Dynamic Modelling and Process Control

Dynamic Modelling for Process Control
Mariana Titica
Associate Professor, NU GEPEA UMR 6144 CNRS
mariana.titica@univ-nantes.fr
Chapter I: Introductory concepts of Process
Control
- An introductory overview of process control and how it is
practiced in the chemical and biochemical process industry
Chemical process: any single units or combinations of processing units, used for the
conversion of row materials (through any combination of chemical, mechanical or
termal changes) and input energy into finished products
Reactors
Separation
units
Waste effluent
treatment unit
2
Basical principles for the operation of the
processing units: (½)
• Operate safely
– No unit should be operated near potentially dangerous conditions (either to the health of
the operator, or equipments life, or to the violation of environmental rules)
• Specified production rates must be maintained

- The market requirements must be met and maintained, as much as possible
• Product quality specifications must be maintained
– Products not meeting the required quality must be, if possible, reprocessed at extra cost of
discarded as waste
Maintaining production rate and

product quality could be linked!
3
Basical principles for the operation of the
processing units: (2/2)
• Chemical process are by nature:

- dynamic – variables are changing with time
• Need to MONITOR
• Need to INDUCE change in key process variables that are
related to safety, production rate and product quality
This is the job of the Control System
4
• Process Dynamics and Control is concerned with the
analysis, design and implementation of control systems
that facilitate the achievement of specified objectives of
process safety, production rates and product quality
Ogunnaike B. and Ray W.H., “Process Dynamics, Modeling, and Control”, Oxford University Press, New
York, 1994
Bequette B., “Process Control: Modeling, Design and Simulation”, Prentice-Hall, 2003
5
Conceptual process block diagram –
Definitions (1/2)
Inputs Outputs
Measured
Manipulated variables
variables
Disturbance Process Unmeasured
variables variables
CAUSES EFFECTS
6
Conceptual process block diagram –
Definitions (2/2)
• A controller calculates changes in a manipulated
variable to be applied based on the difference between
the variable measurement and its desired value (the
desired set-point)
Controller
Manipulated
input
Process Controlled
Disturbances variable
input
7
Control System Configuration (1/3)
Open-Loop Control
Transmitter
Actuator
Finite control
element Controller
Manipulated
input Control
Process variable
Disturbances
input
8
Feedback control
Transmitter Transmitter
Actuator
Finite control
element Controller
Sensor
Manipulated
input Control
Process variable
Disturbances
input
9
Feedforward Control
Controller
Manipulated
input Controlled
Process variable
Transmitter Disturbances
input
Sensor
10
Control strategy definition
11
“Real” Control Block Diagram
Disturbance
Disturbance
process
Error
Setpoint +
mA mA m + Measured
+ Controller Actuator Process
- A variable
Physical world
mA
Sensor
Electrical world
TI
v1
4-20 mA
TI
4-20 mA
3-15 psi
v2
12
Dynamic systems
- Dynamic system means that its response at a given time depends not only on the input
at that time but also on the past inputs
- A dynamic system is described by one ore more differential equations
- Static system means that its response at a given time (output) depends only on the
input at that time
- A static system is described by a one ore more algebraic equations
- Linear system: A system is linear if and only if it satisfies the superposition principle, or
equivalently both the additivity and homogeneity properties, without restrictions (that
is, for all inputs, all scaling constants and all time
u(t) y(t)
- Additivity property: 𝑢1 (t) + 𝑢1 (t)  𝑦1 (t) + 𝑦2 (t)
- Homogeneity property: α𝑢1 (t)  α𝑦1 (t), α = real number
- Stationary system (time invariant): if all parameters are constant with time
13
Modelling of dynamic systems
Introduction to the design of feedback controllers
• Designing feedback controller requires to know

– The process gain, that is the sensitivity of a process output
to a change in the process input
– The process dynamics, that is the kinetic characteristics of
the transitory output response to given change in the
process input
• Two possible approaches to identify the process gain and
dynamics:
– Phenomenological modeling
– Empirical modeling
14
References
• Bastin G. and Dochain D., “On-line Estimation and
Adaptive Control of Bioreactors”, Elsevier, 1990.
• Bequette B., “Process Control: Modeling, Design and
Simulation”, Prentice-Hall, 2003.
• Ogunnaike B. and Ray W.H., “Process Dynamics, Modeling,
and Control”, Oxford University Press, New York, 1994.
• Camacho E.F. and Bordons C., “Model Predictive Control in the
Process Industry”, Springer-Verlag, London, 1995.
• Dochain (Editor), Automatic Control of Bioprocesses, ISTE Ltd,

