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CMA-II-Chapter 1
CMA-II-Chapter 1
VARIABLE COSTING
AN OVERVIEW OF ABSORPTION AND VARIABLE COSTING
Absorption costing is the traditional approach to product costing. Absorption costing treats the costs of
all manufacturing components (direct material direct labor, variable overhead and fixed overhead) as
inventoriable or product costs in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP).
Absorption costing is also known as full costing.
Under absorption costing, costs incurred in the non-manufacturing areas of the organization are
considered period costs and expensed in a manner that properly matches with revenue.
Absorption costing presents expenses on an income statement according to their functional
classifications. A functional classification is a group of costs that were all incurred for the same principal
purpose. Functional classifications include categories such as cost of goods sold, selling expense, and
administrative expense.
Under FASB Statement 34, certain interest costs may be capitalized during a period of asset
construction. If a company is capitalizing or has capitalized interest costs, these costs will not be shown
on the income statement but will become a part of the fixed asset cost. The fixed asset cost is then
depreciated as part of fixed overhead. Thus, although interest is typically considered period cost, it may
be included as fixed overhead and affect the overhead application rate.
Exhibit 1.1: Absorption Costing Model
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Variable costing- facilitates the use of models for analyzing break-even point, cost-volume-profit
relationships, the margin of safety. Variable costing is a cost accumulation method that includes only
variable production costs (direct material, direct labor, and variable overhead) as product or
inventoriable costs. Under this method, fixed manufacturing overhead is treated as a period cost.
Like absorption costing, variable costing treats costs incurred in the organization’s selling and
administrative areas as period costs. Variable costing income statements typically present expenses
according to cost behavior (variable and fixed), although they may also present expenses by functional
classifications within the behavioral categories. Variable costing has also been known as direct costing.
Exhibit 1.2 presents the variable costing model.
Exhibit 1.2: Variable costing Model
Two basic differences can be seen between absorption and variable costing. The first difference is the
way fixed overhead (FOH) is treated for product costing purposes.
Under absorption costing, FOH is considered as product cost; under variable costing, it is considered as
period cost. Absorption costing advocates contend that products cannot be made without the capacity
provided by fixed manufacturing costs and so these costs are product costs.
Variable costing advocates contend that the fixed manufacturing costs would be incurred whether or not
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production occurs and, therefore, cannot be product costs because they are not caused by the
production.
The second difference is in the presentation of costs on the income statement. Absorption costing
classifies expenses by function; whereas variable costing categorizes expenses first by behavior and then
may further classify them by function.
Variable costing allows costs to be separated by cost behavior on the income statement or internal
management reports. The cost of goods sold, under variable costing, is more appropriately called
variable cost of goods sold (VCGS) because it is composed only of variable production costs.
Sales (S) minus the variable cost of goods sold is called product contribution margin (PCM) and
indicates how much revenue is available to cover all period expenses and potentially provide net
income.
Variable non-manufacturing period expenses (VNME), are deducted from the product contribution
margin to determine the amount of total contribution margin (TCM).
The total contribution margin is the difference between total revenues and total variable expenses. This
amount indicates the dollar figure available to “contribute” to the coverage of all fixed expenses, both
manufacturing and nonmanufacturing. After fixed expenses are covered, any remaining contribution
margin provides income to the company. A variable costing income statement is also referred to as a
contribution income statement.
A formula representation of a variable costing income statement
Major authoritative bodies of the accounting profession, such as the Financial Accounting Standards
Board and Securities and Exchange Commission, believe that absorption costing provides external
parties with a more informative picture of earnings than variable costing. By specifying that absorption
costing must be used to prepare external financial statements, the accounting profession has, in effect,
disallowed the use of variable costing as a generally accepted inventory method for external reporting
purposes. Additionally, the IRS requires absorption costing for tax purposes.
The Tax Reform Act of 1986 requires all manufacturers and many wholesalers and retailers to include
many previously expensed indirect costs in inventory. This method is referred to as “super-full
absorption” or uniform capitalization. The uniform capitalization rules require manufacturers to assign
to inventory all costs that directly benefit or are incurred because of production including some
administrative and other costs. Wholesalers and retailers, who previously did not need to include any
indirect costs in inventory, now must inventory costs for items such as off-site warehousing, purchasing
agents’ salaries, and repackaging.
