EDFO 111 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

LECTURE NOTES
MEANING OF HISTORY OF EDUCATION
Meaning of History:
 Neville Allan (1938 in his book the gateway to History) an integrated
narrative or descriptive of past events of facts written in a spirit of critical
inquiry for the whole truth
 Hill and Keber (1967) ‘Attempts to encompass and then explain the whole
realm of humanity past in a perspective that greatly accents to its social
cultural economic and intellectual development’
 Gottschalk, L. (1967).defines history as ‘’that part of human past which can
be meaningfully from the available records and from inferences regarding
their setting’’
N/B The terms refers to the recorded human experiences. These experiences are
political, social, economic, scientific and technological activities. It is these
activities which shape human society.

Meaning of Education:
 Sifuna and Otiende (1992:1) Defines education as an organized and
sustained instruction meant to transmit a variety of knowledge, skills
understanding and attitudes necessary for the daily activities in life.
 Aristotle defined education as a creation of a sound mind in a sound body.
It develops mans faculty specially his mind so that he may be able to enjoy
the contemplation of supreme truth, goodness and beauty.
 Plato argued that education develops in the body and soul of the pupil all
the perfection he is capable of
Definition of Education
Education is a social process in which one achieves social competence and
growth within a selected and controlled institutionalized setting.
The term education can be examined in three dimensions namely
Normative ideal- what we aspire to achieve, at individual level or society
As a process involving acquisition of knowledge
Therefore when the two terms (History and education) are put together in our
study here it could be defined as follows:
“A recorded study of the system of educating social process which lead to
change in
human societies through the ages”.
POINTS TO NOTE IN HISTORY OF EDUCATION INCLUDES:-

 It is a sub discipline of history and a branch of education that critically studies

the past educational experiences of our society

 Is the study of mans past and present events related to preparation of man for
life.

 It takes on almost all the qualities of history- it employs similar sources and
methods of study

 It provides meaning and subsistence /direction for a better understanding of

our past and present educational phenomena

 Is a special branch of general History especially related to the history of

civilization or cultural development for which it is both cause and effect of
N/B
History of Education accounts for the contributions of prominent movements and
educators whose theories and practices have exerted outstanding impact on
educational development.

What is the scope of history of education? The scope of history of education

includes
 The description, elaboration and the analysis of both the formal and informal
aspects of education in ancient western civilization. Ranging from antiquity in
Greece, through Roman civilization, Middle Ages, Renaissance and
Reformation.
 The informal aspects of education to the total cultural context, in which
persons are born, grow and become to the maturity. THROUGH THE
PROCESS acculturation, persons acquire the simply, linguistic and a people’s
value pattern of their culture
 Unfortunately during the past history of education has been entirely
European centered. Thus narrow approach must change in the independent
Africa. Otherwise we would be perpetuating cultural imperialism loathed by
Africans themselves. Black personalities whose ideas have had significant
impact in education and cultural development should be studied as a source of
inspiration needed for active participation in the reconstruction of education
and culture of African people during the post independent era.
 While every effort must be made to gain from the long period of western
education starting from the classical Greeks and Romans. The remarkable
ideas and practices of education featured in long stream African and Asiatic
civilization must be resurrected and incorporated in the revised syllabus.
 History of education rightly begins at the dawn of human civilization,
with the founders of world civilizations centered within the vicinity of Nile in
Egypt, Tigris and Euphrates Mesopotamia, Indus valley and Hwang Ho valley.
Why should a prospective teacher study history of Education. (Relevance of
History of Education)
a. History of education teaches us about the past educational activities ie
practices, challenges and solutions. Therefore history of education teaches
us about our past
educational activities so that we can focus on educational activities of the
present in order that we may modify those activities of education for the future
generation in the light of the existing conditions
b. To professionally prepare teachers that they can be able to critically
explore alternative theories and practices of educational evaluation,
acceptance, rejection and modification of cultural inheritance. In this way
the history of education can help expand the possibilities for personal and
professional action.
c. It contributes to the strengthening of both the personal and the professional
competence of the teacher.ie in the following ways;
d. To investigate, examine, evaluate, accept reject or even modify one`s cultural
inheritance. One will have a chance to agree or disagree or modify their
cultural heritage.
e. To become educational critic and agent who is and can be responsible for
cultural transmission and change, rather than a person who blindly accepts the
status quo or who simply accepts unchallenged claims
f. We study the motivations and behaviors of other human beings that were
engaged in similar activities in the past. In this way, a teacher is directly
encouraged to endeavor to discern the various choices which were
instrumental in shaping human purposes in the past thus bring the possibilities
and alternatives in present decision making.
g. Through critical examination of the educational activities in the past, the
teacher can be able to illuminate on the possibilities and alternatives for
the decision making in the present and thus help modify the future
h. Encourages freedom of critical thought and imaginative thinking in the
exercise of educating
i. It should also enable the student to obtain a deeper comprehension of the
meaning of education processed so that he can become a more effective
classroom teacher.
In this way history of education enables one to:
a. Formulate richer educational patterns
b. Formulate more comprehensive educational principles
c. Provide a larger educational perspective
d. Project imaginatively into a broader range of humanity.
j. This then eventually means history of education is not to immerse more
and more data in order to answer old questions or bolster old believes,
but :
1) To formulate new and better questions
2) it excites curiosity and the spirit of the inquiry
3) it disciplines the faculty of reason
4) it cultivates the arts of self- expression and communication
5) it develops the attitudes of mind which distinguishes the educated person
6) it develops the habit of skepticism and criticism
7) it develops the ability of thinking with perspective and objective
8) it develops the ability of judging the good and the bad and the in-between
human affairs and of weighing the pros and cons

k. Historical study of education can help one to give shape, form,

organization, sequence, interrelationship and the significance of ideas.

l. Helps one develop personal view on education eg what aims, methods, and
existing institutions

m. Through comparative studies we are able to evaluate past successes and

failures thereby identifying there worth
 LECTURE TWO

EDUCATION IN ANCIENT CIVILLIZATION

In this chapter we describe evolution of educational activity as a social institution. We
examine the purposes which education has served in history in this way an attempt is
made to create awareness of the trends in education throughout record history.
However, we embark on that historical examination, we need to define the meanings
of the two important terms used in the teaching profession and which explain The
process of teaching and leaving. The two terms are the back bone of entire social
process related to human learning and development.
These terms are:
1) The verb ‘to educate’
2) The norm ‘Education’

i To educate:
The verbs come from another verb, to educe, which means:
1) To lead
2) to evolve
3) to develop
4) to deduce
5) to infer
Therefore, ‘education’ can be understood to mean the act of bringing out.
Therefore, the term can mean to bring up implied here is the act of bringing the child
out of the darkness of ignorance. The word is from the meaning of helping the youths
to grow in the right way or into acceptable manner in the society.
The word also means, to train, to develop. Implied here is the development of the
intellect and the moral pavers of the youth. The word also means to provide the
schooling for the youth.
ii Education.
This noun means among others, the following:
a. The process of educating;
b. The systematic training and the development of the intellectual and the moral
facilities;
c. Instructions;
d. A cause of instructions;
e. The result of a systematic cause of training and instructions.
Therefore, education means , the provision of an organization and a systematic
form of training of the youth. The ward comes from the Greek words which are “
Pedia agoi”. Where, “Pedia”, means children .
“Agoi”, means bringing up
 In which case, this organized system of training must be subject to change. If
cannot be static. It is this aspect of the process which becomes the subject matter
of the subject, “History of Education” .
It must be therefore expected that as a social process, Changes would be expected
from time to time and from one generation to another.
PRE-HISTORIC MAN AND EDUCATION
Man has been inexistence on this planet for about one million years. In that period, no
doubt man has undergone many changes in his survival. For example, man had
continue to learn more and more complex survival tactics. He had to learn and
develop abilities to adopt his ever changing conditions in his environment.
For that reason there is evidence that man refined his tools in about 500,000 years
ago. Consequently, there were wide strides in his development over 20,000 years
ago.
For example between 10,000 and 8000 bc, man had made even greater developments
in his life. He started in home and grew food staffs rather than depend on wild fruits
and hunting only. He thus begun living in organized families and developed clans. He
also developed gestures, signs and symbols for purpose of communication.
Furthermore, there is evidence that improved skills in commerce and culture which
can be noted today come into existence in about 4000 and 300 years ago .

PATTERNS OF EDUCATION DURING ANCIENT TIMES

The evaluation of man’s culture therefore of his education dates from his own origin
of earth. Indeed, it dates from long before the recorded history. In fact religion,
economy and values of society and the general life styles from the near Eastern
societies showed a succession of formal education system earlier from those of west.
At first education is an instrument of cultural transmission was imparted informally.
This went on until the demand of the society became too complex. It is the complexity
within the society which led to the establishment of the modern types of formal
education through school system.
Furthermore knowledge explosion meant that the family in particular and the society
at large could not cope with the use and the rate of the transmission of the emergent
specializations in education. It was this need therefore which helped to pave the way
for the establishment of the formal institutions to deal with the training in reading,
writing and arithmetic.
The supportive principles of division of labour that followed the technological and the
urban revolution which included the agricultural developments which go together.
This led to the development of the class of teachers who were to handle this new
social development.
At first, the teachers were taught selected few. The few were those children from the
families of the ruling and the wealthy class. Therefore the teachers supplemented the
society. The content of their teachings involved those areas which were relevant to the
needs of both the family and society in general. These areas included the following:
1) Commercial
2) Administrative
3) Literature
4) Numeracy
5) Religion
The invention of writing became an important stimulus towards establishments of
schools. It is here where the skills in writing, reading and arithmetic became very
useful for commercial, administrative and for the record keeping purposes in many
places.
Therefore, school became an overriding necessity for the purpose of teaching people
how to read and write. Unfortunately, recorded tradition soon became authoritarian
once again creating a status quo.
However, the method in the teaching of the time was only memorization and
repetition . This had the meaning that the learner had to repeat word for word from the
teacher. This was no attempt by the teacher to encourage the learner to relate his new
knowledge to real life situation. Nor was there a provision for the application for what
had been learnt to problem solving in real life situation.
Failure to learn or to understand the teaching material was always blamed to the
laziness of the learner.
For that reason there was strict school and class discipline. Therefore education was a
means of producing submissive, conforming and yet productive citizens for the
cohesive society.