2008, DOI: 10.1002/9780470611128
15
Chapter II: Modeling for Control
http://www.pc-education.mcmaster.ca/LearningSupport%20Page.htm
16
Chapter II: Modeling for Control
• Two possible approaches to identify the process gain and

dynamics:
– Phenomenological modeling
– Empirical modeling
u Mathematical
y
Model
INPUT OUTPUT
 A general process model can be described by a set of ordinary

differential and algebraic equations or in matrix-vector form.
 For control purposes, linearised mathematical models are used
 Deviation and dimensionless variables are used
17
Chapter 2. Modelling of Dynamic Systems
Chapter 2. Outline
2.1 Balance-based Models (Phenomenological Models)

2.1.1 Material and Energy Balances
2.1.2 Linearization of Nonlinear Models
2.2 Black-Box Models (Empirical Models)
2.2.1 Cohen-Coon Models
2.2.2 Strejc Models
18
Chapter 2 Modelling of Dynamic Systems
2.1 Phenomenological modeling
rate of mass or rate of mass or rate of mass or
energy = energy entering - energy leaving
accumulation in a a system a system
system
• Methodology
1. Write the differential equations corresponding to the
mass and energy balances
2. Re-write these equations around a given steady-
state, using the following formula for a variable V:
V  V  V
3. Simplify the equations using the steady-state
equation and linearize the nonlinear terms, if
necessary (i.e. linear control)
19
Chapter 2 Modelling of Dynamic Systems 20

An example: heated stirred tank
The heating medium’s flow rate is S [kgmin-1]
The temperature of the bulk liquid it T [°C]
Feed liquid enters the system at Fi [kgmin-1]
A temperature of Ti [°C]. This flow is used to

maintain the liquid level in the tank
The heated liquid leaves the tank with a flowrate of at

Fo [kgmin-1] and a temperature of To [°C]
Assumptions:
-Fi=Fo=F0
- that heat is transferred to the system purely

by condensing steam
- the heat capacity of the liquid is constant


An example: heated stirred tank
Rate of Energy Accumulation = Rate of Energy Input - Rate of Energy Consumption
If the controller does not provide perfect level control,

then a mass balance will have to be written:
Since the flow in is being manipulated by the controller (ex.

P), we need to describe this as well:
The heat capacity change significantly with

Temperature this relationship is normally modelled as:

An example: isothermal reactor (CSTR)
Batch: qin=qout=0 V = ct.

dV
Fed-batch: qout=0  qin
dt
Continu: qin=qout=q V = ct.

An exemple: isothermal reactor (CSTR)
Batch:
Fed-batch:
Continu:
- First order kinetic

- Isothermal CSTR
- “Well stirred” assumption
24

• 2.1 Phenomenological modeling
An example: non-isothermal CSTR


An example: Bioreactor
Haldane law
Monod law

2.1.2 Equilibrium point
General form of a Nonlinear Model
Linearization of Nonlinear Models
A linear system has only one equilibrium point !
Ex. heated stirred tank


2.1.2 Equilibrium point
Ex: non-isothermal reactor (H<0)
3 equilibrium points

~ _
2.1.3 Deviation variables x  x  x
Ex: heated stirred tank

2.1.4 Linearization of nonlinear models
• Methodology
1. Keep only the zero and first order terms
2. Use the following Taylor series expansion to
linearize the other nonlinear terms:
f x,u  f x,u 
f x,u   f x,u    x  x    u  u   higher order terms
x x ,u u x ,u
where x and u refer to the value of x and u at steady-

state
29

• Example: non-isothermal reactor

Chapter 2 Modeling for Control

• Example: non-isothermal reactor
31
Laplace Transform
- Itis used to convert linear differential equations into algebraic
equations,
- Laplace transforms are useful for solving linear dynamic systems
problems, particularly nonhomogeneous (heterogeneous) problems
(where the input to the process system is changed), and are
commonly used in process control system design and analysis

