MMW3

Problem Solving and Reasoning

About This Module
This module is for students to be introduced to two
basic reasoning methods and apply this in problem
solving.
Substopics
Learn the essence of reasoning and the search for truth.
Focus on two types of reasoning: deductive and
inductive.
Introduction to Polya’s 4 steps in problem solving. Learn
how to understand a problem and practice how to devise
a plan to solve it.
You may stop here and proceed
to the subtopic materials or you
may continue and read through
the full course materials.
 MMW3.1 : Problem
Solving and Reasoning
Reasoning
Intended Learning
Outcomes
• Use different types of reasoning to justify
statements and arguments made about mathematics and
mathematical concepts
• Differentiate different types of reasoning
“Contrariwise,” continued Tweedledee, “if it was so,
it might be; and if it were so, it would be; but as it
isn’t, it ain’t. That’s logic.”
— Lewis Carroll, Through the Looking-Glass
Reasoning
The essence of reasoning is a search for truth.

We can consider something to be true if the available

evidence seems to verify it. The more evidence we have,
the stronger our conclusion can be.

“You can’t prove truth, but using deductive and

inductive reasoning, you can get close.”
Inductive reasoning involves drawing conclusions from
facts, using logic.

If an inductive argument is strong, the truth of the

premise would mean the conclusion is likely. If an
inductive argument is weak, the logic connecting the
premise and conclusion is incorrect.
Generalized — Draws a conclusion from a generalization. For example, “All
the swans I have seen are white; therefore, all swans are probably white.”

Statistical — Draws a conclusion based on statistics. For example, “95

percent of swans are white” (an arbitrary figure, of course); “therefore, a
randomly selected swan will probably be white.”

Sample — Draws a conclusion about one group based on a different, sample

group. For example, “There are ten swans in this pond and all are white;
therefore, the swans in my neighbor’s pond are probably also white.”
Analogous — Draws a conclusion based on shared properties of two groups.
For example, “All Aylesbury ducks are white. Swans are similar to Aylesbury
ducks. Therefore, all swans are probably white.”

Predictive — Draws a conclusion based on a prediction made using a past

sample. For example, “I visited this pond last year and all the swans were
white. Therefore, when I visit again, all the swans will probably be white.”

Causal inference — Draws a conclusion based on a causal connection. For

example, “All the swans in this pond are white. I just saw a white bird in the
pond. The bird was probably a swan.”
Deduction begins with a broad truth (the major premise),
followed by the minor premise, (a more specific
statement), then the conclusion.

Deductive reasoning is black and white; a conclusion is

either true or false and cannot be partly true or partly
false.
Deductive reasoning comes from general premises to
specific conclusions, while inductive reasoning often
comes from specific examples to general conclusions.
Eating iced desserts after a tooth extraction eases the
pain from the operation. Bingsu is an iced dessert.
Therefore bingsu eases the pain from tooth extraction.

Nina cries and buys pizza every time Ann teases her.
Ann teased Nina today.
Nina will cry and buy pizza today.
Terry is always with James. Terry came to the party
today so James must also be at the party.

Everytime I see Terry, James is with him, therefore Terry

and James must always be together.
Intuition is a representation, an explanation or an interpretation directly
accepted by us as something normal, self-evident, intrinsically
meaningful, like a simple, given fact.
Proof is an inferential argument for a mathematical statement. In the
argument, other previously established statements, such as theorems, can
be used. In principle, a proof can be traced back to self-evident or
assumed statements, known as axioms, along with accepted rules of
inference.
Certainty is perfect knowledge that has total security from error, or the
mental state of being without doubt. Objectively defined, certainty is total
continuity and validity of all foundational inquiry, to the highest degree of
precision. Something is certain only if no skepticism can occur.
MMW3.2 : Problem Solving and Reasoning

Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving

Intended Learning Outcomes
• Write clear and logical proofs
• Solve Problems involving patterns and recreational
Polya’s four steps
• Organize one’s methods and approaches for
proving and solving problems
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
1. UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM

2. DEVISE A PLAN

3. CARRY OUT THE PLAN

4. LOOK BACK
Click to edit Master title style
First. You have to understand the problem.
What is the unknown? What are the data? What is the condition?
Is it possible to satisfy the condition? Is the condition sufficient
to determine the unknown? Or is it insufficient? Or redundant?
Or contradictory?
Draw a figure. Introduce suitable notation.
Separate the various parts of the condition. Can you write them
down?
Click to edit Master title style
Second. Find the connection between the data and the unknown. You may be obliged to
consider auxiliary problems if an immediate connection cannot be found. You should
obtain eventually a plan of the solution.

