Cellular Respiration

What is cellular respiration?

Cellular respiration is a metabolic pathway that uses glucose to produce
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), an organic compound the body can use for energy.
One molecule of glucose can produce a net of 30-32 ATP.

What is the purpose of cellular respiration?

Cellular respiration is used to generate usable ATP energy in order to support
many other reactions in the body. ATP is particularly important for energetically
unfavorable reactions that would otherwise not occur without an energy input.

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What are the main steps of cellular respiration?
There are three main steps of cellular respiration: glycolysis; the citric acid (TCA)
or the Krebs cycle; and the electron transport chain, where oxidative
phosphorylation occurs. The TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation require
oxygen, while glycolysis can occur in anaerobic conditions.

Glycolysis is the initial breakdown of glucose to pyruvate, a three carbon

structure, in the cytoplasm. The pyruvate then moves into the mitochondrial
matrix where a transition step called pyruvate oxidation takes place. In this
process, pyruvate dehydrogenase converts the three-carbon pyruvate to the two-
carbon acetyl-CoA. The TCA cycle begins when acetyl-CoA combines with a four-
carbon oxaloacetate in order to form the six-carbon citrate. Because each
molecule of glucose produces 2 pyruvate molecules, it takes two turns through
the Krebs cycle to completely break down the original glucose.

Finally, the electron transport chain is a series of redox reactions powered by high
energy electrons that pumps protons across the membrane, creating a proton
gradient. Together, an electrochemical gradient is created. At the end of the
electron transport chain, the final electron acceptor, O2, combines with protons
to produce water (H2O). Meanwhile, ATP synthase uses the movement of protons
back into the mitochondrial matrix for ATP synthesis.
Where does cellular respiration take place?
Cellular respiration takes place in the cytoplasm and mitochondria of each cell of
the body. Glycolysis occurs inside the cytoplasm, while the TCA cycle occurs inside
the matrix of the mitochondria. Meanwhile, oxidative phosphorylation occurs on
the inner mitochondrial membrane, with protons diffusing across into the
membrane and later pumped back into the matrix.

What are the reactants of cellular respiration?

The reactants of cellular respiration vary at each stage, but initially, it requires an
input of glucose, ATP, and NAD+. NAD+, a nicotinamide derived from vitamin B3,
is a universal electron acceptor that is crucial in the process of cellular respiration.
Another important universal electron acceptor is FAD, a flavin nucleotide from
vitamin B2. These acceptors are often used in catabolic processes and are
reduced into NADH and FADH2, respectively.

Glycolysis requires an input of glucose, two ATP, two ADP, and two NAD+.
Reactants for pyruvate oxidation are pyruvate, NAD+, and coenzyme A (CoA). One
TCA cycle requires acetyl-CoA, one ADP, three NAD+, and one FAD. Finally,
oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport chain use the reactants
ADP, NADH, FADH2, and O2.
What are the products of cellular respiration?
The final end products of cellular respiration are ATP and H2O. Glycolysis
produces two pyruvate molecules, four ATPs (a net of two ATP), two NADH, and
two H2O. Therefore, without the presence of oxygen, glycolysis is the only
process that can occur, and only two ATP molecules may be produced for each
glucose molecule.

When oxygen is present, pyruvate oxidation produces one acetyl-CoA, one NADH,
and one CO2 per pyruvate molecule. The TCA cycle then yields one GTP (i.e., an
energy-rich compound similar to ATP used primarily in lower pH environments),
three NADH, one FADH2, and two CO2. NADH and FADH2 can then be used by the
electron transport chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative
phosphorylation. Finally, oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport
chain produce 28-30 ATP and 28-30 H2O per glucose. As a result, the whole
process of cellular respiration ends up yielding 30-32 ATP per molecule of glucose.
What are the rate-determining enzymes in cellular respiration?
There are three primary rate-determining enzymes in cellular respiration. These
enzymes catalyze the rate-limiting steps, which are the slowest reactions in the
series.

The rate determining enzyme in glycolysis is phosphofructokinase-1, or PFK-1,

which converts fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. It is
stimulated by AMP, fructose-2,6-bisphosphate, and inhibited by ATP and citrate.

Pyruvate oxidation only uses pyruvate dehydrogenase, which is activated by

increased NAD+, ADP, or Ca2+.

In the TCA cycle, the rate determining enzyme is isocitrate dehydrogenase, which
converts isocitrate to ɑ-ketoglutarate. The specific reaction is stimulated by ADP
and inhibited by ATP and NADH.

What diseases can affect cellular respiration?

Several diseases can affect cellular respiration. Since cellular respiration is so vital
to bodily functions, many of these diseases severely affect individuals.

The most common diseases affecting glycolysis are pyruvate kinase deficiency,
erythrocyte hexokinase deficiency, and glucose phosphate isomerase deficiency.
These diseases are typically inherited in an autosomal recessive manner and
individuals who are homozygous (i.e., have two affected genes), for these
diseases develop hemolytic anemia, jaundice, and splenomegaly.

Deficiencies in the pyruvate dehydrogenase enzyme can interfere with pyruvate

oxidation. These can result in lactic acidosis characterized by a build-up of lactate
and increased serum alanine due to pyruvate build-up that then undergoes
fermentation to lactic acid. Children born with these deficiencies may have
neurological defects, and management of the disease typically includes keto-diets
or diets high in fats.

There are several enzymes in the TCA cycle that may be affected and result in
disease, including succinyl-CoA synthase and fumarase. Many individuals with
these disorders have involuntary muscle spasms and posture, called dystonia, and
are deaf.
Mitochondrial myopathies are genetic disorders that may affect the production of
enzymes involved in the electron transport chain or oxidative phosphorylation.
These diseases are classically characterized by muscle weakness and fatigue and
may include muscular paralysis.

Additionally, exposure to high amounts of certain drugs or toxic chemicals can

affect the electron transport chain or oxidative phosphorylation. Substances that
can directly inhibit complexes in the electron transport chain include carbon
monoxide and cyanide. Other substances may inhibit ATP synthase, such as
oligomycin, or disrupt the connection between the electron transport chain and
ATP synthase (i.e., an electron transport chain uncoupler), such as aspirin or 2,4-
dinitrophenol.
What are the most important facts to know about cellular respiration?
Cellular respiration is a series of chemical reactions that break down glucose to
produce ATP, which may be used as energy to power many reactions throughout
the body. There are three main steps of cellular respiration: glycolysis, the citric
acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol,
the citric acid cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix, and oxidative
phosphorylation occurs on the inner mitochondrial membrane. The starting
reactants of cellular respiration include glucose, ATP, and NAD+; and the final
products include ATP and H2O. The rate-determining enzymes for cellular
respiration include phosphofructokinase-1, pyruvate dehydrogenase, and
isocitrate dehydrogenase. Diseases that affect cellular respiration typically disrupt
one or more enzymes involved in the process, such as pyruvate kinase or succinyl-
CoA-synthase.