F ( s)  L[ f (t )]   f (t )e  st dt
0
F(s) = Laplace transform of the function f(t)
d
s
dt
Laplace transforms are used to create transfer function models, which are the basis for many
32
control system design techniques.
Laplace Transform - Properties
t
F ( s)
L[  f (t )dt ] 
0
s
d
L[ f (t )]  sF ( s)  f (0)
dt f(0) = the initial value of f at t=0
Deviation variables are used  at t=0, u=0, y=0

33
Laplace Transform - Properties
Translation in time:
 s
L[ f (t   )]  e L[ f (t )]
Final value theorem:
lim f (t )  lim sF (s)

t  s 0
34
Laplace Transform – Properties
Laplace Transform is a linear operation:
𝐿 𝑎1 𝑓1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑓2 𝑡 =𝑎1 𝐿[𝑓1 (t)]+𝑎2 𝐿[𝑓2 (t)]
d
Temporal derivation: L[ f (t )]  sF ( s)  f (0)
dt
t
F ( s)
Temporal integration: L[  f (t )dt ] 
0
s
Translation in time: L[ f (t   )]  e s L[ f (t )]
Final value theorem: lim f (t )  lim sF ( s )

t  s 0
(Doesn’t apply for instable systems)
Initial value theorem: lim f (t )  lim sF ( s ) 35

t 0 s 
Laplace Transform for some usual functions
Model Derivation – empirical model
• From empirical data
– Feed a known input and observe output, fit
model to data
SYSTEM
– Good for complicated systems

– Good for black-box systems
– Does not provide intuition, can’t be widely
applied
37
Chapter 2: Modeling for Control
Transfer function
• The transfer function of a system (or a block) is defined

as the ratio of output to input
u Transfert y
Function
INPUT OUTPUT
(H(s)
L[ y (t )]
H ( s) 
L[u (t )]
38
Transfer function
u(t) Process y(t)
(system)
The dynamic behavior of the system is described in terms of deviation variables, by a

differential equation of order n, as follows:
𝑑 𝑛 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑚 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑚−1 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑑𝑢(𝑡)

𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 +…+ 𝑎1 +𝑎0 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 +…+ 𝑏1 +𝑏0 𝑢 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Laplace Transform
U(s) Y(s)
H(s)
bm m bm 1 m 1 b
m 1 s  s  ...  1 s  1
Y ( s ) bm s  bm 1s  ...  b1s  b0
m
Y ( s ) b0 b0 b0 b0
H (s)   H (s)   
U ( s ) bn s n  an 1s n 1  ...  a1s  a0 U ( s ) a0 an s n  an 1 s n 1  ...  a1 s  1
a0 a0 a0
a and b constants ; m <n 39
u y
L[ y (t )]
Exercice INPUT
H ( s) 
L[u (t )] OUTPUT
• Give the transfer function:

dy(t )
 a  y(t )  b  u (t )
dt
d 2 y(t ) dy(t )
2
 a1   a0  y(t )  b  u (t )
dt dt
d 3 y(t ) d 2 y(t ) dy(t )
3
 a2  2
 a1   a0  y(t )  u (t )
dt dt dt
40
Transfer function – analyse dynamics in Laplace domain
U(s) Y(s)
H(s)
Y(s) et U(s): Laplace transform of input and output signals expressed in terms of
deviation variable with respect to the steady state (equilibrium) (zero initial
condition: y(0)=0 et u(0)=0)
! : The transfer function doesn’t depend on the nature of input signal, whille Y(s)
depends on the TF and on the nature of the input signal:
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐻 𝑠 𝑈(𝑠)
𝑁(𝑠) The transfer function is represented as a ratio of two

𝐻 𝑠 =
𝐷(𝑠) polynomials.
To have a physical meaning numerator degree has to be
smaller than the denominator degree
41
Transfer function – zero / poles notions
Y ( s ) N ( s ) bm  (s  z ) i
H (s)     i 1
n
Zéros : roots of N(s)
U ( s ) D ( s ) an
 (s  p )
i 1
i
Pôles : roots of D(s)
Order of the system = order of D(s).
If zero input: 𝑫 𝒔 𝒀 𝒔 =𝟎
Behavior of Y(s) depends on D(s).
By applying the inverse Laplace to Y(s) we obtain its temporal response.