Ancient Times and Education

There was on common education system during the ancient empires or during the
ancient communities. Each community has its own objectives to be achieved through
their educational practices
For example, in ancient Persia only few people were chosen to go to school or to be
given organized form of education. Those who were chosen for schooling was due to
reason of becoming scribes and Priests. Furthermore, education was used in Persian
Empire to create a good conformists.
On the other hand, in about 8000 BC. Education in Sparta was used to produce
warriors. Warriors were necessary because of constant wars. For this reason, it was
necessary to produce totally obedient citizens who were totally loyal to the state.
Ancient Athenians had a different stress in their education at that time. This stressed
the importance of the individual fulfillment of the person. It was considered that
individual fulfillment was also good for the state. IT was this objective in then Greek
education system that led to great Greek thinkers as we come to know them in our
time.
The greatest names among the Greek educational thinkers include the following:
1) Plato 429-347 BC
2) Socrates 469-399 BC
3) Aristotle 384-322 BC
these thinkers are best known as the ancient Greek philosopher. They mainly
advocated the pursuit of knowledge and truth in this way, also improved the social
process of the society to which they longed and indeed to the present societies
worldwide. Their ideas in both the field of education and philosophy are studies by
the present society in greater details than ever before.
Ancient Romans in their part sought the application of knowledge rather than pursuit
of theoretical truth for its own sake. The Roman educational approach was suggestive
of power and organization. This then led to the establishment of strong administration
system in the roman society.
Therefore, it is obvious to note that it is the fusion in the Greco- Roman heritage
which eventually became the basis of the present day western civilization. Practical
evidence of this is that, it is the Greek and Roman educational influence which has led
to the establishment of the three levels of our current educational circles.
Educational circles compared

GRECO-ROMAN PRESENT COMMON

1) The lower schools The Nursery schools University

2) The Grammar
Schools The Pimary schools
3) The technical
school The secondary schools

The content of the lower school had a literacy content. This content was mainly taught
by imitation and memorization. This was done under severe discipline. This meant
that the learner had to learn the content, commit it to memory and was expected to
reproduce that constant is exactly the same way as the teacher. This way the only
evidence of whether or not any learning has taken place.
The content in the Grammar school include oratory, poetry and the interpretation of
the poetry. The medium of communication was Latin and Greek. The same medium
of communication continued in the technical school. The curriculum here was carried
in the two languages where the students were trained in the legal and literary subject.
After the causes in these schools in Rome, the Greek students went to Greek
universities in Athens.
Maybe one of the greatest of evidence of the Roman educational influence in our
present time is contained in the Roman idea of the Universal empire. Further more
there in the concept of the law and the ‘Pax Romana’, Roman peace. This concept
still guides and underline civilization to this day.
Similarly, Christianity in the way we have come to know it, is a result of the Roman
genius of the organization Christianity was organized as the imperial religion within
the Roman empire.
EDUCATION DURING ANCIENT CIVILIZATION
It is an accepted belief that we all are descendants of Adam and Eve these two being
the first two human being to inhabit the earth. Similarly, it is an accepted principal in
education that we learn in order to survive. If this be the case then learning in human
beings has come a long way to finally be with us here and now.
Therefore, since survival is a must in human lives, and since learning is necessary
factor to facilitate adaptability to the ever changing conditions of the environment,
then we must expect variations in the standard of the learning. These variations must
include improvements, modification and invention . It is therefore these factors that
make study of ancient education important in our live.
The study of education during ancient time is note just a mere academic pursuit. The
very essence of learning is as relevant to our own lives now as it was to the lives of
the people of ancient world. Through our study, we note from the characteristics of
education in the early historic societies how much similarities there are in comparison
with the educational principle and practice in our own times.
For example the way in which the young of early societies were educated and hence
of there future generations were milestone in their cultural history. Therefore
education and the culture of the past are significant because, the present values are
clearly rooted in those of the past.
It is for this reason that it become important for us to be aware of the main avenues of
actions of the ancient time. This has the implication that, we need to know and
understand the ideal which shaped ancient education together with the men who
created them including the policies and the practices which were based on these
ideals.
However, our study of the ancient educational policies and practices is not based on
all such societies as are known to have existed in many parts of the world, but, rather
on these past societies was educational influence has become a permanent future of
western education hence, our Kenyan education system of today.
For that reason we select for the purpose in this study , the following ancient
civilization:
1) ancient Egypt
2) ancient china
3) the ancient Hindus
4) ancient Hebrew education
5) the ancient Greeks
6) the ancient Rome
 The Ancient Egypt.
The education system in Egypt of about 4000BC and 1000 BC
It was centered along the Nile valley i.e. founded on agricultural activities of the Nile
All aspects of Egyptian life was linked to religion and believed in life after death
Egyptian society was stratified into the following classes
1.upper class/ royal class
2.middle class/working class
3.lower class/slaves
Aims of Egyptian education included
I. Achieving proper understanding of their religion i.e. enhance morality and
respect to god
II. Development of vocational skills. The skills were needed for trade and
agriculture.
III. Fostering social stability and maintenance of status quo
IV. Producing professionals and work oriented people to support social economic
and political systems
Whereas skills in trade were easy to develop, skills in agriculture were not since, they
needed development of knowledge in other field of learning. These were the
following:
1 Mathematics
2 Geometry
3 Physics
Skills and knowledge in these subjects were made necessary because of the type of
agriculture practiced in the area. Egypt is a country in the desert.
The livelihood of these people in this country was and is still based on the waters of
the river Nile.
Therefore, their farming was still and is by irrigation. This require further knowledge
of survey for measurement and geometry for the levels of water flows.
the assignment
The Ancient Hindus
The Hindus had four classes which were the Brahmins (priestly people),
the Kshatriyas (also called Rajanyas, who were rulers, administrators and warriors),
the Vaishyas (artisans, merchants, tradesmen and farmers), and Shudras (laboring
classes). The varna categorisation implicitly had a fifth element, being those people
deemed to be entirely outside its scope, such as tribal people and the untouchables.
Education was also based on these caste systems
The Hindus endeavored through education to prepare themselves life after death
through the same process they endeavored to maintain the caste system in their
society. The idea and practice of preparing oneself for the life after death is based on
the Reincarnation. Reincarnation dominate or those who are not truly emancipated.
The Hindu educational ideals were severe. A student had to obey and follow
instruction of the teacher to the letter. Discipline and reinforcement by use of corporal
punishment were frequent. students were also often required to practice asceticism.
Schools of different kinds were established. There were private schools whuch were
established by gurus. A guru is a Hindu religious leader or teacher some of the
schools included the following:-
1. The Parishads or the Parish Schools
These were schools or simply assembly centres of the Hindu priests or Brahmins
2. The tutorial Centres
Tutorial centres were rooms for learner and one teacher. They were better known as
‘the one room, one-teacher education centres. Students for these tutorials lived or
found living accommodations near the tutorial rooms.
3. The Forest Colleges
Teachings at these establishments centered on the virtues of contemplation. This
practice attracted many famous scholars
4. Tempe Schools
Instructions in these educational institutions were religious. These centres came up
about 500AD.
There were also monasteries, which were concentrated much more on educational
matters, which were strictly of a religious nature only.
5. The Court Schools
These were educational centres which were for secular knowledge.
Among the important universities for the Brahmins established at about the same time
included the following; Bereaves, Nadia, and Taksasila. Natural and the physical
sciences were tought at these universities. Other subjects in the curriculum for these
universities included the following: Logic, Literature, Philosophy, and Religion.
Teachers in the Hindu system of education were held in great respects and the
teachers were also expected to be ascetic, learned and gentle in their behaviour.
Scholarship for teachers was a way of life.
 Ancient Hebrew Education
The early beginning of the Hebrew is rather cloudy. It is carried in legends. But there
are records to show that Isaac, Abraham and Jacob were Hebrew tribal leaders who
lived in migratory existence.
From the old testament, it is well known that mosses led the children of Israel out of
land of Egypt. This is given the date of 2,400 BG. The exodus led the Hebrew to join
the other Semitic people in their new home in the land of Canaan.
The Israelites lived unsophisticated pastoral lives of twelve loosely united by a
Common faith in one God called ‘Yahweh or Jehovah’. They made no significant
advances in the art, science and technology.
In their wondering, they served as transmitters of other people’s cultures rather than
their own. However their impact on world civilization is great. And may be their
greatest contribution to world civilization in in the concept of monotheism. This is the
concept of the oneness of God. This was the revolutionary ideas of the polytheistic
world of the ancient.
The concept of a one God, which implied a single moral power, formed the heart of a
Hebrew religion. It was this concept which was transmitted to Europe through
Christianity and to Africa and Asia through Islam.
The kingdom of Israel was founded by Saul in about 1020 BC. This kingdom was
established in spite of great attacks from philistines. But even in the rule of Saul and
that of his successor David , life in Israel remained primitive in comparison with
civilization of Egyptians , the Sumerians or even their neighbours,, the Canaanites.
The Canaanites were also called the Phoenicians by the Greeks.
The Phoenicians were the leading traders, sailors, explorers, metallurgists of their
time. They also invented the first real letters of the alphabets.
Jerusalem flourished as the capital of the kingdom of Israel under the rule of Solomon
in 961-922BC . The Israelites captured the city from the Canaanites during the rule of
David. The temple of king Solomon was the work of Phoenicians.
Hebrew education was mainly through apprenticeship. This was the method upto
about the exile in 586BC.There were no professional teachers. Parents and the older
relatives acted as educational guides for the youths. Therefore, there were no formal
schools. The family and the tribes formed educational institutions.
Basically the actual responsibility for bringing up the children in properly accepted
manner lay with the father.
The objective of education was basically religious. It was mainly to develop a sense
of personal responsibility towards and an obligation towards the law. Boys were
introduced to the laws of the people from about the age of three. By the time the boys
were thirteen, they were expected to understand lawfully and to act upto on its
teachings. They also learned to master religious ceremonies such as rites of Passover.
Higher education did not exist, But, the priests and the prophets expanded the law to
all adults. It is these priests and prophets who created the Hebrew literature, which
was passed on from generation to generation in the oral tradition.
After the death of king Solomon in 922BC. Israel begun to decline such that it was
split in two rival kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The Hebrew declining power was
further diminished by onslaughts of the Assyrians about 800 BC the Hebrew state
disappeared until it was re-established as a new state in 1948.
Therefore there was many other highly developed cultures in various parts of the
world. the ones given here above simply serve as an example of all those ancient
civilizations and their educational principles and practices. The light of education,
which these example provide, is that schools appeared almost contemporaneously
with civilization.
further more we note from these examples that schools developed as a practical
response to the need to write. Therefore, they were originally professional schools for
the purpose of training scribes.
The connection between ancient education and religion manifestated itself in many
different ways. Schools often developed as parts of the appendages to the temples.
This was due to the fact that, the priest needed to be literate in order to keep temple
records. Therefore, potential priests were of necessity students of the art of writing.
For that reason, priests continued to be the teachers even long after a class of secular
scribes had came up, Religious marks like the Vedas often formed the basics of
school curriculum. Therefore, religion, or the transmission of religious knowledge,
frequently provided the fundamental objective for the formal instruction.
Finally, ancient students or teachers were just as human with responses similar to
those of their contemporary counterparts. And ancient education, like modern ones
had their limitations usually school instructions were restricted to the boys or young
men of the upper classes. Discipline was harsh and the methods of instructions were
routine and repetitious. and the curriculum was sometime dedicated to the past rather
to the present or to the future.