Have you seen it before? Or have you seen the same problem in a slightly different form?

Do you know a related problem? Do you know a theorem that could be useful?

Look at the unknown! Try to think of a familiar problem having the same or a similar
unknown.

Here is a problem related to yours and solved before. Could you use it? Could you use its
result? Could you use its method? Should you introduce some auxiliary element in order
to make its use possible?

Could you restate the problem? Could you restate it still differently? Go back to
definitions.
 Click to edit Master title style
If you cannot solve the proposed problem, try to solve first some
related problem.
• Could you imagine a more accessible related problem? A more general problem? A more
special problem? An analogous problem?

• Could you solve a part of the problem? Keep only a part of the condition, drop the other
part; how far is the unknown then determined, how can it vary?

• Could you derive something useful from the data? Could you think of other data appropriate
to determine the unknown? Could you change the unknown or data, or both if necessary, so
that the new unknown and the new data are nearer to each other?

Did you use all the data? Did you use the whole condition? Have you
taken into account all essential notions involved in the problem?
Click to edit Master title style
Possible strategies:
1. Draw pictures
2. Use a variable and choose helpful names for variables
or unknowns.
3. Be systematic.
4. Solve a simpler version of the problem.
5. Guess and check. Trial and error. Guess and test
6. Look for a pattern or patterns.
7. Make a list.
Click to edit Master title style
Third. Carry out your plan.

Carrying out your plan of the solution, check each step.

Can you see clearly that the step is correct?

Can you prove that it is correct?

Click to edit Master title style
Fourth. Examine the solution obtained.

Can you check the result? Can you check the argument?

Can you derive the solution differently? Can you see it at

a glance?

Can you use the result, or the method, for some other
problem?
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose only 2 people are at the party:

2 "hello“s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 3 people are at the party: 3 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 3 people are at the party: 3 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 3 people are at the party: 3 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 3 people are at the party: 3 "hello"s

6 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 4 people are at the party: 6 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 4 people are at the party: 6 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 4 people are at the party: 6 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 4 people are at the party: 6 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 4 people are at the party: 6 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 4 people are at the party: 6 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 4 people are at the party: 6 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 4 people are at the party: 6 "hello"s

12 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 5 people are at the party: 10 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 5 people are at the party: 10 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 5 people are at the party: 10 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 5 people are at the party: 10 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 5 people are at the party: 10 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 5 people are at the party: 10 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 5 people are at the party: 10 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 5 people are at the party: 10 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 5 people are at the party: 10 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 5 people are at the party: 10 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 5 people are at the party: 10 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 5 people are at the party: 10 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

How will you count the number of "hello"s?

One way is to start with a smaller number:
• Suppose 5 people are at the party: 10 "hello"s

20 "hello"s
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

Find a pattern
2, 6, 12, 20, ….
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?
Find a pattern

Number of people Number of

"hello"s
2 2
3 6
4 12
5 20
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?
Find a pattern :

Number of people Number of

"hello"s
2 2 2=2×1
3 6 6=3×2
4 12 12 = 4 × 3
5 20 20 = 5 × 4
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?
Find a pattern :
If we let the number in the first column be 𝑛

Number of people Number of

𝒏 "hello"s 𝒏 × (𝒏 − 𝟏)
2 2 2=2×1
3 6 6=3×2
4 12 12 = 4 × 3
5 20 20 = 5 × 4
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?
Find a pattern :
If we let the number in the first column be 𝑛

Number of people Number of

𝒏 "hello"s 𝒏 × (𝒏 − 𝟏)
Number of
2 2 2=2×1
“hello”s is
3 6 6=3×2
𝑛 × (𝑛 − 1)
4 12 12 = 4 × 3
5 20 20 = 5 × 4
Click to edit Master title style
Every person at a party of twenty-eight people said hello
to each of the other people at the party exactly once.
How many "hello"s were said at the party?

Thus if there are 28 people at the party, then

• 𝑛 = 28
• The number of “hello”s is 28 × (28 − 1) = 756
https://fs.blog/2018/05/deductive-inductive-reasoning/
https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-inductive-
and-deductive-reasoning.html
https://philosophyterms.com/deductive-reasoning/
https://www.scribd.com/document/388414571/Intuition-
Proof-and-Certainty
https://math.berkeley.edu/~gmelvin/polya.pdf
http://web.mnstate.edu/peil/M110/Worksheet/PolyaProble
mSolve.pdf