Cost behavior (relative to changes in activity) cannot be observed from the absorption costing income
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statement or management report. However, cost behavior is extremely important for a variety of
managerial activities including cost-volume-profit analysis, relevant costing, and budgeting.
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Basic Data for 2000, 2001, and 2002 Exhibit 1.3
Sales price per unit------------------------------------------------------------------------------$ 6.00
Standard variable cost per unit
Direct material -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------$ 2.040
Direct labor-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.500
Variable manufacturing overhead-------------------------------------------------------0.180
Total variable manufacturing cost per unit-----------------------------------------$ 3.720
Standard fixed factory overhead rate = Budgeted annual fixed factory overhead
Budgeted annual capacity in units
In most cases, however, both costs and utilization differ from estimates. When this occurs, no
generalizations can be made as to whether FOH will be under or over-applied. Assume that
Comfort Valve Company began operations in 2000. Production and sales information for the years
2000 through 2002 are shown in Exhibit 1.3.
Because the company began operations in 2000, that year has a zero balance for beginning the
Finished Goods Inventory. The next year, 2001, also has a zero-beginning inventory because all
units produced in 2000 were also sold in 2000. In 2001 and 2002, production and sales quantities
differ, which is a common situation because production frequently “leads” sales so that inventory
can be stock-piled for a later period.
The illustration purposefully has no beginning inventory and equal cumulative units of production
and sales for the 3 years to demonstrate that, regardless of whether absorption or variable costing is
used, the cumulative income before taxes will be the same ($128,520 in Exhibit 1.4) under these
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conditions. Also, for any particular year in which there is no change in inventory levels from the
beginning of the year to the end of the year, both methods will result in the same net income. An
example of this occurs in 2000 as is demonstrated in Exhibit 1.4.
Because all actual production and operating costs are assumed to be equal to the standard and
budgeted costs for the years 2000 through 2002, the only variances presented are the volume
variances for 2001 and 2002. These volume variances are immaterial and are reflected as
adjustments to the gross margins for 2001 and 2002 in Exhibit 1.4.
Volume variances under absorption costing are calculated as standard fixed overhead (SFOH) of
$0.534 multiplied by the difference between expected capacity (30,000 valves) and actual
production. For 2000, there is no volume variance because expected and actual production is
equal. For 2001, the volume variance is $534 unfavorable, calculated as [$0.534 *(29,000 -
30,000)]. For 2002, it is $534 favorable, calculated as [$0.534 * (31,000 - 30,000)].
Variable costing does not have a volume variance because fixed manufacturing overhead is not
applied to units produced but is written off in its entirety as a period expense.
Absorption and Variable Costing Income Statements for 2000, 2001, and 2002
Exhibit 1.4
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Variable Costing Presentation
2000 2001 2002 Total
Sales ($6 per unit) $180,000 $162,000 $198,000 $540,000
Variable CGS ($3.72 per unit) (111,600) (100,440) (122,760) (334,800)
Product Contribution Margin $68,400 $ 61,560 $ 75,240 $205,200
Variable Selling Expenses
($0.24 3 *units sold) (7,200) (6,480) (7,920) (21,600)
Total Contribution Margin $ 61,200 $ 55,080 $ 67,320 $183,600
Fixed Expenses
Manufacturing $ 16,020 $ 16,020 $ 16,020 $ 48,060
Selling and administrative 2,340 2,340 2,340 7,020
Total fixed expenses $ (18,360) $ (18,360) $ (18,360) $ (55,080)
Income before Tax $ 42,840 $ 36,720 $ 48,960 $128,520
Differences in Income before Tax $0 $1,068 $ (1,068) $0
In Exhibit 1.4, income before tax for 2001 for absorption costing exceeds that of variable costing by
$1,068. This difference is caused by the positive change in inventory (2,000 shown in Exhibit 1.3) to
which the absorption SFOH of $0.534 per unit has been assigned (2,000 *$0.534 = $1,068). This
$1,068 is the fixed manufacturing overhead added to absorption costing inventory and therefore not
expensed in 2001. Critics of absorption costing refer to this phenomenon as one that creates illusionary
or phantom profits. Phantom profits are temporary absorption-costing profits caused by producing
more inventory than is sold. When sales increase to eliminate the previously produced inventory, the
phantom profits disappear. In contrast, all fixed manufacturing overhead, including the $1,068, is
expensed in its entirety in variable costing.