ANCIENT GREEK
in most cases, history of education either begins with or at least includes the Greek.
This is not a mere convention. It is because the Greeks set forth many ideas and ideals
basic to the principles and the practice of education. Is this basic factors which have
formed the practice of the current western educational traditions.
Greeks explored problems of human nature. of the human mind, the learning process
e,t,c. They also asked searching questions about the individual and the state. They
also provided significant answers. Greeks were skilled as artisans, artists, and political
theorists and scientists.
For example, Greeks asked questions about what education is and what purpose it
serves in human lives. They devised schools and the methods of fulfillments of their
ideals.
Greek education was guided by nationalistic emphasis this was possible because in
the Greek social system, there was no infallible authority and there was no organized
priesthood. This allowed free inquiries to flourish. This freedom developed a spirit of
tolerance unequalled by civilizations in other parts of the world.
Even in Greece of the time, there were limitations to that freedom. We find for
example that Anaxagoras, who was a pre- Socratic thinker, was persecuted because of
his scientific views. And then, Socrates was made to take hemlock because some
Athenians felt that he was corrupting the youths with his views and that he was
subversive to the established religion and government.
The ideal of the Greek education upheld a combination of physical and intellectual
excellence. This was based on the strong believe that both the mind and the body was
to be trained.
To the Greeks, the educated man is the one without extremes on the pleasures of the
world. It is the man who cultivates a sense of reason because reason is the most
important quality in a man. Therefore the wise man will seek enough eternal
satisfaction, friendship, and the good things of life so that his existence would be
enriched. And the good man acted according to the laws of nature while the evil man
violated them.
Greeks thought unlike Christianity, was based on naturalistic spirits. Life to the
Greeks was to be enjoyed to the full but the idea of limitation came in based in the
fact that the finite was good but, the infinite was regarded as the principles of the evil.
Greek ideals resulted in an integrative concept of education. For example it was
believed that the best life was the one, which led to a full adjustment of man to his
environment.
However may be the weakness of Greek education is its lack of application in
practical life. But this was due to the deliberate regard among the Athenians of the
time for labor as an inferior activity. For that reason we find that the Greeks
developed many of the theories, which have furthered the progress of sciences.
However we then talk of the ancient Greek education, it is proper that we make a
proper distinction regarding the kind of the education we are talking about. This is
due to the fact that Greece of the time did not operate as one state. The people were
Greeks but lived in administrative city states. The most notable of these city- states
were Sparta and Athens.
The educational arrangements in Sparta and Athens provide some effectives contrast
and excellent examples of the ways in which education and social structures are
intricately interwoven. But the two important differences between the Spartan and
Athenian is that, while the Athenian developed virtue of the ability of the wind, the
Spartans went for the military prowess.
SPARTA
During the 8th c BC. Sparta was a primitive village in the Laconic plains in the
northern Greece the basic social unit was the family. A century later Sparta had
become a centre of a well developed culture, Which attracted poets and artists from
far and its social Circle had expanded to that of the city state. It was then a peaceful
competitor in the Olympic games
However by the 4th c BC Sparta had changed barbarous city petrified into attitude of
more disrust and no longer centre. It was no longer education youth in arts but
training them in skills of war.
The reason of this was the war struggles between Sparta and her neighbours where
Sparta come out victorious. This experience changed entire lifestyle of the Spartan
society from that OF PEACE TO WAR.
The creator of this new state was Lycurgus. He required that all citizens were subject
of state strictly. His philosophy was that from birth, all children became the property
of the state.
A committee inspected all babies and those found unfit were done away with. Those
found to be fit were made to join others in a life specifically designed to make them
physically fit.
Not tenderness was shown to a Spartan child either at home or elsewhere in the
country. Right from the earliest years sneer, taught and flogging taught children to
obey state rules of contacts
At the age of seven boys begun to attend classes for games and physical training. At
the age of 12, they left home to begin their military career. They lived include
barracks and were not permitted warm clothes even in winter. The children
deliberately subjected to hardship in order to train endurance a factor necessary for
war.
By the age of 20 the young men were inducted into a state organization. Their duties
was to spy on the helots. They also had orders to kill harlots who showed any
restlessness.
by the middle of the 6th c BC Spartan society consisted of three classes of people.
Their classes were:-
The Spartan Aristocrat.
this was a group of people who were of Spartan origin and landowners. In other words
they were a warrior caste.
The periokio class.
This was a group of free Spartans but who had no political rights.
The Helots (serfs)
This was a group of people who were the origin of Laconia but overrun by Spartans
who then enslave them thus making them serfs or neglected people who became their
sarvants. But, by population, their numbered 10-1
This social structure of the Spartan society was fixed. There was no allowance for
crossing from one social class to another. One born in one class there you stay. The
social classes were as fixed as were other aspects of the Spartan society at the time.
The society was so fixed that change, new ideas and strangers were not allowed and
welcomed. even in terms language, a necessary words were not allowed in Laconic
speech.
the Aristocratic Spartan made a reacher out of the austerity which circumstance were
imposed upon him. These conditions included among those were such as rejecting
luxury, ignoring the acts idolization of the military power and accepting endure
hardship and at the same time using Helots to providing their war materials.
And since the boys in Spartan society were going to spend their lives in military
service their curriculum was arranged accordingly
1 The art and sciences were thought unnecessary
2 they were taught national songs, dancing, martial music, the Homeric
epics and the war like poems.
3 they were taught numbers to extent they enabled to count head and
weapons
4 literary wars restricted to reading writing in their rudemtary forms .
Although they too lived a vigorous life, the girls stayed at home but the were trained
in running, wrestling and discuss throwing. The primary concern for the girls was the
development of healthy bodies so that they could produce sturdy sons for the state.
The girls participated in the national festivals. During these festivals, the girls danced
naked with the boys. The purpose for dancing naked was to display their physical
fitness and not to indulge in orgiastic revelry, which would have been entirely alien
to the Spartan behaviour, which was marked by strong discipline.
The Spartan education system was a successful story in spite of its limitations in its
aim and objectives. We note in our time that it served as model for the totalitarian
societies such as the Nazi Germany, the Communist Russia and the people’s republic
of china
In spite of these seeming success of Spartan system of education of ancient time the
limitation of the system led to its own end in the face of unfamiliar condition which in
this case were created by the Thebans. This was due to the fact that where as the
Spartan soldiers were well trained and properly disciplined, yet they were defeated
due to their inability to adopt to methods which were not familiar.
Therefore they were defeated by the efforts of the Thebans
In short the Spartan education system was capable only for producing functionaries
for a static militaristic society. This was due to the fact that, the system excluded
considerations for important concepts such as:-
1 Intellectual development
2 Individual self-fulfillment
3 The exploration of knowledge
4 The development of art forms
5 The self-initiative and the willingness to try new ideas.
Now to find these more adverse and more liberal elements of education, we will turn
to the next Greek city state, Athens.
ATHENS
Athens is situated by the sea which she seems to have made full use of. She sent her
colonists and traders throughout Mediterranean world and she also welcomed to her
shares mariners and strangers with their different ideas.
On the other hand, Sparta which was encircled by mountains, regarded strangers with
suspicion. Therefore it can be safe to conclude that that geographical conditions had a
lot to do with the differing educational development in the two societies.
Athens grew from primitive village to a majestic, city states of temples, theatres and
public squares which were greatly admired. Athenians developed a refined process of
law making. In this way they created for themselves a democratic society devoted o
general good of all men.
ATHENIAN DEMOCARCY WAS not a primitive form of egalitarianism. It
recognized the difference in people based on birth, wealth and professional status.
The aristocratic members of the society derived their wealth from the land. Other
Freemont earned their living from farming, trade, priests, potters tanners, weaver or
even labourers. The slaves earned their livelihoods by serving their masters in many
ways.
Schools first appeared in Athens in during 6th C B.C . These schools were private and
they charged fees . In this way education was limited to only those who could afford
to pay.
In spite of that Athens did not adopt a Lezzas-faire towards formal education were
enacted where the first one was during the rule of Solo (640-559 BC). These laws
regulated the hours of the school attendance and the ages of the pupils at school. They
also required proper moral supervision for boys.
Only boys attended the school. But they stayed at home until the age of seven. The
curriculum at this stage included the following:
1 Wrestling
2 rudimentary health habits
3 music
4 writing and reading
5 counting
6 recitng poems (Homer)
For most boys, instructions ended at the age of 14. But for the privileged supervised
instructions continued though at a less formal level. The youth was introduced to
public society, e.g theatre, law courts, public meetings, e.t.c
educational and the formulation of the theories about:
a what is knowledge/
b how do we learn?
c to what end do we learn?
Strongly enough, those substantial educational philosophers did not all have great
impact upon their counterpart. Those views which were expanded by
 1 Socrates 469-399BC
2 Plato 428-348 BC
3 Aristotle 322 BC
we’re not heeded as much as those ideas of Isocrates yet those are the foundation of
the western cultural, philosophical and educational traditions.
 EDUCATION DURING THE MEDIEVAL TIME (MIDDLE AGES)
This period in history is also called the dark ages. Or the ‘medieval ages’
As it will be seen later, this was indeed a dark period in the history of mankind. The
period was marked by arrival of barbarian hoarders from Northern Europe and the
civilization scenes in southern Europe. This was after AD.300
The barbarians descended on the ancient civilization with great lawlessness and
violence. They thus destroyed everything which had been developed and established
by the ancient learning.
However, this situation required that all those who loved and respected ancient
learning and civilization work out a method of preservation of whatever was good
from the ancient world. This led to the establishment of universities- which grew out
for the need of higher education.
It is for this reason that this period is also referred to as the period of preservation.
Medieval times in history is also referred to as ‘The dark ages or The middle ages’.
Between the 3rd C and the 12th C is that period in reference. This period in history is
categorized as the period of intellectual stagnation. Whereas that may be so, yet it is
true that some changes did occur but the pace was deniably slow.
At the same time, the medieval time in history has one very important and positive
aspects. This is the aspect which makes it referred to as, ‘The period of conservation
of knowledge’
For that reason of conservation of knowledge the ancient world had centres of
learning. It is in these centres where learning was imparted. These centres were
located in the following places:
1. Alexandra
2. Athens
3. Constantinople
4. Beirut
5. Bordeaux
6. Lyeuns
7. Odessa
These centres could be refer to as the universities of the time. However these centres
came to an end about 800 AD.
Two important factors were responsible for the downfall of all these centres and they
were the following:
1. The growth of Christian supernaturalism and mysticism
2. The invasion by the Barbarians from the North.
The two factors here listed above as those responsible for the decline in the
learning
which had been acquired till then worked towards the same end but from two
differing objectives. The objective which they achieved wiped out the entire
learning which had been attained by the ancient teaching.
The reasons for the attack were that,
1. The Christian religion was completely opposed to secular teachings of the
ancient times. Therefore, wars were waged to wipe it out
2. The Barbarians from the north and south were just anti- civilization standards
which had been attained till then.
In view of this, it became necessary that ancient civilization and entire learning
needed to be preserved for the future generation. This responsibility fell upon the
shoulders of men who choose to seek refuge in seclusion in some remote out of the
way retreats. These men sought to preserve knowledge from total destruction.
In those retreats, they immersed themselves in the earnest fasting, praying and
suffering all things. It was from these hermits that the first monks emerged. These
later established monasteries all over Europe.
The church onslaught on the type learning of the time was due to the fact that the
church had a strong mistrust and literature and rhetoric church teaching followed the
advice of the apostolic constitution. This required that they abstain from all heathen
teachings.
However, the church soon realized that it required training for its clergy in literary
work if it is to survive. For that reason, schools were established, directed exclusively
ecclesiastical objectives only. Therefore, as the church developed further the situation
positively changed. The clergy who had studied sacred text only begun to acquire love
for learning for its own sake. And since the medium of instruction and communication
was Latin this factor led gradually to the revival of the grammar schools as they had
existed in Rome.
With the assistance from the secular larders the church established a wide spread
system of the school by 11c AD. In this way the church held monopoly of education.
Some of the schools which were established at the time included the following:
1. The Monasteries
2. The convent
3. The song schools
4. Episcopal (CATHEDRAL SCHOOLS)
THE EFFECTS OF THE CHURCH ON EDUCATION
1. Throughout the whole period of the middle ages the church sponsored and
encouraged learning. This was done through teaching, copying of manuscripts
and writing commentaries. These then became the basis upon which medical
university developed.
2. However, the monopoly of education by the church during medieval time and
for a long time afterwards these had the negative effect. This is due to the fact
that church interests and the church doctrines set the limit of education
practice. This had the meaning that any science or philosophy which could be
seen to be incompatible with the wishes of Christianity was automatically
excluded from the school curriculum.
 3. This created intellectual wastage therefore scholarship had to concentrate in
harmonizing knowledge and doctrine in order to survive. The long term effect
of this monopoly was that, considerable intellectual inquiry had to be
developed in order to rediscover what had once been known but lost because
of the exclusion from the curriculum of the time from a very long time.
4. Together with intellectual development in Christianity medieval education in
the liberal art played an important role in the intellectualization of the
medieval culture.
5. Although the education of this time aimed at the selected few nevertheless it
provided the catalyst for a broad based intellectual change which became the
foundation of the education of the letter generation.
6. The development of secular palace and the prominent cathedral schools in the
11c and the 12 c and then the establishment of the university from the
thirteenth century can be compared with the awakenings commonly referred to
as the medieval renaissance.
7. As it has already been stated, the major catalyst of education throughout the
medieval period was the Christian theology, this was much more so in Italy
and especially in Rome after the rise of papacy.
8. Throughout the middle ages, Italy continued to produce clergy of intellectual
renown. Some of them included the following: Ambrose, Augustine, Gregory
the great ,Thomas Aquinas and Gregory of Rimin. Therefore, it was a
frequent practice that Italians were sent out from Rome to teach in many parts
of Europe of the time and indeed throughout the Christian world at large.
9. This flow to and fro Rome of these religious thinkers and intellectual helped
preserve, reproduce and spread the leanings of the ancient time. In turn, this
made Rome all important religious and educational centre of medieval era, and
indeed for a long time thereafter.
10. Therefore it is obvious from the above that the clergy had a reason to study the
classics. the reason was the need to understand the bible literature therefore
the study of the classic was a means to an end.

