Digital Signal Processing

Using Matlab

Discrete-Time Signals
Overview
• Types of Signals
• Some Fundamental Sequences
• Representation of Discrete-Time Signals
• Classification of Discrete-Time Signals
• Basic Operations on Signals

2
Types of Signals

Signals

Continues-Time Discrete-Time

Analog Staircase Sampled Digital

signals signals signals signals

3
 Types of Signals
1. Continuous-time signals
1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6
Amplitude

Amplitude
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0

-0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4
-0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
Time, sec Time, sec

(a) Analog signal (b) Boxcar (or staircase) signal

• Continuous-time • Continuous-time
• Continuous-amplitude • Discrete-amplitude
• Ex: speech or music signals • Ex: number of people inside a
received by a microphone. room.

4
 Types of Signals
2. Discrete-time signals
1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6
Amplitude

Amplitude
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0

-0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sample number Sample number

(c) Sampled signal (d) Digital signal

• Discrete-time • Discrete-time
• Continuous-amplitude • Discrete-amplitude
• Ex: stock closing price everyday. • Ex: digitized music signal
stored in a CD-ROM disk
In theory, we deal with sampled signals as discrete-time signals; in
practice, however, we deal with digital signals.
5
Types of Signals
Signals

Deterministic Stochastic (random)

1 1

0.5 0.5

0 0

-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1

0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014

• Behavior is predictable. • Behavior is not predictable.

• No uncertainty. • Uncertainty.
• Can be expressed mathematically. • Cannot be expressed
mathematically.
6
Some Fundamental Sequences
Unit sample sequence: 1.2

0.8

1 𝑛=0 0.6
𝛿 𝑛 =ቊ
0 𝑛≠0 0.4

0.2

-0.2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

MATLAB:
function [x,n] = impseq(n0,n1,n2)
% Generates x(n) = delta(n-n0); n1 <= n,n0 <= n2
% ----------------------------------------------
% [x,n] = impseq(n0,n1,n2)
%
n = [n1:n2];
x = [(n-n0) == 0];

7
Some Fundamental Sequences
Unit step sequence:
1.2

1 𝑛≥0 1

𝑢 𝑛 =ቊ 0.8
0 𝑛<0 0.6

∞ 𝑛 0.4

0.2

𝑢[𝑛] = ෍ 𝛿[𝑛 − 𝑘] = ෍ 𝛿[𝑙] 0

-0.2
𝑘=0 𝑙=−∞ -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

𝛿 𝑛 = 𝑢 𝑛 − 𝑢[𝑛 − 1]

MATLAB:
function [x,n] = stepseq(n0,n1,n2)
% Generates x(n) = u(n-n0); n1 <= n,n0 <= n2
% ------------------------------------------
% [x,n] = stepseq(n0,n1,n2)
%
n = [n1:n2];
x = [(n-n0) >= 0];
8
Some Fundamental Sequences
Unit ramp sequence:
8
𝑛 𝑛≥0
𝑟𝑛 =ቊ 6
0 𝑛<0
4
∞ 𝑛
2
𝑟 𝑛 = ෍ 𝑢 𝑛 − 𝑘 = ෍ 𝑢[𝑙 − 1] 0
𝑘=1 𝑙=−∞ -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

𝑢 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 + 1 − 𝑟[𝑛]

MATLAB:
function [x,n] = rampseq (n0,n1,n2)
% Generates x(n) = r(n-n0); n1 <= n,n0 <= n2
% ------------------------------------------
% [x,n] = rampseq(n0,n1,n2)
%
n = [n1:n2];
x = max(0, n-n0);
9
Some Fundamental Sequences
Real-valued exponential sequence:
1

𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 0.8

0.6

MATLAB: 0.4

n = 0:10; 0.2

x = (0.7).^n; 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

stem(n,x)

10
Some Fundamental Sequences
Complex-valued exponential sequence:

𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑒 𝜎+𝑗𝜔0 𝑛 = 𝑒 𝜎𝑛 cos(𝜔0 𝑛) + 𝑗𝑒 𝜎𝑛 sin(𝜔0 𝑛)

1 1

0.5 0.5

0 0

-0.5 -0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Real part Imaginary part

MATLAB: Note that:

n = 0:20; 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑛 = cos(𝜔0 𝑛) + 𝑗 sin(𝜔0 𝑛)
x = exp((-0.1+0.1*pi*j)*n);
stem(n, real(x)); This is known as: Euler's identity
stem(n, imag(x));
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Some Fundamental Sequences
Sinusoidal sequence: 1

0.5

𝑥[𝑛] = cos(𝜔0 𝑛 + 𝜃) 0

-0.5

MATLAB:
-1
n = 0:10; 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

x = cos(0.1*pi*n+pi/3); stem(n, x)