Exhibit 1.3 shows that in 2002 inventory decreased by 2,000 valves. This decrease multiplied by the
SFOH ($0.534), explains the $1,068 by which 2002 absorption costing income falls short of variable
costing income in Exhibit 1.4. This is because the fixed manufacturing overhead is written off in
absorption costing through the cost of goods sold at $0.534 per valve for all units sold in excess of
production (33,000 - 31,000 = 2,000) results in the $1,068 by which absorption costing income is lower
than variable costing income in 2002.
Variable costing income statements are more useful internally for short-term planning, controlling,
and decision-making than absorption costing statements. To carry out their functions, managers need
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to understand and be able to project how different costs will change in reaction to changes in activity
levels. Variable costing through its emphasis on cost behavior provides that necessary information.
The income statements in Exhibit 1.4 show that absorption and variable costing tend to provide
different income figures in some years. Comparing the two sets of statements illustrates that the
difference in income arises solely from which production component costs are included in or
excluded from product cost for each method.
If no beginning or ending inventories exist, cumulative total income under both methods will be
identical. For the Comfort Valve Company over the three-year period, 90,000 valves are produced
and 90,000 valves are sold. Thus, all the costs incurred (whether variable or fixed) are expensed in
one year or another under either method. The income difference in each year is caused solely by the
timing of the expensing of fixed manufacturing overhead.
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COST-VOLUME-PROFIT (CVP) ANALYSIS: UNDERSTANDING THE
CONCEPTS OF BREAK-EVEN-ANALYSIS AND MARGIN OF SAFETY
Cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis is one of the most powerful tools that helps managers as they make
decisions by facilitating quick estimation of net income at different levels of activity. In other words, it
helps them to understand the interrelationship between cost, volume, and profit in an organization by
focusing on interactions between the following five elements: prices of products, volume or level of
activity, per unit variable costs, total fixed costs, and mix of products sold.
CVP analysis helps managers to understand the interrelationship between cost, volume, and profit. So
it is a vital tool in many business decisions. These decisions include, for example, what products to
manufacture or sell, what pricing policy to follow, what marketing strategy to employ, and what type of
productive facilities to acquire.
Too often people confuse the terms contribution margin and gross margin. Gross margin (which is
also called gross profit) is the excess of sales over the cost of goods sold (that is, the cost of the
merchandise that is acquired or manufactured and then sold). It is a widely used concept, particularly
in the retailing industry.
Contribution Margin Ratio (Cm-Ratio)
In addition to being expressed on a per unit basis, revenue, variable expenses, and contribution
margin for Sample Merchandising Company can also be expressed on a percentage basis:
Total Per Unit Percentage
Sales (10, 000 units) Br.150, 000 Br.15.00 100%
Variable expenses 120, 000 12.00 80%
Contribution margin Br.30, 000 Br.3.00 20%
Fixed expenses 24,000
Net income Br. 6, 000
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The percentage of the contribution margin to total sales is referred to as the contribution margin ratio
(CM-ratio). This ratio is computed as follows:
EQUATION TECHNIQUE:
It is the most general form of break-even analysis that may be adapted to any conceivable cost-
volume-profit situation. This approach is based on the profit equation. Income (or profit) is equal to
sales revenue minus expenses. If expenses are separated into variable and fixed expenses, the essence
of the income statement is captured by the following equation.
Profit= Sales revenue-Variable expenses-Fixed expenses
Profit (net income) is the operating income plus non-operating revenues (such as interest revenue)
minus non-operating costs (such as interest cost) minus income taxes. For simplicity, throughout this
unit non-operating revenues and non-operating cost are assumed to be zero. Thus, the above formula
can be restated as follows:
(P XQ)-(VxQ)-F=Profit (Net income)
Where P=sales price Q=break-even unit sales V= variable expenses per unit F=fixed expenses
per period, NI= net income
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At the break-even point, net income=0 because total revenue equals total expenses.