THE RISE OF UNIVERSITIES IN EUROPE

No one knows exactly when the first university was sighted. This is because the first
universities were not founded deliberately as we know the case in our time. The
earliest universities started off painlessly or in deed unwillingly. The universities
emerged for a variety of reasons and uncommonly out of special academic conditions.
For example, the University of Paris was a product of some extraordinary teachers,
especially in the logic and divinity section of cathedral school of Notre Dame.
Therefore, there were many forces which combined to produce universities in Europe.
In that way we find that no two universities originate under the same conditions.
Among these forces or influences that combined to produce the universities in Europe
included the following:
 1. The Muslim influence
2. The development of the scholasticism
3. The growth of wealth and cities
4. The kings and universities

A. The Muslim Influences.

Muslims carried their Jihads into Europe reaching Spain in about 900 AD. In the
process of their conquest, they gave Spain an Islamic civilization which included
intellectual life. Muslims had acquired Greek civilization. This together with Syrian
learning and learning the Hindu sources, they had picked mathematical and
astronomical knowledge which they brought into Spain as areas of new learning and
new knowledge.
In this connection, the European monks were attracted to his training because it was
superior. Consequently, the Muslims helped establish universities at Cordova, Toledo,
and at Seville.
Curriculum at these universities covered the following areas:
i. Physics
ii. Mathematics
iii. Astronomy
iv. Chemistry
v. Medicine
vi. Psychology
vii. Philosophy
viii. Law
The most outstanding record accredited to the Islamic influence of the time is in
medicine. The ‘Canon of medicine ‘by Avicenna, (980-1037).
B. The development of scholasticism
From about the 11C to about 15C, there appeared in Europe a new future in
educational development. This was a future characterized by scholastic method which
consisted of citing all known authorities from both sides of a given academic
question. Thereby, a variety of distinction to show how each authority may be
reconciled.
This was a method explication of what was simplicity in mysticism. Bernard (AD.
1153) was the architect.
Scholasticism was the systematization of speculation and by faith, the strict
application of Aristotelian logic to the philosophical and theological question of
middle ages. This method became necessary for the following factors:
i. To correct the mystical tendencies of the orient
ii. To put Europe in national thought of ancient world
iii. to save Europe from moral suicide and ignorance
 iv. To compel Christendom to raise itself and to state its position as definitely
opposed to Islam
The most important of the scholasticism was the Thomas Aquinas (1255-1274 AD).
He tried to combine the Aristotelian thought with the Christian tradition of his time.
C. The emergence of wealth and cities.
The emergence of cities due to the development of commerce led to wealth among
peoples of Europe. There was a development arising from the trade far afield from
Europe following the reports and successes of the European explorers. This led to the
development of the commercial enterprises and the development of the local
governments. This in turn led to the development of interest in secular education more
than ever before.
It is the development of these new interests in education and higher intellectual
speculation that led to the developments of universities.
The growth of secular interests promoted educational speculations. This led to
universities to offer causes which led to the setting up of faculties at the universities in
the following order:
A. The faculty of Arts (the seven liberal arts)
i. Grammar
ii. Rhetoric
iii. Dialect
iv. Arithmetic
v. Geometry
vi. Astronomy
vii. Music
B. The faculty of law
C. The faculty of Music
D. The faculty of Divinity
Not all the universities which were established at the time offered courses in all of
these faculties. For example, the University of Salerno was founded in AD 1224
specialized in medical training. And Bologna which was established in AD 1158,
specialized in law. At the same time the University of Paris which was established in
AD1180, specialized in Divinity.
D.The Kings and the Universities
The founding of the higher education and subsequently the establishment of the
universities was greatly encouraged by the privileges granted by the pope in Rome
and the emperors of the time.
The privilege included the granting of the university authority documents called
‘charters’. These documents gave universities full recognition and the right to operate
as a distinct educational body of a higher learning. The first charter was given to the
university of Bologna in AD 1158 by Emperor Fredrick 1.
Medieval universities were organized around the teaching faculties and the students’
population. They were organized like guilds. Students to these universities were
drawn from all over Europe. The only differences among the students were the
language and the kinship, these only natural divisions at the universities. Therefore
students and masters were organized into groups according to their national
affiliations.
Teaching methods in these universities were based on the formal lecture. However,
the lectures were to be memorized by students to indicate the mastery and the
acquisition of the expected knowledge. Lectures included the reading and explaining
of the required text. Then, the students debated the relevant points which each other
on the basis of a group discussions among the students themselves. At some time, the
points discussed among the student’s groups were brought for disputation between the
students and their masters. The medium of communication in these universities was
Latin.
The universities awarded degrees. The awards were made after a successful end of
every course. The examinations were administered under strict conditions.
Examination included thesis which the students had to defend before the members of
the faculty.
However the examinations for the doctoral degrees were even stricter. They lasted for
a week or even more. These examinations were both written and oral. They strictly
tested the ability to defend and to dispute.
The successful candidates became master, doctors, or professors. This had the
meaning that, the candidates were able to defend, dispute and determine a case,
accordingly they were allowed or authorized to teach publicly.
Although the medieval period was educationally static due to the barbaric conquests
and although universities were usually restricted, formalized and meager, their
greatest influence was in crystallizing intellectual interests and rebuilding libraries
and creating better prepared teachers and in making them more accessible than the
religious institutions did.
However, universities provided academic retreats for the more and few geniuses who
could have access to such places. Such geniuses of the time include the following:
i. Bacon 1214-1294
ii. Dante 1265-1321
iii. Patriarch 1304-1374
iv. Wyclifee 1324-1384
v. Huss(burned) -1415
vi. Copernicus 1473-1543
Unlike the religious institution, the Universities were democratic in nature such that,
politically, ecclesiastically and theologically, they were bulwark of freedom due to
their legal status and privileges. Therefore, universities preserved freedom of
expression and opinion. It noted that, even monarchs respected scholars’ opposing
views such that there were few instances of violation of student’s rights and
privileges. It is on record that even monarchs such as Henry111 and Philip of France
appealed to the universities for arbitration in their divorce cases.
ISLAMIC EDUCATION
The orthodox Muslims believed in absolute fatalism. But, some sects within the faith
believed in a limited form of free will. That evil and injustice are due to man and not
God. Therefore, the believe in predestination has philosophical and educational
implication. For example, this would be no sense in the use of the resources of reason
when all you need is faith.
However, Islam provides for a strong family system, moderate habits and for charity
towards the underprivileged members of the society.
According to Mohamed, all believers are equal before Allah. Therefore, in that
connection there would be no for an organization for priesthood. In this regard, the
centre of theology is the Koran and not the church.
According to Islam, sins are put in two main categories. These are as follows:
A. Major sins
i. Heresy
ii. Murder
iii. Adultery
iv. Magic
v. Gambling
These sins require genuine repentance. The worst sin is the disbelief in God. This
leads to domination and is unpardonable.
B. The minor sins
i. Dispation and acts of lust
ii. Sexual morality
An amend for the sins in this category is by doing good. However, there is far less
Puritanism in Islam than in Christianity. It follows therefore that, the system of
polygamy and the subordination of the women allowed for more erotic freedom than
western religions could recognize.
The believers of Islam are expected to repeat the Creed five times a day while bowing
facing Mecca. Alms giving is encouraged and stressed because charity is part and
parcel of Mahamedanism. Fasting is encouraged during the month of Ramadan. And
then as far as it is possible, Islamic believers are expected to visit Mecca at least once
in their life’s time.
There are many constant struggles to be found within Islam philosophies. These
struggles are between those who believe and accept the inspired message of Koran
and those who were guided by reason and were inclined in the direction of
philosophy. One of the most notable of the Muslim philosophers is Alfarabi. He made
an interpretation of Islam in the context of Platonic philosophy.
In his view, He advanced the view that we cannot know God completely because,
God is infinitely perfect. Like Plato he stressed the importance of reason as a means
of arriving at the point of the acquisition of the knowledge. Furthermore in his
educational advancement, Alfarabi stressed that God is a spirit of truth and we honour
him best by cultivating our philosophical powers. And that, the teacher is the
representative of Allah on earth.
Another philosopher of note was Avicenna. His greatest contribution was in the field
of medicine like Alfarabi, he too believed in the omnipotence of God. And that, the
value of man manifests itself when a man identifies himself with God.
Avicenna believed in the personal morality. That, the soul is not corruptible by
matter. There is a lot of mystical expression in his philosophy such that he states that,
the highest state of knowledge is arrived at when we feel a divine illumination which
cannot be verbally expressed. For Avicenna, the main purpose of education is the
cultivation of mysticism.
One of the other notable Muslim philosophers from the Muslim world is Al- Gazzali
who further heightened the mystical strains in Islam he deeply studied philosophy and
religion.
He divided the search for truth into four categories. These were the following:
a) Scholastic
b) Belevers in esoteric doctrines
c) Professional philosophers
d) Sufis
Al-Gazali’s view in these categories were that, the scholastics did not have enough
faith to defend religions ideal. In which case they could not give certainty to man.
And as far as those who believed in an esoteric doctrines, their knowledge was
shallow and fraudulent. HE particularly was critical about professional educators and
philosophers. He felt that the doctrine they taught was irrelevant, and tended to be
subversive.
The approach which Al- Gazzali approved was that of Sufis. He felt that theirs was
the sure way to salvation. The Sufis replaced reason by faith to scientific knowledge
by intuition. He further asserts that man does not need theology to achieve realization
of divine reality which governs the universe.
Furthermore, according to the views of Al-Gazzali, real education demands
asceticism. and that man must abandon all lust of the flesh and striving for honour and
the worldly praise. In this way we turn away from sense object and then we get to see
the overwhelming majesty of God.
A yet another notable Muslim philosopher was Averroes who relied mainly on the
Greek thought in philosophy of Aristotle. He believed that only the active intellect is
immortal. That what remained after death is part of a man which is reason whose
aspects we share with other beings.
In order to keep away with his critics, he took refuge in bauble truth. That, it was
possible that something could be sure in philosophy and education and yet the same
thing could be found to be false in theology. Averroes did not believe in the concept
of creation out of nothing. He believed that the universe was eternal and could not be
destroyed by Allah.
Averroes believes in the course of enlighten, he contented that a real teacher is the one
who is emancipated from superstition and the one who understand the symbolic
nature of the truth. He will look upon knowledge as an eternal process, not as a final
attainment.

