance. J. Asian Earth Sci. 184, 103996.
Teyssier, C., Whitney, D.L., 2002. Gneiss domes and orogeny. Geology 30 (12),
1139–1142.
Unsworth, M.J., Jones, A.G., Wei, W., Marquis, G., Gokarn, S.G., Spratt, J.E., 2005.
Crustal rheology of the Himalaya and Southern Tibet inferred from magnetotel-
luric data. Nature 438, 78–81.
Wang, E., Kamp, P.J.J., Xu, G., Hodges, K.V., Meng, K., Chen, L., Wang, G., Luo, H.,
2015. Flexural bending of southern Tibet in a retro foreland setting. Sci. Rep. 5,
12076.
Windley, B.F., 1983. Metamorphism and tectonics of the Himalaya. J. Geol. Soc. Lon-
don 140 (6), 849–865.
Wu, F.Y., Liu, X.C., Liu, Z.C., Wang, R.C., Xie, L., Wang, J.M., Ji, W.Q., Yang, L., Liu, C.,
Khanal, G.P., He, S.X., 2020. Highly fractionated Himalayan leucogranites and as-
sociated rare-metal mineralization. Lithos 352, 105319.
Wu, F.Y., Liu, Z.C., Liu, X.C., Ji, W.Q., 2015. Himalayan leucogranite: petrogenesis and
implications to orogenesis and plateau uplift. Acta Petrol. Sin. 31, 1–36.
Xiang, S., Zhang, S., Hu, J., Du, G., Wan, J., 2012. Activation of the Mila-Mountain
fault in Tibet: evidence from apatite fission track geochronology. Earth Sci. J.
China Univ. Geosci. 37, 39–46 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Xie, C., Jin, S., Wei, W., Ye, G., Zhang, L., Dong, H., Yin, Y., 2017. Varying Indian crustal
front in the southern Tibetan Plateau as revealed by magnetotelluric data. Earth
Planets Space 69, 147.
Yang, L., Liu, X.C., Wang, J.M., Wu, .F..-Y., 2019. Is Himalayan leucogranite a product
by in situ partial melting of the Greater Himalayan Crystalline? A comparative
study of leucosome and leucogranite from Nyalam, southern Tibet. Lithos 342,
542–556.
Yin, A., 2006. Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Himalayan orogen as constrained
by along-strike variation of structural geometry, exhumation history, and fore-
land sedimentation. Earth-Sci. Rev. 76, 1–131 1–2.
Yin, A., Harrison, T.M., 20 0 0. Geologic evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen.
Annu. Rev. Earth Pl. Sci. 28, 211–280.
Yin, A., Harrison, T.M., Murphy, M.A., Grove, M., Nie, S., Ryerson, F.J., Wang, X.F.,
Chen, Z.L., 1999. Tertiary deformation history of southeastern and southwestern
Tibet during the Indo-Asian collision. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 111 (11), 1644–1664.
Yin, A., Harrison, T.M., Ryerson, F.J., Chen, W., Kidd, W.S.F., Copeland, P., 1994. Ter-
tiary structural evolution of the Gangdese thrust system, southeastern Tibet. J.
Geophys. Res. Sol. Ea. 99 (B9), 18175–18201.
Zeng, L., Gao, L.E., Xie, K., Liu-Zeng, J.L., 2011. Mid-Eocene high Sr/Y granites in the
Northern Himalayan Gneiss Domes: melting thickened lower continental crust.
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 303, 251–266 3–4.
Zhang, H., Harris, N., Parrish, R., Zhang, L., Zhao, Z., Li, D., 2005. Geochemistry of
North Himalayan leucogranites: regional comparison, petrogenesis and tectonic
implications. Earth Sci. J. China Univ. Geosci. 30, 275–288 (in Chinese with En-
glish abstract).
Zhang, J., 2007. A review on the extensional structures in the northern Himalaya
and southern Tibet. Geol. Bull. China 26, 639–649 (in Chinese with English ab-
stract).
Zhang, Z., Ding, H., Dong, X., Tian, Z., 2019. Formation and evolution of the Gangdese
magmatic arc, southern. Tibet. Acta Petrol. Sin. 35, 275–294 (in Chinese with
English abstract).
Zhao, W., Nelson, K., Che, J., Quo, J., Lu, D., Wu, C., Liu, X., 1993. Deep seismic re-
flection evidence for continental underthrusting beneath southern Tibet. Nature
366, 557–559.
Zheng, Y., Hou, Z., Fu, Q., Zhu, D., Liang, W., Xu, P., 2016. Mantle inputs to Himalayan
anatexis: insights from petrogenesis of the Miocene Langkazi leucogranite and
its dioritic enclaves. Lithos 264, 125–140.
Zhu, D.C., Wang, Q., Chung, S.L., Cawood, P.A., Zhao, Z.D., 2018. Gangdese magma-
tism in southern Tibet and India–Asia convergence since 120 Ma. Geol. Soc. Lon-
don Spec. Publ. 483, 583–604.
Zhu, D.C., Wang, Q., Zhao, Z.D., Chung, S.L., Cawood, P.A., Niu, Y.L., Liu, S.A., Wu, F.Y.,
Mo, X.X., 2015. Magmatic record of India-Asia collision. Sci. Rep. 5, 14289.
Zhu, D.C., Zhao, Z.D., Niu, Y.L., Mo, X.X., Chung, S.L., Hou, Z.Q., Wang, L.Q., Wu, F.Y.,
2011. The Lhasa Terrane: record of a microcontinent and its histories of drift
and growth. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 301, 241–255.
Zhu, D.C., Wang, Q., Cawood, P.A., Zhao, Z.D., Mo, X.X., 2017. Raising the Gangdese
mountains in southern Tibet. J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea. 122, 214–223.