That is, NI=PQ-VQ-F
0= PQ-VQ-F……………………………………equation (1)
CONTRIBUTION-MARGIN TECHNIQUE
The contribution margin technique is merely a short version of the equation technique. The approach
centers on the idea that each unit sold provides a certain amount of fixed costs. When enough units
have been sold to generate a total contribution margin equal to the total fixed expenses, the break-
even point (BEP) will be reached. Thus, one must divide the total fixed costs by the contribution
margin being generated by each unit sold to find units sold to break even.
BEP= Fixed expenses
Unit contribution margin
Given the equation for net income, you can arrive at the above shortcut formula for computing break-
even sales in units as follows:
NI=PQ-VQ-F
0=Q (P-V)-F because at BEP net income equals zero.
Q (P-V)=F…divide both sides by (p-v)
Q = F ………………….…. equation (2)
P-V
There is a variation of this method that uses the CM ratio of the unit contribution
margin. The result is the break-even point in total sales birrs rather than in total units sold.
BEP (in sales birrs) =Fixed expenses= F
CM ratio P-V
P
This approach to break-even analysis is particularly useful in those situations where a company has
multiple product lines and wishes to compute a single break-even point for the company as a whole.
More is said on this point in a later section titled Sales Mix and CVP Analysis.
The contribution- margin and equation approaches are two equivalent techniques for finding the
break-even point. Both methods reach the same conclusion, and so personal preference dictates
which approach should be used.
GRAPHICAL METHOD
In the graphical method we plot the total costs and revenue lines to obtain their point of intersection,
which is the breakeven point.
Total costs line is the sum of the fixed costs and the variable costs. Total Revenue Line is line
representing total sales birrs at the activity you have selected. The break-even point is where the total
revenues line and the total costs line intersect. This is where total revenues just equal total costs.
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Example (1) Zoom Company manufactures and sells a telephone answering machine. The company’s
income statement for the most recent year is given below:
Total Per Unit Percent
Sales (20,000 units) Br. 1,200,000 Br. 60 100
Variable expenses Br. 900,000 Br. 45 ?
Contribution Margin Br. 300,000 Br. 15 ?
Fixed Expenses Br. 240,000
Net Income Br. 60,000
Based on the above data, answer the following questions.
A. Compute the company’s CM ratio and variable expense ratio.
B. Compute the company’s break-even point in both units and sales birrs. Use the above three
approaches to compute the break-even point.
C. Assume that sales increase by Br. 400,000 next year. If cost behavior patterns remain
unchanged, by how much will the company’s net income increase?
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monthly advertising budget would increase monthly sales by Br.30, 000. Should the advertising budget
will be increased or not increased?
Changes in Variable Costs and Sales Volume: Refer to the original data. Management is
contemplating the use of high- quality components, which would increase variable costs by Br.10 per
speaker. However, the sales manager predicts that the higher overall quality would increase sales to
480 speakers per month. Should the higher quality component be used?
Change in Fixed Cost, Sales Price, and Sales Volume: Refer to the original data and recall that the
company is currently selling 400 speakers per month. To increase sales, the sales manager would like
to cut the selling price by Br 20 per speaker and increase the advertising budget by Br 15, 000 per
month. The sales manager argues that if these two steps are taken, unit sales will increase by 50%.
Should the change be made?
Changes in Variable Cost, Fixed Cost, and Sales Volume: Refer to the original data. The sales
manager would like to replace the sales staff on a commission basis of Br 15 per speaker sold, rather
than on flat salaries that now total Br 6, 000 per month. The sales manager is confident that the
change will increase monthly sales by 15%. Should the change be made?
Changes in Regular Sales Price: Refer the original data. The company has an opportunity to make a
bulk sale of 150 speakers to wholesalers if an acceptable price can be worked out. This sale would not
disturb the company’s regular sales. What price per speaker should be quoted to the wholesaler if
Zena Concepts wants to increase its monthly profits by Br 3, 000?
Example (3) Tantu Company manufactures and sales a single product. During the year just ended
the company produced and sold 60,000 units at an average price of Br.20 per unit. Variable
manufacturing costs were Br 8 per unit, and variable marketing costs were Br 4 per unit sold. Fixed
costs amounted to Br. 180,000 for manufacturing and Br.72, 000 for marketing. There was no year-
end work-in-progress inventory. Ignore income taxes.
Required:
A. Compute Tantu’s breakeven point (BEP) in sales birrs for the year.
B. Compute the number of sales units required to earn a net income of Br 180,000 during the year
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amount of sales revenue that could be lost before the company’s profit would be reduced to zero.