Contribution of Islam to Education

1. translated Greek classical to Arabic
Muslim culture and learning was very superior to that of western civilization. Muslim
translated Greek classical into Arabic. In this way they managed to cultivate a very
high standard of learning. Muslims were tolerant when it came to new ideas.
2. developed canon medicine as it was superior in maths physics chemistry and
geography
This Muslim approach to learning does not seem to have continued into the modern
times. It is on the record that during the middle Ages, Islamic learning had developed
and reached a high standard of sciences and medicine. The most outstanding work of
the time is Avicenna’s; Canon Medicine’. Islamic learning was the pioneer in
Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Geography. When universities came up to the
area, they stressed learning in the area of scientific studies and religion.
3. established centres of learning
A house of wisdom was established in 830 AD as a combination of centre of learning
and museum. It is also noted that they universities of the middle ages in the Muslim
world, were more liberal and progressive than in the modern times. Notable records in
the Muslim literature include among others, the Arabian Nights and the Rubaiyat.
4. encouraged scholarship
However the Islamic contribution to education during refinances it through their
translation of the Greek thinkers and by encouraging scholarship. But, there was a
turn away from their earlier attitude towards Greek learning and education when they
attacked and captured Constantinople in 1453 AD. Many of the famous Greek
scholars were forced to take refuge in the Italian City states of the west.
However by all accounts the Islamic approach to education is an example of the
relationship of the freedom and creativity in education. It is therefore found that when
Islamic rulers like Haroun al- Rashid encouraged freedom of expression, the arts and
sciences prospered. But, when the freedom was curbed by the advent of more
Orthodox Islamic leaders in later years, Muslim learning declined. This then retarded
learning in the whole of the Muslim world.
This was due to the fact that when the freedom of inquiry is limited, no real
advancement in knowledge can be possible
 RENAISSANCE AND EDUATION
Between 13th and 16th Centuries Europe experienced a rebirth of knowledge. This was
the period which history is generally referred to as ‘the renaissance’
This is the period in which ancient Greco-Roman was revived or begun to re-emerge.
The human activities which eventually came to characterize the period of the
renaissance developed out of progressive social, economic and philosophical rebirth
or change
Those factors for which emerged the period of renaissance include the following
factors:
1. The emergent and development of national languages and literature.
2. The enrichment of cities
3. The expansion of commerce and industries and banking ( Industrial
development)
4. The rise of the guilds and the growing spirit of nationalism.
Renaissance represents a new period in human culture. However its break with middle
ages was gradual, It was a gradual change which eventually led to the development of
new world perspective.
For example where the middle ages had advocated for modification of the body,
Renaissance scholars asserts that life is to be enjoyed to the full. The middle class
became more important during renaissance. Nationalism and the glorification of
wealth became more permanent aspects of European civilization. The invention of
printing created a broader foundation for the universal education.
Other notable developments of the renaissance include such aspects as the role of
women of the society which had been inferior during middle Ages, took on prominent
role of European culture. Furthermore while the middle ages had maintained
moralistic conception of man, art became the main instrument of interpretation during
the renaissance.
In this connections, such arts like the da Vinci became the leaders of the society.
Man’s body which had earlier been regarded as the source of sin, was now glorified
by the artists and became the object of detailed economic study in the medicine e.t.c
All these changes also affected the general status of man which also changed. There
was a glorification of human perfection . Man’s dignity was emphasized. We note as
Pico della Mirandola showed that man became the centre of the universe. Furthermore
we find a new conception of the gentleman during the Renaissance.
The medieval gentleman was usually illiterate and only interested in sports and
warfare. On the other hand, the renaissance gentle man treasured and valued
education and was an expert of love. This was due to the fact that the needs and
expectation of the man in renaissance was a complete man in whom both art and
sciences are properly cultivated.
the development of the attitudes of the renaissance periods brought about the
revolution in the thinking of the man of the time. The knowledgeable public in the
Middle Ages pictured conceive the earth as a centre of the universe. This view was
turned around by the knowledge of the renaissance public. This view was contradicted
by the heliocentric perspective of the universe of the new age. Those who advanced
the view of the age included the war Copernicus, Galileo, Brahe and Kepler. This
work aided the emergence and the establishment of the final victory of this world
view.
At the beginning the new scientific ideas were ridiculed and the proponents were
persecuted. The well known among others is the suffering of the Galileo. Finally
during the age of the Newton, the heliocentric viewpoint of the universe was taken for
granted by the educated world.
by this stage not only had the universe changed, but so had the man lost his status as
the lord of creation. more and more scholars were conscious of man’s infinitesimal
position in the vast astronomical world.
Nevertheless, the thinker of the time equally developed various reactions to the new
conception of the world. To Bruno for example, it meant a ready acceptance of the
pantheism. On the other hand to Gassendi, Epicureanism was the only alternative.
While to Bayle, skepticism seemed to be the best answer.
On the other hand, Pascal who laid the foundation for the calculus considered faith as
the only valid solution to the concept of the world. However his belief in the
revelation was different from that medieval ages acceptance of the dogmas of the
church. For THE SCHOLARS OF THE MIDDLE AGES it natural to adhere to
absolute standard but for Pascal it an escape caused by despair.
The new world of the renaissance was nominated by laws and not by miracles. It was
afar more sober than the older world. However, faith in the miracle s continued but to
some extent these were on the foundation of the science.
By this time, the absolute authority of the rulers and theology over the knowledge
and the learning of the old war waning. The students at the universities were chartered
by the study of language and sway of the physical sciences instead of by the issues of
theology only. The new method in science respected to fact of nature. It ceased to be
an allegory and instead became the experiment. In this, facts and particulars were
emphasized instead of generality and patience became a major virtue for the
scientists.
all these advance made during this period of renaissance created un bounded spirit of
confidence in man’s abilities. This period also created a sense of optimism. At this
time man begun to feel that no discovery nor scientific advancement play beyond
human achievement.
It is therefore strange that various man begun modern civilization with such a high
confidence in his ability yet it is noted that at present skeptics has set him in regard to
his control of nature may be it would be easy to explain that renaissance spirit in
man’s self confidence. it was during this period that man at the early stages in his
emancipation that he was overwhelmed by the novelty of his primary inventions.
One of the scholars who influence the development of the renaissance was Patriarch.
He was a supporter of classical learning and an exponent of secular ideals. He was
opposed to an education system. Instead, urged the cultivation of the art and sciences.
In his school at Mantua in Italy, Vittarino da Felter was a famed classical scholar and
a noted mathematician. The schools also trained in sciences, humanity as well as
religion. In each of these field of learning he also expanded humanistic concept of life
. On his part Petrus Paulus Vergerius became notable in the field of literature. He
regarded this area of learning as the basic study of the entire curriculum. And Guarino
from Veronna founded a school at Ferrara in Italy. This was a preparatory academy
for the teaching religion and the schools also emphasized high standard in literary
arts. Furthermore, casttiglience outlined the etiquette of the new educational system.
He maintained that learning and good manners should be joined such that a well-
educated person is well behaved or a man of good manners. At the same time he
advocated thet the Aristocrats should also be a model to others in general society in
his own cultural intresrest .
REFORMERS IN EDUCATION
Among the educational reformers of the period renaissance included the following:
a) Rabelais (1494)
Rabelais deserves a honored place among the reformers in education of the
renaissance for his educational recommendation during his time. He was born in 1494
at Tauraine . He joined a monastery and later he became too independent for the order
to sustain him. He the broke away he devoted himself to medicine.
Rabalais maintains in ‘Gargantua’ that the major objective of education is, or must be
‘Do what thou wilt’.
With this view in mind he wanted to establish a school which could become ideal
school run on co- educational basis that there were to be no cloke in school and no
compulsion whatsoever. And the students were not to be recruited into the school on
the basis of personable men and women only. The basic criteria for admission would
be intelligence.
Rabelais made it clear that there were to be no ascetics in the school and no rule of
poverty, chastity and of obedience. He wanted the students in the school to exercise
their freedom wisely. Then they were to learn foreign languages and various sciences.
He felt that greatest evil in education was coercion. He had a place for corporal
punishment of scholastic rules nor the worship of the past.
Rabelais wanted to establish education SYSTEM BASED ON THE GLOR OF THE
PRESNT
b) Juan Louis Vives (1492-1540)
Juan was more religious that Rabelais a Spanish thinkers who remained faithful to
Catholicism. He exercised a profound influence on comenus by his advocacy of the
use of vernacular in learning and the education of women
In his view the progress of education depends on the methodology used that learning
should start with simple and concrete and then move on to the more abstract and
complex matters.
 c) Peter Ramus (1515-1572)
He felt that the influence of Aristotle needed to be limited in its application in
education. He favored logic based on induction and considered literature as basis of
instruction. He was a professor at the university of Parish. He was killed at the time
when St. Bartholomew massacred because they were protestants.
Ramus just like Vives, believed in the importance of methodology as the starting
purity of knowledge .That, knowledge must be concrete and applicable in the daily
lives of man.
d) Thomas Eliot (1490-1546)
Thomas popularized the new educational ideals in England He outlined the rules of
the instruction of the future Aristocrat that, the future aristocrat would be taught the
humanity as well as the sciences. At the same time, the praise of the Aristocrat should
be developed so that he may act like a real gentleman on all occasions.
e) Sir. Philip Sydney
The renaissance ideal of education was eloquently represented by sir Philip who
combined poetry with mainlines and annexed bravery. In his many- sided genius,
Sydney represented aspiration to excellence. This was a spirit which was greatly
admired during the renaissance.