To achieve the reverse transformation, we decompose into a linear combination of
terms whose images in the time domain are known (see table).
42
Determining equivalent transfer function
Fonctions
Transfer de transfert
functions en série :
in series
U(s) Y(s) U(s) Y(s)
R(s) H(s) R(s) H(s)
Transfer
Fonctionsfunctions in parallel:
de transfert en parallèle :
R(s)
Y(s)
U(s) Y(s)
U(s) +
R(s) + H(s)
+
H(s)
Cas particulier:
Unitary feedbackle retour unitaire
U(s) Y(s) U(s) Y(s)
+ H(s)
-
43
Determining equivalent transfer function
Déplacement d’un point de sommation :

U1(s) U1(s)
H(s)
Y(s) Y(s)
+ +
H(s) +
+
U2(s)
U2(s)
H(s)
Déplacement d’un point de sommation :
U1(s) U1(s)
H(s) Y(s)
Y(s)
+ +
H(s)
+ +
U2(s) U2(s)
44
How to obtain the transfer function of a system from
a theoretical model
• Write the dynamic model describing the behaviour of the system
• Linearize the equations using a Taylor development around the equilibrium

point (steady state) using variational quantities
• Apply the Laplace transform to linear or linearized differential equations
• Determine the ratio of the output transform to the input transform.
Examples:
- variable level tank

- heated tank with variable temperature
45
Example: variable level tank
𝑞𝑙
𝑞𝑟
𝑣 2 =2gh – liquid speed at the bottom of the tank
𝑞𝑠 =𝐴2 𝑣 = 𝐴2 2𝑔ℎ
h 𝑞𝑠
𝐴1 = tank section 𝐴2 = pipe section
𝑑ℎ(𝑡)
𝐴1 = 𝑞𝑟 (t)+ 𝑞𝑙 (𝑡) − 𝑞𝑠 (t)= 𝑞𝑟 (t)+ 𝑞𝑙 𝑡 − 𝐴2 2𝑔ℎ Nonlinear model
𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ(𝑡)
𝐴1 = 𝑞𝑟 (t)+ 𝑞𝑙 (𝑡) − 𝑞𝑠 (t)= 𝑞𝑟 (t)+ 𝑞𝑙 𝑡 − 𝐴2 2𝑔ℎ
𝑑𝑡
1
Linear approximation: 𝐴2 2𝑔ℎ(𝑡) = 𝐴2 2𝑔ℎ + 2 𝐴2 2𝑔 ℎ−1/2 ℎ 𝑡 − ℎ
1 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ℎ - level equilibrium value

Notations: 𝐴2 2𝑔 ℎ−1/2 = flow resistance
2 𝑅 𝑚2
𝑑ℎ(𝑡) ℎ 𝑡 −ℎ
𝐴1 = 𝑞𝑟 (t)+ 𝑞𝑙 (𝑡) − 𝑞𝑠 (t)= 𝑞𝑟 (t)+ 𝑞𝑙 𝑡 − 𝐴2 2𝑔ℎ −
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 46
Equa diff expressed with variational variables: 𝑑ℎ 𝑡 ℎ(𝑡)
𝐴1 = 𝑞𝑟 𝑡 + 𝑞𝑙 𝑡 −
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
𝑞𝑟 (t) u1(t)
y(t)
u2(t) Procédé
𝑞𝑙 (t) ℎ(t)
Apply Laplace transform:

1
𝐴1 𝑠𝐿 ℎ 𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑞𝑟 𝑡 + 𝐿[𝑞𝑙 𝑡 ] − 𝐿[ℎ 𝑡 ]
𝑅
Regroup terms in ℎ on the left side:
1
(𝐴1 𝑠 + )𝐿 ℎ 𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑞𝑟 𝑡 + 𝐿[𝑞𝑙 𝑡 ]
𝑅
1 1
𝐿ℎ 𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑞𝑟 𝑡 + 𝐿[𝑞𝑙 𝑡 ]
1 1
(𝐴1 𝑠 + 𝑅 ) (𝐴1 𝑠 + 𝑅)
𝐿ℎ 𝑡 𝐿ℎ 𝑡
𝐻1 𝑠 = 𝐻2 𝑠 =
𝐿 𝑞𝑟 𝑡 𝐿 𝑞𝑙 𝑡
𝐿ℎ 𝑡 = 𝐻1 𝑠 𝐿 𝑞𝑟 𝑡 + 𝐻2 𝑠 𝐿[𝑞𝑙 𝑡 ]
47
• Bloc diagramm:
𝐿[𝑞𝑙 𝑡 ]
𝑅
(𝐴1 𝑅 𝑠 + 1)
𝐿 𝑞𝑟 𝑡 𝑅 𝐿ℎ 𝑡
(𝐴1 𝑅 𝑠 + 1)
48
Chapter 2 Modeling for Control 49