Random sequence: 2

MATLAB: -2

N = 11; -4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

n = 0:N-1; 1

x = randn(1, N); 0.8

y = rand(1, N); 0.6

stem(n, x) 0.4

stem(n, y) 0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
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Representation of Discrete-Time Signals
Discrete-time signal 𝑥[𝑛] may be represented using one of the
following ways:
(Note that the sample index 𝑛 is dimension-less. Just a counter!)
1. Mathematical Representation:
𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑛2 , −1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 2 (𝑛 = −1, 0, 1, 2)

𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑎𝑛 , ∀𝑛 (𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ⋯ )

2. Sequence Representation:
𝑥[𝑛] = ⋯ , −0.2 , 2.2 , 1.1 , 0.2 , −3.7 , 2.9 , ⋯

The arrow above is placed under the sample at time index 𝑛 = 0.

So, 𝑥[−1] = −0.2 , 𝑥[0] = 2.2 , 𝑥[1] = 1.1, and so on. 13
Representation of Discrete-Time Signals
3. Graphical Representation:

4. Tabular Representation:

𝑛 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
𝑥[𝑛] 0 1 4 3 -5 -1
14
Representation of Discrete-Time Signals
5. In terms of unit sample and unit step sequences:
A signal 𝑥[𝑛] can be expressed as a sum of weighted and shifted
unit samples as follows:

𝑥[𝑛] = ⋯ + 𝑥[−1]𝛿[𝑛 + 1] + 𝑥[0]𝛿[𝑛] + 𝑥[1]𝛿[𝑛 − 1] + ⋯

∞

Or 𝑥[𝑛] = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 𝛿[𝑛 − 𝑘]
𝑘=−∞

Example:

𝑥[𝑛] = −2 , 3 , 1 , 2

𝑥[𝑛] = −2𝛿[𝑛 + 1] + 3𝛿[𝑛] + 𝛿[𝑛 − 1] + 2𝛿[𝑛 − 2]

15
 Representation of Discrete-Time Signals
Exercise:
Sketch the following sequences
a) 𝑥 𝑛 = −1.5𝛿 𝑛 + 2 + 2𝛿 𝑛 + 𝛿 𝑛 − 1
b) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑢 𝑛 + 2 − 𝑢 𝑛 − 3
3 2

2 1.5

1 1

x[n]
x[n]

0 0.5

-1 0

-2 -0.5

-3 -1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
n n

(a) (b)
16
Representation of Discrete-Time Signals
Exercise:
Express the following sequences in terms of unit-sample, unit-step
and unit-ramp sequences.

(a) (b)

a) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑢 𝑛 + 2 + 𝛿 𝑛 + 𝛿 𝑛 − 1
b) 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 − 5 − 2𝑟 𝑛 − 10 + 𝑟 𝑛 − 15
17
Classification of Discrete-Time Signals
Finite-length and infinite-length sequences
• Finite-length sequence is defined only for a finite time interval:
𝑁1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑁2 with 𝑁1 ≤ 𝑁2 .
• Length (or duration) of this finite-length sequence is
𝑁 = 𝑁2 − 𝑁1 + 1.
Examples:
• 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑛2 ; −3 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 4
is a finite-length sequence of length
𝑁 = 4 − −3 + 1 = 8.
• 𝑥[𝑛] = cos(0.4𝑛)
is an infinite-length sequence.

18
Classification of Discrete-Time Signals
Right-sided and left-sided sequences
• A right-sided sequence is any infinite-length sequence that is
equal to zero for 𝑛 ≤ 𝑛0 .
• A left-sided sequence is any infinite-length sequence that is
equal to zero for 𝑛 > 𝑛0 .
1.2

Examples: 0.8

0.6

• 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑢[𝑛] (unit step) 0.4

0.2

is a right-sided sequence. 0

-0.2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1.2

1 𝑛 ≤ 𝑛0 1

• 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑢[𝑛0 − 𝑛] = ቊ 0.8

0 𝑛 > 𝑛0 0.6

0.4

is a left-sided sequence. 0.2

-0.2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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Classification of Discrete-Time Signals
Periodic and aperiodic sequences
• A periodic continuous-time signal is not necessarily to be
periodic when discretized.
• A sequence, 𝑥[𝑛], is said to be periodic if, for some positive real
integer 𝑁,
𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛 ± 𝑘𝑁]; 𝑘 = 1, 2, ⋯
• 𝑁 is called the fundamental period of 𝑥[𝑛].

