SYSTEM THEORY

FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS

1. The Polar Plots

1.1. Definitions
Definition: the polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer
function G ( j ⋅ ω) is a plot of the magnitude
G ( j ⋅ ω) versus the phase angle
arg {G ( j ⋅ ω)} in polar coordinates as the
frequency ω varies from zero to infinity.

Remarks: Fig. 1: Closed loop system.

1. The data necessary for plotting the polar plot

may be obtained directly from the logarithmic plot.

2. The polar plot depicts the frequency response characteristics of the system over the entire frequency
range in a single plot.

3. (Disadvantage). It does not indicate the contributions of the individual factors of the open-loop
sinusoidal transfer function.

Example: the polar plot of the first-order factor.

G ( j ⋅ ω) =
1 1
(i) = ⋅ e − j⋅arctg ω⋅T ⇒
1 + j ⋅ ω ⋅T 1 + ω ⋅T
2 2

ω ⋅T
G ( j ⋅ ω) =
1
⇒ − j⋅ ⇒
(ii) 1 + ω ⋅T
2 2
1 + ω2 ⋅ T 2
14243 14243
=X =Y

1 1− X
(iii) ⇒ 1 + ω2 ⋅ T 2 = ⇒ ω ⋅T =
2 2

X X Y2 1− X
⇒ 2
=
Y X X
= −ω ⋅ T
X
2
 1 1
Y + X − X = 0 ⇒  X −  + Y 2 = (a circle in the complex s-plane)
2 2
(1.)
 2 4

2. The Nyquist Stability Criterion

2.1. Introduction

Definition: Given a closed-loop system with the open-loop transfer function G (s ) ⋅ H (s ) . The
characteristic equation of the closed-loop system is the equation associated to the denominator of its
closed-loop transfer function.

1 + G (s ) ⋅ H (s ) = 0 (2.)

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 Frequency Response Analysis

Remark: it is to be proven that, for stability all roots of the characteristic equation must lie on the left-half
s-plane.

Definition: an application and its inverse, w = f ( z ) : D → ∆ , D , ∆ ⊂ C that doesn't modify the angles
is named a conformal transformation.

Theorem: any bijective function, f that has derivatives on C i.e. that is holomorphe on C and that verifies
the condition f ' (s ) ≠ 0 defines a conformal transformation.

Proposition: the open loop transform function F (s ) = G (s ) ⋅ H (s ) , of a closed-loop system defines a

conformal transformation of the complex s-plane.

2.2. The Mapping Theorem

Before enunciate the mapping theorem, let us present two examples.

Example no. 1: consider the following conformal transformation:

F1 (s ) = s + 2 (Translation). (3.)

This transformation converts, for instance a given circle of radius k at center C (− 2; j ⋅ 0 ) into a circle of
radius k at the origin, Figure 2.

Proof:

s = σ + j ⋅ ω; C : (σ + 2 ) + ω2 = k 2
2
(i)

F1 (s ) = σ + 2 + j ⋅ ω = ⇒ C1 : u + v = k
2 2 2

{ } {
= Re F1 (s ) + j ⋅ Im F1 (s )
1424 3 1424 3
}
=u =v

ω
(ii) { }
arg F1 (s ) = arg {s + 2} = arctg
σ+2
= arctg
v
u
Remark:

1. Consider the zero of the function F1 (s ) = s + 2 , i.e. s1 = −2 + j ⋅ 0 and a moving point P(σ; j ⋅ ω) on
C : (σ + 2 ) + ω = k 2 in the complex s-plane. Assume the clockwise direction to be
2 2
the circle
positive. Observe that if the moving point P(σ; j ⋅ ω) once encircles the zero s1 in clockwise direction
in the complex s-plane then the corresponding moving point Q (u ; j ⋅ v ) on the circle
C1 : u 2 + v 2 = k 2 in the F(s)-plane encircles the origin once, in the clockwise direction.