The formula for its calculations follows: Total sales - Break even Sales = Margin of safety
The margin of safety can also be expressed in percentage form. This percentage is obtained by
dividing the margin of safety in birr terms by total sales:
Margin of safety in birrs = Margin of safety Ratio
Total sales
Example (4): Consider the cost structure for ABC Company and XYZ in Exhibit 1-7
ABC Co. and XYZ Co.
Comparative Cost Structures
ABC Co. XYZ Co.
Amount Percent Amount Percent
Sales Br. 500,000 100 Br. 500,000 100
Variable costs 100,000 20 300,000 60
Contribution Margin 400,000 80 200,000 40
Fixed costs 300,000 100,000
Net income Br. 100,000 Br. 100,000
Required: compute BEP, the margin of safety, and the margin of safety ratio for each company.
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CVP ANALYSIS WITH MULTIPLE PRODUCTS
Definition of Sales Mix
The term sales mix (also called revenue mix) is defined as the relative proportions or combinations of
quantities of products that comprise total sales. If the proportions of the mix change, the CVP
relationships also change. Thus, managers try to achieve the combination, or mix, that will yield the
greatest amount of profit.
A shift in sales mix from high-margin items to low-margin items can cause total profits to decrease
even though total sales may increase. Conversely, a shift in the sales mix from low-margin items to
high-margin items can cause the reverse effect-total profit may increase even though total sales
decrease.
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Where cmi = Unit contribution margin for product i.
n= sales proportion of each product
To prove the above formula, let us begin with general CVP equation for a company producing three
products.
NI = P1Q1 + P2Q2 + P3Q3- V1Q1 – V2Q2 – V3Q3 – FC
Where, NI = net income
Pi = Unit sales price for product i
Qi = Sales volume for product
Vi = Unit variable cost for product i
FC = Fixed cost per period
The difference between total sales and total variable costs for each product, i.e. PiQi – ViQi, equals
their total contribution margin (TCM). The above general formula can be restated as follows:
NI = TCM1 + TCM2 + TCM3 – FC
0 = TCM1 + TCM2+ TCM3 – FC (NI equals zero at BEP)
0 = CM1Q1 + CM2Q2 + CM3Q3 – FC
Where CMi=contribution margin per unit for product i
Qi = sales volume for product i to break even
Given the sales mix X: Y: Z = n1: n2 : n3, and assuming that the company break-even at “Q” units, then
0 = CM1 n1Q + CM2n2Q + CM3n3 Q – FC
n1 + n2 + n3
0= Q (Cm1n1 + Cm2n2 + Cm3n3) – FC
n1 + n2 + n3
FC= Q (Cm1n1 + Cm2n2 + Cm3n3)
n1 + n2 + n3
Q (Cm1n1 + Cm2n2 + Cm3n3) = FC (n1 + n2 + n3)
Q= FC (n1 + n2 + n3)
Cm1n1 + Cm2n2 + Cm3n3
Q= FC …………….. equation (1)
Cm1n1 + Cm2n2 + Cm3n3
n1 + n2 + n3
Here in equation (1), the denominator, Cm1n1 + Cm2n2 + Cm3n3 , is weighted average contribution margin.
n1 + n2 + n3
Similarly, the company’s break-even sales in birrs would be calculated as
BEP (in birrs) = Fixed expenses
CM – ratio
= Fixed expenses
Average CM
Average Sales Price
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= Fixed expenses
Cm1n1 + Cm2n2 + Cm3n3
n1 + n2 + n3
P1n1 + P2n2 + P3n3
n1 + n2 + n3
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All sales are made through the company’s own retail outlets. The Racket Division has the following
fixed costs: Per Month
Fixed production costs………………………….Br. 120, 000
Advertising expenses…………………………… 100, 000
Administrative salaries…………………………. 50, 000
Total Br.270, 000
Sales, in units, for the month of May have been as follows:
Standard Deluxe Pro Total
Sales in units………… 2, 000 1, 000 5, 000 8, 000
Required:
A. Compute weighted- average unit contribution margin, assuming above sales mix is maintained.
B. Compute the Racket Division’s break-even point in birrs for May.
C. How many units of each product should the company sale in order to earn a Br.162, 000
income? Ignore income taxes.
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