HUMANISM AND EDUCATION

The victory of the scientific spirit was made possible by the northern humanist of the
period of renaissance. Most of them were pious Christians who still accepted God as
the primary condition in in life. They also had great respect for authority and more
particularly for the Greek and the Roman scholars.
The humanist did much to help popularize scholarship. The universities then became
social and political storm centres as well as agencies of active religion reform.
However these humanists were concerned with exactness and scholarship.
The humanists venerated Greeks and Latin authorities almost to the same degrees as
the theologians venerated the work of the church fathers.
Notable humanists of the renaissance
a). Desidrious Erasmus (1466-1536)
Erasmus was a man who travelled far and wide. He often admitted that he was a
citizen of Europe and not of any one nation. During his lifetime , he taught at
Cambridge and lived in Paris, Venice and Basel. Scholars followed him wherever he
went and his letters and books reached a wide audience.
Erasmus believed that man is the centre of the universe. He had strong faith in God,
but he hated superstition. He felt that hypocrisies govern most of mankind and that
educator has to be aware of conceit. Like many other humanists, Erasmus believed
that women should be educated, for real knowledge would strengthen the family ties.
For that reason he urged the systematic training of teachers.
The aim of education according to Erasmus is independent judgment where this
combine real knowledge and honesty. This was based on the fact that, we must not
rely on the ancient at all time. But we must learn to stand on our own feet and deal
intelligently with the problems of our own time.
Furthermore, Erasmus made important contribution to the study of motivation. For
example if a teacher used force and coercion, he would motivate his students in a
negative way. However, this teacher could become positive influence if he set out a
scholarly example. He notes that, it is easy to use the rod as a tool of discipline yet it
is far more important and effective if you use a moral inspiration such that the student
may want to continue to learn by himself.
In one of his most eloquent pleas, Erasmus set out a plea for an education system.
That, since fully dominates all aspects of society, self- examination is indeed very
necessary.
He asserts that learning should concerned less with flattery and vein glories and
praises but more with the Socratic spirit. Humanity is the most important trait of a
scholar.
Erasmus maintained that, the task of a teacher is to develop a Christian philosophy of
education which can be understood by all.

b. Niccolo Machiavelli 1469-1527

Another notable among the humanist of the renaissance is Machiavelli. He stands of
the ideas of the time which led to the creation of a sense of nationalism. This came up
in the fact of weakening authority of the church. His level of nationalism was based
on the city states because, nations as we now know them had not yet developed.
It is also believed that the religious revolts at the time were greatly encouraged by the
nationalistic considerations.
The thinkers of renaissance period were more frank and free than those of medieval
scholars with regards to the economic drives of a man. For that matter,

 Machiavelli indicated the important role of property in politics. He also

showed that revolutions had been brought about because of inadequate
economic policies on the part of the rulers. In other words, the social revolts
and unrest are due to economic disparities in the society.

 Furthermore, there was a frank recognition of dual concept of morality. This

dual morality concept provided that what was valid for the common man could
not be applicable to the Princes, and what was praiseworthy in private conduct
could not apply to the matters of state. And the divine right of the kings,
placed the king beyond the dictates of the ordinary morality.
  In fact, what was good and right and just was determined by the rulers but not
the customs of the society.

 Machiavelli highlighted educational ideals of power politics which ideas are

represented in his works.

 According Machiavelli life is not a metaphysical process but is determined by

biological factors and social economics.

 That self interest guide the human race. According to Machiavelli we are all
first and foremost egotists. We think of our own advancement before we give
a thought to the other.

 Machiavelli was a caustic antic of the church in Rome and the pope. He
believed that the nearer people lived to Rome, the more they are inclined to be
more atheistic. He was of the view that the masses could be controlled easily.
That, people easily changed and their memories are short- lived. Therefore,
the best type of education would be that which appeals to the lowest drives in
man.
Some of his quotes are as follows
i. There is no other way to guard yourself against flattery than by making
men understand that telling you the truth will not offend you.”
― Machiavelli Niccolo, The Prince
ii. “it is much safer to be feared than loved because ...love is preserved by
the link of obligation which, owing to the baseness of men, is broken at
every opportunity for their advantage; but fear preserves you by a
dread of punishment which never fails.”
― Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince
iii. “People should either be caressed or crushed. If you do them minor
damage they will get their revenge; but if you cripple them there is
nothing they can do. If you need to injure someone, do it in such a way
that you do not have to fear their vengeance.”
― Niccolo Machiavelli
iv. “Because there are three classes of intellects: one which comprehends
by itself; another which appreciates what others comprehend; and a
third which neither comprehends by itself nor by the showing of
others; the first is the most excellent, the second is good, the third is
useless.”
― Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince

c. Michael de Mointaigne 1533-1592

According to Montaigne, life is school masters.

 He felt that faith is less important than reason. He also travelled wide and
experience from his travels was that you learn better from interpersonal
interaction than from books.
  Therefore, he believes that the development of the educated man depends on
his physical excellence. Without good health the mind cannot develop.

 The educated man should cultivate the art as well as the sciences. The truly
educated man should avoid Puritanism (people who sought purity of the
church).

 However, that does not in any way imply life dedicated to sensual pleasures,
but, a sense of moderation.

 The morals of the educated must be trained and developed in the same way as
his aesthetic sensitivity is sharpened.

 Montaigne was loyal to the teaching of religion but he did not have fervent
faith. He believed that man was to be guided by good sense and sense of
proportion. He felt that religion sometimes impedes educational progress. That
in learning, memorization should be avoided because learning should be an
active process. That, one should travel both intellectually and physically. That,
every season, every social event, every encounter with a new person can and
should be an educative experience,

 We need to be aware and alert about our environment so that we can be able to
read with more profound interest.

 While avoiding the dual concept of the medieval educators Montaigne claim
that the body and the mind have the same needs. Education is not an abstract
external process, but one which involve a change in our basic attitudes. The
value of education that, it facilitates the full enjoyment of life.
CONCLUSION
In summary, the advantage of the new system of education was in its enthusiasm for
the classics. The classical ideal represented a way of life based on moderation and the
enjoyment of this world. The exact ideals of scholarship were glorified and the
scholar was regarded as the leader of civilization.
But, the new system also brought about degeneration of the study of literature, a stress
on empty memorization and emphasis on limitation on the past.
However, in the history of humanity reforms have often become traditional and their
favour has frequently been diminished though a parent success. At the same time, we
need to note here that many renaissance scholars were just as regressive as the
scholastic of the medieval period whom they criticized. On the other hand, This
criticism may not be made of such educators as Montaigne and Ramus. They believed
in a universal scheme of instruction.
Nevertheless renaissance is closer to the 20 th C in its educational ideals than any other
age in human civilization. The period paused severe dilemma which still torture
modern man, For example what is the relationship between knowledge and morality?
what is more important, general education or specific knowledge? what is supposed to
be centre of education, science or literature? what is the relationship between
intellectual and aesthetic excellence? as can be seen all these questions are important
in the history of education.
In order to be able to live upto the renaissance ideal virtue man find it necessary to
develop all his interest, i.e. Physical, mental, aesthetic and spiritual. Thus, there was a
need of real activity. Furthermore, the emphasis on self expression and of confidence
in man helped to make humanism one of the most significant movement in the history
of education.

Reforms and Education

 Reformation during Renaissance did not come up suddenly. It came up after

several centuries of agitation on the part of heretical groups. The causes that
produced it were economic, and social as well as religious. It coincided with
the rise of a new age, such that instead of feudalism there was growth of
capitalistic economy.

 Furthermore, the discovery of printing helped to make religious knowledge

available to all. At the same time, the church was suffering from various
abuses. For example, the immorality of the clergy, the great schism with many
contenders for the papacy and the papacy itself was falling short of its high
calling and the growing materialism among the church official.

 The humanists like the Okham challenged the concept of the universal truth.
They held the views that only particulars are real. This meant that an emphasis
is upon the individual worshiper and not on the church organization. They
placed a stress on the importance of man rather than the supernatural.