Examples:
• 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑒 𝑗𝜋𝑛/8 is a periodic sequence of period 𝑁 = 16.
• 𝑥[𝑛] = cos(𝑛2 ) is an aperiodic (nonperiodic) sequence.
𝑎𝑛 𝑛 ≥ 0
• 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛) =ቊ is an aperiodic sequence.
0 𝑛<0
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Classification of Discrete-Time Signals
Periodic and aperiodic sequences
• A sinusoidal sequence 𝑥[𝑛] = cos(𝜔0 𝑛 + 𝜃) or
𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔0 𝑛+𝜃) is periodic only if
𝑇𝑠 𝐹0 𝜔0 𝑟
= = =
𝑇0 𝐹𝑠 2𝜋 𝑁
where 𝑟/𝑁 is a rational number (i.e., both 𝑟 and 𝑁 are integers).
𝑁 is the fundamental period of this signal.
• The sum of periodic sequences is also periodic with a period of
the lowest common multiple (LCM) of the individual periods.
Examples:
• 𝑥[𝑛] = cos(3𝜋𝑛) is a periodic sequence (𝑁 = 2).
• 𝑥[𝑛] = cos(3𝑛) is a nonperiodic sequence.

21
Classification of Discrete-Time Signals
Energy and power sequences
• The total energy of a sequence, 𝑥[𝑛], is defined by
∞
2
𝐸𝑥 = ෍ 𝑥[𝑛]
𝑛=−∞

• The average power of a sequence, 𝑥[𝑛], is defined by

𝐾
1 2
𝑃𝑥 = lim ෍ 𝑥[𝑛]
𝐾→∞ 2𝐾 + 1
𝑛=−𝐾

• The average power of a periodic sequence, 𝑥𝑝 [𝑛], is defined by

𝑁−1
1 2
𝑃𝑥 = ෍ 𝑥𝑝 [𝑛] ; where N is the period
𝑁
𝑛=0
22
Classification of Discrete-Time Signals
Energy and power sequences (cont.)
• Signals are classified into energy signals or power signals as
follows:
Energy (E) Power (P) Signal Type

Finite 0 Energy signal

Infinite Finite Power signal
Infinite Infinite Neither energy nor power signal

• A finite-length sequence has a finite 𝐸 and a zero 𝑃 (i.e., it is an

energy signal).
• An infinite-length sequence may or may not have finite 𝐸 or
finite 𝑃.
• All periodic signals are power signals, but not all non–periodic
signals are energy signals. 23
Classification of Discrete-Time Signals
Energy and power sequences (cont.)
1.2

Example 1: 0.8

0.6

0.4

1, for 0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 5
• 𝑥[𝑛] = ቊ
0.2

0, elsewhere 0

-0.2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

∞ 5
2
𝐸𝑥 = ෍ 𝑥[𝑛] = ෍ (1)2 = 6 (Finite)
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=0
5
1 6
𝑃𝑥 = lim ෍ (1)2 = lim =0 (Zero)
𝐾→∞ 2𝐾 + 1 𝐾→∞ (2𝐾 + 1)
𝑛=0

Thus, this is an energy signal.

24
Classification of Discrete-Time Signals
Energy and power sequences (cont.)
1.2

Example 2: 1

0.8

0.6

0.4
1, for 𝑛 ≥ 0
• 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑢[𝑛] = ቊ 0.2

0, otherwise 0

-0.2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

∞ ∞ ∞
2 = ෍ 𝑢2 [𝑛] = ෍ (1)2 = ∞
𝐸𝑥 = ෍ 𝑥[𝑛] (Infinite)
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=0

𝐾
1 2
𝐾+1 1 + 1/𝐾 1
𝑃𝑥 = lim ෍ 𝑢 [𝑛] = lim = lim =
𝐾→∞ 2𝐾 + 1 𝐾→∞ 2𝐾 + 1 𝐾→∞ 2 + 1/𝐾 2
𝑛=−𝐾
(Finite)
Thus, this is a power signal.
25
Classification of Discrete-Time Signals
Energy and power sequences (cont.)
7

Example 3: 6

3
𝑛, for 𝑛 ≥ 0
• 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑟[𝑛] = ቊ 2

0, for 𝑛 < 0 1

0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

∞ ∞
2 = ෍ 𝑛2 = ∞
𝐸𝑥 = ෍ 𝑥[𝑛] (Infinite)
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=0

𝐾
1 2
𝐾(𝐾 + 1)(2𝐾 + 1)
𝑃𝑥 = lim ෍ 𝑛 = lim =∞ (Infinite)
𝐾→∞ 2𝐾 + 1 𝐾→∞ 6(2𝐾 + 1)
𝑛=0

Thus, this is neither an energy signal nor a power signal.

26
Basic Operations on Signals
1. Shifting

• If 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ], then 𝑥[𝑛] is shifted by 𝑛0 samples:

 to the right if 𝑛0 is positive (delay).
 to the left if 𝑛0 is negative (advance).

