Complex Variables

Complex Numbers

A Somasundaram

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Definition

A number of the form z = a + ib where a and b are real

numbers and i 2 = −1 is called a complex number. a is
called the real part and b is called the imaginary part of
the complex number.
Two complex numbers z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id are
equal if a = c and b = d.
Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be any two complex
numbers. Then, the sum z1 + z2 = (a + c) + i(b + d).
The difference z1 − z2 = z1 + (−z2 ).

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Algebra of Complex Numbers

The addition of complex numbers satisfy the following

properties.
The closure law
The commutative law
The associative law
The existence of additive identity
The existence of additive inverse

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Multiplication of Complex Numbers

Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be any two complex

numbers. Then, z1 z2 = (ac − bd) + i(ad + bc).
The multiplication of complex numbers satisfy the
following properties.
The closure law
The commutative law
The associative law
The existence of multiplicative identity
The existence of multiplicative inverse
The distributive law
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Definition

Let z = a + ib be a complex number. Then, the modulus

√ by |z| is defined to be the non-negative real
of z, denoted
number a2 + b 2
Geometrically, |z| is the distance between the point (x, y )
and the origin, or the length of the radius vector
representing z.
The complex number z corresponding to the points lying
on the circle with center z0 and radius R is given by
|z − z0 | = R
The conjugate of z, denoted by z, is the complex number
a − ib
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Properties

For any two complex numbers z1 and z2 we have

|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |
| zz12 | = |z|z12 ||
z1 z2 = z1 · z2
z1 ± z2 = z1 ± z2
 
z1 z1
z2 = z2 , provided z2 6= 0

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Triangle Inequality

The triangle inequality provides an upper bound for the

modulus of the sum of two complex numbers.

|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |

An immediate consequence is

|z1 + z2 | ≥ ||z1 | − |z2 ||

Combined inequality can be given as

||z1 | − |z2 || ≤ |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |

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Exercises

Sketch the set of points determined by the condition

1 Re(z − i) = 2
2 |2z + i| = 4
3 By factoring z 4 − 4z 2 + 3 into two quadratic factors
show that if z lies on the circle |z| = 2, then
| z 4 −4z1 2 +3 | ≤ 31
2
4 Find the upper bound of | z 2z−z−6
+3
| when |z| = 1

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Exponential Form

The complex number z = x + iy can be written in polar

form as z = r (cosθ + isinθ) where x = rcosθ and
y = rsinθ.
It is understood that z 6= 0 whenever polar coordinates
are used.
r = |z| = x 2 + y 2 and θ = tan−1 ( yx )
p

Each value of θ is called an argument of z, and the set of

all such values is denoted by arg z.

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Exponential Form

The principal value of arg z, denoted by Arg z, is the

unique value Θ such that −π < Θ ≤ π.

arg z = Arg z + 2nπ (n = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · ).

Clearly when z is a negative real number, Arg z has value

π.
Example: The principal argument of −1 − i is
Arg(−1 − i) = − 3π
4 .

arg(−1 − i) = − 3π
4 + 2nπ, (n = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · ).

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Exponential Form

We know that by Euler’s formula e iθ = cosθ + isinθ,

where θ is measured in radians.
Hence the complex number in polar coordinate can be
written in exponential form as z = re iθ
Note that the equation z = Re iθ , (0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π) is a
parametric representation of the circle |z| = R centered at
origin with radius R.
In general, the circle |z − z0 | = R, whose center is z0 and
radius R has the parametric representation
z = z0 + Re iθ (0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π).
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Products and Powers in Exponential Form

If z1 = r1 e iθ1 and z2 = r2 e iθ2 , the product z1 z2 has

exponential form z1 z2 = (r1 r2 )e i(θ1 +θ2 ) .
Similarly,
z1
z2 = rr12 e i(θ1 −θ2 )
z −1 = 1r e −iθ
z n = r n e inθ

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Arguments of Products and Quotients

If z1 = r1 e iθ1 and z2 = r2 e iθ2 , then

arg(z1 z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2

Similarly,
arg ( zz12 ) = arg z1 − arg z2

−2 2π
Example: When z = √ ,
1+ 3i
Arg z = 3

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Exercises

Find the principal argument Arg z when

i
1 z = −2−2i
√
2 z = ( 3 − i)6

By writing the individual factors on the left in exponential

form, performing the needed operations, and finally
changing back to rectangular coordinates, show that
√ √ √
(i) i(1 − 3i)( 3 + i) = 2(1 + 3i)
√ √
(ii) (1 + 3i)−10 = 2−11 (−1 + 3i)

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Roots of Complex Numbers

The complex numbers

z = (r0 )1/n exp[i( θn0 + 2kπ
n )] (k = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · )
are the nth roots of z0
It is clear that all the roots lie on the circle |z| = (r0 )1/n
about the origin and are equally spaced every 2π n radians,
θ0
starting with argument n
Let ck denote these distinct roots and is given by
ck = (r0 )1/n exp[i( θn0 + 2kπ
n )] (k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1)

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Exercises

√
1 Find the square roots of 1 − 3i

2 Find the cube roots of (−8i)

3 Find all the roots of (−16)1/4 in rectangular coordinates, exhibit

them as vertices of certain squares, and point out which is the
principal root.

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Regions in the complex plane

The neighborhood of a point z0 is defined as |z − z0 | < 

It consists of all points z lying inside but not on a circle centered at
z0 with radius 

The deleted neighborhood or punctured disk consists of all points z

in an  neighborhood of z0 except the point z0 .

0 < |z − z0 | < 

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Regions in the complex plane

A point z0 is said to be an interior point of a set S

whenever there is some neighborhood of z0 that contains
only points of S.
The point is called an exterior point of S when there
exists a neighborhood of it containing no points of S.
If the point z0 is neither of these, it is called as a
boundary point of the set S.
The collection of all boundary points is called the
boundary of the set S.

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Regions in the complex plane

A set is open if it contains none of its boundary points.

In other words, a set is open if and only if each of its
points is an interior point.
A set is closed if it contains all of its boundary points,
and the closure of a set S is the closed set consisting of
all points in S together with the boundary of S.
Note that the punctured disk is neither open nor closed.
And the set of all complex numbers is both open and
closed since it has no boundary points.

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Regions in the complex plane

An open set S is connected if each pair of points in it

can be joined by a polygonal line, consisting of a finite
number of line segments joined end to end, that lies
completely in S.
|z| < 1 and the annulus 1 < |z| < 2 are connected.
A nonempty open set that is connected is called a
domain. Clearly any neighborhood is a domain.
A domain together with some, none or all of its boundary
points is called as a region.

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Exercises

Sketch the following sets and determine which are

domain, which sets are neither open nor closed, and which
sets are bounded
1 |z − 2 + i| ≤ 1
2 |2z + 3| > 4
3 Im z > 1
4 Im z = 1
5 0 ≤ arg z ≤ π4 , (z 6= 0)
6 |z − 4| ≥ |z|

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Regions in the complex plane

A point |z0 | is said to be an accumulation point of a set

S if each deleted neighborhood of |z0 | contains at least
one point of S.
Determine the accumulation points of each of the
following sets:
1 zn = ni , n = 1, 2, · · ·
2 zn = i n , n = 1, 2, · · ·
3 zn = (−1)n (1 + i) n−1 n , n = 1, 2, · · ·

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THANK YOU

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