 They were also critical of scholastic doctrines. The movement held that the
church councils, rather than the pope were supreme. Rebels like Huss and
Wycliffe urged that the church should go back to simplicity of Christ and they
favoured an encouragement of the nationalistic forces within Catholicism.
One of the names which spearheaded reformist movement is that of Martin Luther
(1483-1546). It is him who led to the creation of a new look in religion and education.
Luther was a well educated man who had a brilliant mind and very intelligent. He was
a man of intense moral earnestness.
In his work of 1517, he stressed that, the saints can make up of some of the sins of
mankind thus our stay in purgatory might be shortened by indulgence.
With time Luther became more and more radical. He attacked the concept that the
pope is superior to the church councils, that spiritual power ranks above temporal
power, and that no one could interpret the bible but the pope.
Luther maintained that there is no real difference between spiritual and secular power
for all Christians belonged to spiritual estate. That the bishop has neither special
privileges nor special status, potentially, every man is his own priest. He was
emphatic regarding the ability of every Christian to interpret the bible he could no
scriptural evidence for that claim that only the pope could interpret the whole
scripture.
To appreciate the bible we need faith and understanding and this can be achieved by
the lay man as well as the priest, by the lowly as by the Aristocrat.
The cardinal concept of the Martin Luther was his emphasis on justification by faith
and rather than good work that we are not saved without complete dependence on
God.
Like St. Augustine, Luther was cautious of man lust and failings. Faith itself is due to
God’s mercy and not to God in his own inscrutable way determines those who will
receive divine grace
When Luther died in 1546, the denomination he carried had spread into most of
Germany. This is what we have come to know in our own days as the Lutheran
church.
The first and notable contribution which Martin Luther made to education was
transaction of bible into German. It soon became the national text book. He
maintained that school should be governed by the state and not the church. He even
argued the princes of his time to force parents to send their children to school. That,
not only would this promote morality, but it would also add stability of the state.
To Luther, education was made up of the kind of instruction a child received at home.
This is in accordance with the first commandment which is to honour our parents.
This becomes the debt we owe to them. The erring had to be disciplined. Otherwise
certain impulses would find expression and complete delinquency would result.
However, this did not imply that the rod should be used constantly by the teacher. On
the contrary, Luther urged a more humane form of discipline. All in all, inspiration
was the best method of education.
Finally, it is difficulty to evaluate long range result of the reformation. Thus, we find a
constant multiplication of sects, a return to Biblical literalism and a Puritanism of
morals, which increased the instability of the western man. Indirectly, the reformation
encouraged the of nationalism for instance, the piece of Westphalia resulted in a
concept whereby the princes would decide the religion of their subject.
It has been It has been remarked that Puritanism stimulated an acquisitive
economy .Property right where placed above human rights and moral obligations to
the individual were above human right and moral obligation to individual were often
forgotten. Catholic thinkers like maintained speak of reformation as an unfortunate
incident. They feel that it impoverished the spiritual life an destroyed the aesthetic
splendor of the middle ages.Not withstanding, the true spirit of reformation had many
constructive result .
Reformation encouraged the use of vernacular as a fundamental contribution to the
improvement to education. The basis of popular education was expanded and thus
reformation aided the forces of democracy.
 FOUNDATION OF MODERN EDUCATION.
The 17th, 18th and the 19th Christianity and Education
This period saw the push in education towards “Realism”. This was an attempt to
make education meaningful. This was the need to humanistic realism in education by
understanding the meaning of what was taught. In other words it was an attempt to
adopt education in real life situation.
It is at this time when the great heritage of learning rot memorization collided with an
influx of new ideas about the purpose of learning. There was general revolt about
absolutism and the ecclesiasticism. This trend had to give way to the spirit of truth
and freedom based on reason and inquiry.
Therefore despotism had become intolerable. Some people saw this as bad for
education. This is how perspective individuals like Rousseau (1812-1778) came in as
redeemers
The 19th century is an age of conflicting ideologies. The various socio- political
dogmas of this time replaced the much worn out inherited commitment of religious
dynastic status quo.
Major socio-political ideologies of the 19th century included the following:
1) liberalism
2) Conservatism:
3) Humanitarianism:
4) nationalism
5) Marxism

Interaction of these trends and great influence of education in many parts of Europe
and the rest of the world,
Finally the educational trend of the 20th century should belong to the philosophers and
sociologists rather than to the historians. However there are some historical trends
which are noteworthy, for example the thrust of modernization problems of the
general gap and the changing criteria of the educational authority. The factors have
witnessed the emergence of two broad educational movements which are progressive
and radical.
Liberalism
The liberals stressed individualism in the belief that each man should be allowed to
reach the status and attainment that his ability can allow.
Intellectually, they argued for freedom of thought while economically they opted for
free trade and freedom of contact.
Politically, the conceived of the state as a passive police man whose functions were to
maintain order, enforce contracts and preserve property.
Achievement of liberalism in the 19th and 20th century was to democratize political
life.
They also advocated for popular education.
Conservatism:
It was recognition against the 19th century rationalism, philosophy of the French
Revolution and liberalism. Conservativists believed that genuine change resulted only
from gradual historical progress and to them, each generation of man, past present and
future, is a link in the chain of humanity that transcends the ages.
Inherited language, tradition, religion, and rituals meaningfully identify the
contemporary man with his past and serve to prepare a place for posterity in the social
and cultural order.
Advocates of conservation held that the proper role of education is to preserve
language and tradition by transmitting the cultural heritage to the young so that they
can assume their predetermined roles.
Humanitarianism:
It was a response to the ills created by industralisation. The majority of the industrial
city dwellers were former peasants who had been uprooted from their rural
environment with its long established morals and traditions and the dehumanizing
working conditions had constantly alienated this former peasantry. Crowded into
urban slums, which were poorly lit and poorly ventilated, with long working hours in
unsafe factories they tended to channel the discontent of the proletariat (workers) into
social destructive behavior.
In response to these, humanitarian reformers proposed a variety of changes in the
socio-economic order to cure these ills.
Education was seen as a means of alienating these problems. Educational programs
were launched to improve these conditions e.g, the Sunday school movement in
England was designed to impart religious values and reading writing and arithmetic to
the working class children. Examples of these reformers were; Robert Owen, who
proposed programs for infant schools, Pestalozzi, Andrew Bell and Joseph Lancaster.
Nationalism:
The Nationals were a new unifying and integrating force. The nation state system
became the basis of worldwide political organization.
It was the unit upon which political authority rested.
According to the concept of national sovereignty, each nation had the right to set its
own boundaries, establish its own government and make its own internal domestic
arragment. the concept cultivated nationality claims that each nation has its common
historical experience, language, religion and tradition.
 Since the 18th century, nationalism has been a major force in education. The national
systems of education were organized not only to bring about popular literacy but also
to generate commitment and loyalty to the aim of the nation state. The major
emphasis in the national system of education was placed on the study of the national
language and literature.
Good citizenship was constricted as the manifestation of obedience and duty to the
nation.
Marxism:
Communism was one of the major revolutionary forces of the 19th century. the
originator Karl Marx drew together the theories of the various socialists, ideologists
into one single ideology, Marxism.
He emphasized a permanent class struggle which could culminate into a class less
society. The sequential events from the initiation of the revolution to the classless
society were to be:
1. Proletarian revolution
2. Capture of the state machinery by the working class.
3. Establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat (working class).
4. Establishment of the opposition and the remnants of capitalism.
5. Establishment of the classless society.
In the Marxist model, as the proletariat captures the machinery of the state
government, it is also expected to capture education. (is this any similar to what has
happened in Kenya?)

Characteristics of the modern education

Interaction of these trends and great influence of education took place in many parts
of Europe and the rest of the world.
Finally the educational trend of the 20th century should belong to the philosophers and
sociologists rather than to the historians. However there are some historical trends
which are noteworthy.
For example
a. the thrust of modernization problems of the general gap and the changing
criteria of the educational authority. The factors have witnessed the emergence
of two broad educational movements which are progressive and radical.
b. The foundation of modern education noted strongly in the conditions which
led to the need for improved standards in the education of the people. The
conditions were created by the emergent of industries in Europe. This is what
is commonly referred to as ‘Industrial Revolution’. This is a major aspects of
the 18th and 19th centuries.
c. A major characteristic of this period was the growth of technology through the
appearance of inventions. For example:
 1. The first railroad 1825
2. The first photograph 1826
3. Macormick’s mechanical reaper 1831
4. The First Atlantic cable 1859
5. Bell’s telephone 1876
6. Edisan’s incandescent lamp 1879
7. Daimler’s internal combustion engine 1885
8. Rantgen’s X-ray 1859
9. Karl Max’s Das Kapital 1867
These and many others were new developments at the time.
d. They definitely led to the improvements in transportation and communication.
They permitted new volume in agricultural and industrial production.
e. They also provided new comforts as well as new kinds of job, more wealth,
better health. At the same time, they demanded new skills, new training
programmes.
f. In view of all these demands and education, the traditional literary forms of
education would not adequately serve the new mechanical age.
g. Another characteristic of the period was development of groups and
organization of social and political reforms. Although the group and
organization succeeded, they did so after a lot of struggle. They fought for:
1. The abolition of slavery in Europe and America
2. The organization of trade unions and having them organized
3. The extension of the franchise
4. The factory laws
5. The prison conditions ameliorated
h. These reformers assisted education development. Their activities challenged
old practice and made social innovations. Yet another important characteristic
of the period was the intellectual format and the release of ideas of utmost
consequence for mankind in future.
For example:
a. In pure science, Farraday questioned the Newtonian universe. This paved the
way for Einstein and the space age.
b. In philosophy, Hegel provided the theory for the German Superstate
c. In biology, Darwin’s origin of species which provided the theory of evolution
d. In political philosophy
e. In psychology, Freud developed psychoanalysis and a new approach to the
study of man’s behaviour
f. In religion, Cardinal Newman and the Oxford movement brought about the
catholic revival

The foundations of modern education in this period were as follows:

 The period was also notable for its production of works of art and literature. It
was an age of giants of culture as well as industry. Some of the notable
 penalties of this area includes the following: Brayon, the Brontes, Beethoven,
the pre-Raphaelites, Balzac, James Dostoevsky, Whiteman, Hugo, Taltson
e,t,c

 It was also century of a nationalism which saw the welding together of

provinces and regions and the emergences of national identity as in Germany,
Italy and Canada. It was also the high point of the European powers. The
proudes days of empire when security and strength of European powers
especially Britain seemed invincible. With the rise of nations, there came the
possibility and the reality of national systems of education.