• Transfer function
• Ex. Heated stirred reactor
Example: heated tank with variable temperature
1
1 𝑞𝑐𝑝
𝐿𝑇 𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑇𝑖𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐿[𝑄 𝑡 ]
𝑉 𝑉
𝑞 𝑠+1 𝑞 𝑠+1
𝐿 𝑇𝑖𝑛 𝑡
1
𝑉
1 𝑞 𝑠+1
𝑞𝑐𝑝
𝐿𝑄 𝑡 𝐿𝑇 𝑡
𝑉
𝑞 𝑠+1
50
51
• Transfer function – State-space model
52
• Non-isothermal reactor
~ ~
y  T, u  F
~ ~
y  C, u  F
• Non-isothermal reactor
~ ~
y  C, u  F
Disturbances:
53
Process classification:
- unstable
- stable
- 1st order - second order - …- order n
d n y(t ) d n1 y(t ) dy(t )

n
 an1  n 1
 ...  a1   a0  y(t )  u (t )
dt dt dt
The dynamic characteristic of the process is the solution of

the differential equation
54
Responses of first order systems
dy(t )
 a  y(t )  b  u (t )
dt
dy (t )
  1  y (t )  G st  u (t )
dt
 = time constant (units of time)
Gst = steady-state process gain (units of output/input)
y = output variable
u = input variable
55
Response of first order systems
Process gain and time constant are determined by performing step tests on processes
u 0.95  y
 
Gst  u  y  y  y0
t / 
y (t )  G st  u  1  e
t   , y  0.63  y t  3 
t  3 , y  0.95  y
G st
t  , y  y  H (s) 
  s 1 56
Responses of second order systems
2
2
d y(t ) dy(t ) d y(t ) dy(t )
 a   a0  y(t )  b  u (t ) 2 2
 2       y(t )  Gst  u (t )
dt 2 1
dt dt dt
Gst
H ( s)  2 2
  s  2     s  1
Gst= gain (units of output/input) /  =damping factor /  = natural period (units of
time) The characteristic equation of the second-order transfer function is:
 2  s 2  2     s  1
The roots of the characteristic equation = the poles of the system
57
Characteristic behavior depends on the pole location
Responses of second order systems
Case Dumping Pole location Characteristic behaviour

factor
I >1 2 real, distinct poles overdamped
II =1 2 real, equal poles Critically damped
III <1 2 complex conjugate Underdamped

poles
58
Not usual for chemical
processes in open loop
Interesting for closed
loop analysis and
controller tuning
59
Second order systems versus first order
• Notice that the main difference between overdamped (or
critically damped) step responses and first-order step responses
is that the second order step responses have « « S » shape with
a maximum slope at an inflexion point, whereas the first-order
responses have their maximum slope initially
First Second
order order
60
About the delay
61
Chapter 2: Modeling for control
Nonminimum-phase (RHP zeros) behavior
Positive zero and real poles

Negative zero and complex poles (zero amplifies Nonminimum-phase behavior
oscillations )
62
Exemple: The boiler drum level
If the drum level is low, and more feedwater is added to increase it, the drum level
tends to decrease first before increasing. This is because the cooler feedwater
causes some of the steam in the evaporator to condense, causing the volume
of water/steam to decrease, and hence the drop in drum level.
63
2.2 Empirical modeling
• Methodology
1. Obtain the output response curve to a step input
change
2. Identify the process gain and dynamics from curve
analysis
• Cohen-Coon models
• Strejc models
64
Modeling for Control
Empirical modeling – first order
∆y
∆y = Gst ∆u
65
Empirical modeling – second order
66
Empirical modeling – first order + delay (Broida model)
∆u
∆y=Gst ∆u
∆y
∆y
t0 t1 t2
Time constant:  = 5.5 (t2 – t1)