2. Generally, consider a conformal transformation, F (s ) of the complex s-plane and a closed contour
onto that plane. If the closed contour encircles once a number of Z zeros of F (s ) in clockwise
direction, than the corresponding closed contour onto the F(s) complex plane encircles the origin Z
times in clockwise direction with multiplicity of zeros accounted for.

Example no. 2: consider the following conformal transformation:

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 The Nyquist Stability Criterion

Fig. 2: A translation of a circle in the complex plane.

F2 (s ) =
1
(Inversion and translation). (4.)
s+2

This transformation converts, for instance, a circle of radius k at center C (− 2; j ⋅ 0 ) into a circle of radius
1
at the origin, Figure 3.
k
Proof:

A circle of radius k at center C in the s-plane:

s + 2 = k ; ⇒ (σ + 2 ) + ω2 = k 2 = const .
2
(5.)

The transformed circle in the F2(s) plane:

1 1
s1 = ; ⇒ u 2 + v 2 = 2 = const .
k k
(6.)
−ω ω
arg {F2 (s )} = arctg = − arctg = − arg {s + 2}
σ+2 σ+2
Remark:

F2 (s ) = , i.e. s1 = −2 + j ⋅ 0 and a moving point P (σ; j ⋅ ω) on

1
3. Consider the pole of the function
s+2
C : (σ + 2 ) + ω2 = k 2 in the complex s-plane. Assume the clockwise direction to be
2
the circle

positive. Observe that if the moving point P(σ; j ⋅ ω) once encircles the zero s1 in clockwise direction
in the complex s-plane then the corresponding moving point Q (u ; j ⋅ v ) on the circle
1
C1 : u 2 + v 2 = 2 in the F(s)-plane encircles the origin once, in the counterclockwise direction.
k

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 Frequency Response Analysis

Fig. 3: Inversion and translation of a circle onto in the complex plane.

4. Generally, consider a conformal transformation, F (s ) of the complex s-plane and a closed contour
onto that plane. If the closed contour encircles once a number of P zeros of F (s ) in clockwise
direction, than the corresponding closed contour onto the F(s) complex plane encircles the origin P
times in counterclockwise direction with multiplicity of poles accounted for.

Theorem (the mapping theorem): Let F(s) be the ratio of two polynomials in s, P the number of poles, Z
the number of zeros of F(s) that lie inside a closed contour in the s-plane (with multiplicity of poles and
zeros accounted for); let this contour be such that it does not pass through any poles or zeros of F(s),
then:

a. this closed contour in the s-plane is mapped into the F(s) plane as a closed curve;

b. the total number N of clockwise encirclements of the origin in the F(s) plane, as a representative point s
traces out the entire contour in clockwise direction is equal to Z – P.

2.3. The Nyquist Stability Criterion

A. The Nyquist Path

An unstable system has one or more poles onto the right-half s-

plane. To find whether the transfer function of the given system
has poles onto the right-half s-plane the closed contour in the s-
plane must enclose the entire right-half s-plane.

Definition: the imaginary axis and a semicircle of infinite radius

that encircles the entire right-half complex s-plane are called the
Nyquist path.

B. The Choice Of The Mapping Plane

The poles of the closed-loop transfer function are the roots of

the characteristic equation of the system. Therefore, the
mapping theorem is applied to the function:

F (s ) = 1 + G (s ) ⋅ H (s ) , (7.)

with the assumption:

Fig. 4: Nyquist Path.