MATLAB:
function [y, n] = sigshift(x, m, n0)
% implements y(n) = x(n-n0)
% -------------------------
% [y,n] = sigshift(x,m,n0)
%
n = m + n0;
y = x;

27
Basic Operations on Signals
Example:

28
Basic Operations on Signals
2. Folding (Reversal or reflection)
• If 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[−𝑛], then 𝑥[𝑛] is flipped around 𝑛 = 0.

MATLAB:
function [y, n] = sigfold(x, n)
% implements y(n) = x(-n)
% -----------------------
% [y,n] = sigfold(x,n)
%
y = fliplr(x);
n = -fliplr(n);

29
Basic Operations on Signals
Example:

30
Basic Operations on Signals
3. Amplitude Scaling
• If 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝐴𝑥[𝑛], then 𝑥[𝑛] is
multiplied by a scalar 𝐴.

4. Time Scaling
• For a positive integer 𝑀,
• 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑀𝑛] is 𝑥[𝑛] down-sampled by a factor of 𝑀
(compression).
• 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛Τ𝑀] is 𝑥[𝑛] up-sampled by a factor of 𝑀
(expansion).
31
Basic Operations on Signals
Example:

32
Basic Operations on Signals
5. Addition
• The signal 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] + 𝑤[𝑛] is formed by the point-wise
addition of the signal values.
• The two signals must have
the same length.

6. Multiplication
• The signal 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] ∙ 𝑤[𝑛] is formed by the point-wise
multiplication of the signal values.

• The two signals must have

the same length.
33
Basic Operations on Signals
5. Addition
MATLAB:
function [y, n] = sigadd(x1, n1, x2, n2)
% implements y(n) = x1(n) + x2(n)
% -----------------------------
% [y,n] = sigadd(x1,n1,x2,n2)
% y = sum sequence over n, which includes n1 and n2
% x1 = first sequence over n1
% x2 = second sequence over n2 (n2 can be different from n1)
%
n = min(min(n1),min(n2)):max(max(n1),max(n2)); % duration of y(n)
y1 = zeros(1,length(n)); y2 = y1; % initialization
y1(find((n>=min(n1))&(n<=max(n1))==1))=x1; % x1 with duration of y
y2(find((n>=min(n2))&(n<=max(n2))==1))=x2; % x2 with duration of y
y = y1+y2; % sequence addition

34
Basic Operations on Signals
6. Multiplication
MATLAB:
function [y,n] = sigmult(x1,n1,x2,n2)
% implements y(n) = x1(n)*x2(n)
% -----------------------------
% [y,n] = sigmult(x1,n1,x2,n2)
% y = product sequence over n, which includes n1 and n2
% x1 = first sequence over n1
% x2 = second sequence over n2 (n2 can be different from n1)
%
n = min(min(n1),min(n2)):max(max(n1),max(n2)); % duration of y(n)
y1 = zeros(1,length(n)); y2 = y1; % initialization
y1(find((n>=min(n1))&(n<=max(n1))==1))=x1; % x1 with duration of y
y2(find((n>=min(n2))&(n<=max(n2))==1))=x2; % x2 with duration of y
y = y1 .* y2; % sequence multiplication

35
Basic Operations on Signals
Example:
Draw a block diagram showing how to perform the following
operations. This is called the difference equation of a discrete-time
system.
𝑦 𝑛 = 2𝑥 𝑛 + 0.3𝑥 𝑛 − 1 − 0.7𝑥[𝑛 − 2] − 0.5𝑦[𝑛 − 1] + 0.1𝑦[𝑛 − 2]

Solution:
2
𝑥[𝑛] + 𝑦[𝑛]

z-1 z-1
0.3 −0.5
𝑥[𝑛 − 1] 𝑦[𝑛 − 1]

z-1 z-1
−0.7 0.1
𝑥[𝑛 − 2] 𝑦[𝑛 − 2]
36
Matlab Commands
abs Absolute value and complex magnitude
angle Phase angle
clc Clear Command Window
clear Remove items from workspace, freeing up system memory
conj Complex conjugate
cos Cosine of argument in radians
exp Exponential
find Find indices and values of nonzero elements
fliplr Flip matrix left to right
flipud Flip matrix up to down
imag Imaginary part of complex number
length Length of vector or largest array dimension
max Largest elements in array
mean Average or mean value of array
37
Matlab Commands
min Smallest elements in array
ones Create array of all ones
pi Ratio of circle's circumference to its diameter (≅ 3.14)
plot 2-D line plot
prod Product of array elements
rand Uniformly distributed pseudorandom numbers
randn Normally distributed pseudorandom numbers
real Real part of complex number
sin Sine of argument in radians
size Array dimensions
stem Plot discrete sequence data
sum Sum of array elements
zeros Create array of all zeros

38
Useful Links
Discrete time signals representations and operations

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pkaOj4kg-1k

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Qzpj6UUxhE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17bnT1NHKbs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QafVncdLd-g

39