Delay:  = 2.8 (t1 – t0) – 1.8 (t2 – t0) 67
Empirical modeling
Strejc Models
y s  kP Tableau de S tréjc
gP s   
u s  T  s  1n n Tu / Ta Tu / T Ta / T
y 1 0 0 1
2 0.104 0.282 2.718
yss 3 0.218 0.805 3.695
yss 4 0.319 1.425 4.463
kP 
u 5 0.410 2.100 5.119
6 0.493 2.811 5.699
7 0.570 3.549 6.226
t 8 0.642 4.307 6.711
Tu Ta 9
10
0.709
0.773
5.081
5.869
7.164
7.590
68
2.2 Empirical modeling
Strejc Models (1/3)
y
yss
yss y s  kP
kP  gP s   
u u s  T  s  1n
t
Tu Ta
69
70
Modelling for control
Formulate model based on mass and energy balance and constitutive
relationships
(« exact » dynamic behaviour described by model)
Linearise Nonlinear Terms Numerical Simulation

- Easier to solve analytically - Determine the complet transient
- Useful for determining model response
properties (e.g. stability)
Express in deviation variables (Required for transfer functions)
Laplace Transform
Solve Analytically Formulate Transfert Function

(invert to time domain) - Zero initial conditions
Results: Complete transient of - « Feed » the block diagram of the system
linearized system) - Derive overall transfert function (open, closed loop)
using block diagram algebra
Results: Final value, stabilty, time and frequency response
71

Dynamic Modelling and Process Control

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Dynamic Modelling and Process Control

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Dynamic Modelling for Process Control

• Specified production rates must be maintained

Maintaining production rate and

• Chemical process are by nature:

This is the job of the Control System

- Additivity property: 𝑢1 (t) + 𝑢1 (t)  𝑦1 (t) + 𝑦2 (t)

- Homogeneity property: α𝑢1 (t)  α𝑦1 (t), α = real number

• Designing feedback controller requires to know

• Dochain (Editor), Automatic Control of Bioprocesses, ISTE Ltd,

• Two possible approaches to identify the process gain and

 A general process model can be described by a set of ordinary

2.1 Balance-based Models (Phenomenological Models)

2.1 Phenomenological modeling

The temperature of the bulk liquid it T [°C]

Feed liquid enters the system at Fi [kgmin-1]

A temperature of Ti [°C]. This flow is used to

The heated liquid leaves the tank with a flowrate of at

- that heat is transferred to the system purely

- the heat capacity of the liquid is constant

2.1 Phenomenological modeling

If the controller does not provide perfect level control,

Since the flow in is being manipulated by the controller (ex.

The heat capacity change significantly with

2.1 Phenomenological modeling

Batch: qin=qout=0 V = ct.

2.1 Phenomenological modeling

- First order kinetic

Chapter 2 Modelling of Dynamic Systems

2.1.1 Material and Energy Balances

An example: non-isothermal CSTR

2.1 Phenomenological modeling

2.1 Phenomenological modeling

Linearization of Nonlinear Models

A linear system has only one equilibrium point !

Ex. heated stirred tank

2.1 Phenomenological modeling

Ex: non-isothermal reactor (H<0)

2.1 Phenomenological modeling

Ex: heated stirred tank

where x and u refer to the value of x and u at steady-

2.1 Phenomenological modeling

• Example: non-isothermal reactor

2.1.4 Linearization of nonlinear models

Deviation variables are used  at t=0, u=0, y=0

Final value theorem:

lim f (t )  lim sF (s)

Final value theorem: lim f (t )  lim sF ( s )

Initial value theorem: lim f (t )  lim sF ( s ) 35

– Good for complicated systems

• The transfer function of a system (or a block) is defined

The dynamic behavior of the system is described in terms of deviation variables, by a

𝑑 𝑛 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑚 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑚−1 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑑𝑢(𝑡)

• Give the transfer function:

𝑁(𝑠) The transfer function is represented as a ratio of two

Order of the system = order of D(s).

Behavior of Y(s) depends on D(s).

By applying the inverse Laplace to Y(s) we obtain its temporal response.

Déplacement d’un point de sommation :

Déplacement d’un point de sommation :

• Linearize the equations using a Taylor development around the equilibrium

• Apply the Laplace transform to linear or linearized differential equations

• Determine the ratio of the output transform to the input transform.