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 The Nyquist Stability Criterion

Fig. 5: The origin of the (1 + G.H) plane corresponds to the (-1;j.0) point in the G.H plane.

lim[1 + G (s ) ⋅ H (s )] = const . (8.)

s →∞

Assume the open-loop transfer function of the given system is a ratio of two polynomials, i.e.
B (s )
G (s ) ⋅ H (s ) = .
A(s )

the characteristic equation of the system:

B (s )
F (s ) = 1 + G (s ) ⋅ H (s ) = 1 + =
(i)
A(s )
Z

A(s ) + B(s ) → zeros of F(s)

,
=
A(s ) P
→ poles of F(s)

the open-loop transfer function of the given system:

(ii) B (s )
Gd (s ) = G (s ) ⋅ H (s ) = ,
A(s ) →P
poles of Gd (s )

the closed-loop transfer function of the given system:

(iii) G (s ) B (s )
G0 (s ) = = .
1 + G (s ) ⋅ H (s ) B(s ) + A(s ) →
Z
poles of G0 (s )

Observe that the poles of F (s ) are the zeros of the open-loop transfer function. In other words, while
analyzing the stability of the given system we actually search for the poles of the open-loop transfer
function that lie in the right half s-plane.

If so, it is reasonable to map the Nyquist path into the G ⋅ H plane instead the 1 + G ⋅ H plane. This
corresponds to a translation of the 1 + G ⋅ H plane, Figure 4.

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 Frequency Response Analysis

Theorem (The Nyquist Stability Criterion): Consider a closed-loop system as shown in Figure 1 that
has no poles on the imaginary axis. The number of poles of the closed-loop transfer function in the right-
half s-plane is equal to the sum between the number of clockwise encirclements of the (− 1;+ j ⋅ 0 ) point
by the G ( j ⋅ ω) ⋅ H ( j ⋅ ω) locus and the number of poles of the open-loop transfer function that lie in the
right-half s-plane.

Z = N+P. (9.)

Where:

The number of zeros of 1 + G (s ) ⋅ H (s ) in the right half s-plane, same as the

Z G (s )
number of poles of .
1 + G (s ) ⋅ H (s )

N The number of clockwise encirclements of the (− 1;+ j ⋅ 0 ) point.

P The number of poles of poles of G (s ) ⋅ H (s ) in the right half s-plane.

Example no. 3: Examine the stability of the closed-loop system with the open loop transfer function given
by the expression:

G (s ) ⋅ H (s ) 1
= .
(s + 1) ⋅ (2 ⋅ s + 1)
(10.)
K

Proof: From (10.) the poles of the open-loop transfer function are:

p1 = −1 

(i) 1  ⇒ P = 0 . (no poles of the open-loop transfer function in the right
p2 = − 
2
half s-plane).

In Figure X, the point (− 1;+ j ⋅ 0 ) is not encircled by the G( j ⋅ ω) ⋅ H ( j ⋅ ω) locus, thus N =0.

Follows that Z = N + P = 0 , i.e. there are no zeros of 1 + G ⋅ H in the right half s-plane.

Conclusion: the closed-loop system is stable.

Observe that the open-loop system is stable
too.

Example no. 4: Same problem for the closed-

loop system with the open-loop transfer
function:

G (s ) ⋅ H (s ) (s + 3 ) .
=
s ⋅ (s − 1)
(11.)
K

Proof:

p1 = 0 

⇒ P =1
p2 = +1
Fig. 6: The Nyquist Plot for the Example no. 3.

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 The Nyquist Stability Criterion

Fig. 7: The Nyquist Plot for the Example No.4. Fig.6: The Nyquist Plot for the Example No.5.

in Figure XX, N = −1 (counterclockwise direction)

Z = N + P = −1 + 1 = 0

Conclusion: the closed-loop system is stable. Observe that the open loop is unstable because there is a
pole in the right half s-plane.

Example no. 5: Same problem for the closed-loop system with the open-loop transfer function:

G (s ) ⋅ H (s ) 1
= .
s ⋅ (s − 1)
(12.)
K

Proof:

p1 = 0 

⇒ P =1
p2 = +1

in Figure XXX, N = 1 (one encirclement in clockwise direction)

Z = N + P = 1 + 1 = 2 (the closed-loop system has two closed-loop poles in

the right half s-plane).

Conclusion: the closed-loop system is unstable. Observe that in examples 4 and 5 only the numerators
are different.