 Out of the 19th centre conglomeration (coming together) of social and

intellectual forces came new pedagogical ideas and practices and acceleration
of the trend towards popular education.

 It was during this period that educational opportunities expanded. It begun to

reach larger members of the working class children. Although physical
resources and trained teachers were few.

 Still limited, formal instruction could be brought to the numerous offspring of

the lower orders through the material system which was chiefly in religious or
charity institutions.

 In response to the changing conditions, these voluntary ventures were replaced

by public schools. And as industries grow, skill workers were required, as
liberal social philosophies took root, the notion of self-improved for all
members of the society gained increasing acceptance.

 Therefore, during the 19th century educational facilities were extended to move
children and to two new categories of students , i.e. infants and adults.

 In Europe as well as in USA, there continued to be a suspicion that the

ordinary man or woman was not fit for education. That because of his social
order, he did not seen any schooling. However, these feelings and ideas soon
became out molded with the advent of industrial revolution of the ninetieth
century.

 In order to meet this new requirement in the society, education for the adults
became necessary for two categories of people:
a. Those who had not had a chance during their childhood to go to school.
b. Those who simply wanted to better their educational standards.

DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATIONAL THOUGHT

With the advent of industrialism led to the growth of population centres. This,
coupled with mechanization and the organization of the most aspects of social life,
came to new threat of conformity. The uniformity of the factory which counted men
and women as faceless, mindless hands which do specific job just like automatic was
a new danger of individualism.
This was then seen to replace the old concept where ordinary people were seen as
significant, indistinguishable vessels. However, the liberal legacy continued where old
documents held that men were naturally good and that the individual is important.
This is when the educational thinkers conceive education as a procedure for
introduction. The emphasized the unity of growth. They denied the old doctrine of
dichotomy of mind and body. And as they grouped far and understanding of mental
process, they applied methods of scientific observation rather than philosophic
speculation. They were in short, establishing the psychology of education.
Finally, this movement resulted to better methods of teaching, more careful teacher
preparation, attention to the student as well as to the subject matter, greater respect
for early childhood, educational research into the modifications to curricula and
school organization.
The outstanding names in this connection include the following:
Johann H. Pestalozzi (1746-1827)
It can be said that Pestalozzi started off like in an enabling environment. The
following factors are noted. That he had a happy home life with his mother and father.
In his mature life too, with his wife. Then there came Emile and the social contract
which were too important works from Rousseau which also greatly helped influence
Pestalozzi’s ideas.
It therefore very fitting for him to advance the view that, the most natural
environment for the child was a loving home which was the same time dominated by
a firm discipline. Pestalozzi recognized the importance of national security in
education development.
Among the educational principles presented by Pestalozzi include the idea that,
a. the aim of education is to bring about a reformed society. This can be brought
about by the individual displaying virtue and justice in the state. That,
education is the right of every child and should be made available to all.
b. According to Pestalozzi, the process of mental growth must be considered in
all instructions begin with the value asense impressions. These then become
b
distinct as certain objects form individual unit of experience. Then distinct
impressions become cclear images when secondary qualities are imagined or
represented in the mind. Subsequently, the clear images became ddefinite ideas
that is, they can be defined such that, the object which were once individual
units are now seen in relation to other object.
c. Therefore, education is essentially a process of carination and the task of the
teacher is to help direct pupils activities towards the acquisition of definite
ideas. Learning is a process of giving significance to individual impression
through ideas or from the other end, of giving substance to ideas by first hand
experience. In which case, it follows from the Pestalozzi’s theory of learning
that sense perception is the basis of knowledge and observation in the basis of
instructions.
d. It can be noted at once that there are immediate implications for the
curriculum content and teaching techniques in this theory.For example, a child
 begins his learning by his own experience of fact (sense impression) and then
proceeds to definite ideas. In this connection, all lesson must present concrete
materials within the child’s experience.
e. At the same time, materials presented for learning should be in a
developmental order such that the teacher begins from the simplest to the most
complex and from the known to unknown. Subject must be analyst into their
simplest elements which the child can discover and learn more easily than a
complex entity.
f. Therefore, elements of number proceed arithmetic while line and curves
introduce drawing and writing. At the same time, sounds come before words
or sentences. However, the analyst of the subject requires special training with
together with the need for understanding the whole process of development is
an important aspect of Pestalozzi teaching education programmes. The
importance of the educational ideas of Pestalozzi is that, these ideas were both
idealistic and realistic and were first adopted in Prussia and soon spread
worldwide. These ideas became the basis of modern education ideas
presenting a child centered form of education.
John F. Herbart 1776-1841
While Herbart remained indebted to Pestalozzi for his education ideas, yet he added
some changes through his educational theories which were mainly theoretical. Herbart
was not interested in social ethics than mere social changes. His work dealt mainly
with the method and the content of the secondary school.
a. For Herbart the aim of education was the development of moral character.
Therefore, the teacher should teach in such away to develop on the student
desirable interest as possible. It is these interests that generate actions and the
more interest a person has the finer will be his character and the better will be
his behavior.
b. Pedagogic theory of Herbart can be summarized in three key words as follows:
i. Interest
ii. Appreciation
iii. Correction
Herbart stressed that instructions can only be truly educative when it can arouse
interest in the learner. A pleasant feeling which accompanies the reception of an idea
makes it possible for the idea to be strongly received. When there is interest, the
student uses full attention and in such case, there is no need for any external form of
discipline.
However, interest can have some emotional elements but it does not interfere with
reason, because without reason no real learning can take place.
Learning involves new materials. But a child does not have interest in something
remote from his past experience. All new materials are interpreted intern of past
experience. This is the process which Herbart call ‘Appreciation’.
Past experience culminates in the mind and ‘appreciative mass’ which is drawn upon
as new ideas need not to be understood. Appreciation also influences the way in
which the mind receives ideas. And once the idea is received, they should not remain
isolated but by the process of correlation. they should be organized and made to create
into the student a unified world view.
Herbart believed that any suitable subject can be learn provided it is presented in a
systematic way taking into consideration the process of learning. He identified stages
through which all instructions should proceed and his method, formalized and
extended by his followers became known as the five Herbartarian steps. These five
steps are as follows:
a. Preparation: here, the mood of learning is set out, the necessary interest is
raised, previous material is recalled or past experience is brought into play
b. Presentation: here, the new and the old material for learning are combined
c. Generalization: Here, comparisons are made and general principles are
formulated and definitions or rules are made
d. Application; Here, the rules are tested by applying them to solve the new
problems and in performing the new task and carrying out the home work.
Accordingly, Herbart’s methodology turned attention to controlled development
consequently, Herby was replaced on the side of ‘Nature’ in the ‘nature vs.
Nature’controvasy among the social scientists.
The method advanced by Herbart was widely adopted and still is in use to our present
times
Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852)
This is the third educator who broke away from the tradition of the subject-centered
instruction. He created new concern for the child. Like Herbart, he was deeply
indebted to Pestalozzi. Because he was more interested in the education of the very
young, he opened a school after 1816, called the ‘Universal German Education
Institute’. Here he developed his ideas which later led to the establishment of the
‘First Universal German Kindergarten’ in 1840.
Basic to Froebel’s thought is the idea that 11 things live and have their being in and
through God, the divine unit. Therefore, the primary duty of the school is to make the
child aware of this ever-living unity, this divine affluence which is in all things.
The key to Froebel’s method which is based on the idea of the child is to consider the
primary interest of the child which is more inclined to action rather than book
learning. Therefore, he stressed teaching which took into consideration the motor
expression of the child.
I. John Dewey 1859-1952
John Dewey born in Burlington 1859. He receive his early education locally and
received his B.A at the university of Vermont.
Dewey and his wife Mary founded an experimental school at university of Chicago
where he taught philosophy.
The objective of experimental school was to experiment a new approaches to
curricular, classroom procedures and in new teaching techniques. All ideas
experimented at this school were based on the new science of psychology.
Dewey advanced among others, the following principles in education:
a. The primary business of education is to train children in co-operative and
mutually hopeful living.
b. The primary tool of all educative activities is in the instinctive, impulsive
attitude and activities of the child.
c. Individual tendencies and activities are organized and directed through co-
operative living.
d. The school reproduce on the child’s plane the typical doing and occupations of
the larger, mature society which he is finally to enter.
e. It is through production and creative use that valuable knowledge is secured.
These Dewey’s educational ideas are elaborated in his writing of the time. However
one of Dewey’s tenets in his philosophy is the unit of a man and society. Therefore,
for Dewey, there is no difference between matter and mind or between body and spirit
or between socity and school or education and life. They are all one and the same
thing.
Therefore education is thus essential for the survival of any group because, if the
impulse of the young were not shaped, they would develop in haphazard way and out
of keeping with the society and its components institutions.
There are some of the educational ideas advanced by Dewey. They have significantly
affected or in deed help shape modern educational practice.
Furthermore, Dewey recognizes the necessity for discipline in schooling. At the same
time, Dewey believes that external discipline is bound to fail because it falsely
assumes that there is absolute values wich are the responsibility of the teacher who is
entitled to impose it upon the child. In his denying this assumption, Dewey is noted to
agree with Hamlet that, ‘There is nothing that either good or bad, thinking makes it
so’
However the discipline method has a strong individual element. But, there is also a
social component. For example, for a pupil to put persistent effort, it is necessary for
him to know that others are involved in the same problem. Therefore, in order to
adjust his own actions, we would do so in the light of shared goals. The method of
instruction which suits the disciplined method of learning require that the teacher to:
a. Eliminate mechanical drills, avoid competition for goals, threat and corporal
punishment.
b. Make the pupil realize that he has a problem when he does not know the
subject to be learned
c. Arouse the interest of the pupil and stimulate impulse to strive towards
mastery.
d. Learn the capacities and the interests of each individual pupil, because there is
no universally desirable or interesting subjects,
e. Structure the learning situation so that everyone, including the teacher,
cooperates with others in the group process of learning.
There is no one correct set of techniques for the classroom, but any which follows the
above precepts will succeed because it will provide a means for the pupil to learn by
his own efforts.
This will be spontaneous not a forced achievement, and therefore more meaningful
and lasting.
Maria Montessori (1870-1952)
Montessori was born at Chiavavalle in Central Italy in 1870. This is also the year in
which Italy became united. She went to a local school until her parents move to
Rome. Her interest in mathematics and science received a great boost in Rome. She
then enrolled in technical school for boys rather than in a seminar in genteel young
ladies.
IN the face of hostility and a great disapproval even from her own father and the
university authorities, she became the first female medical student in Italy.
Montessori was attracted to the social as well as the physical sciences and was a
student of anthropology. She put her training to good use by working with the slum
children and those with mental defects. Although Montessori was not interested in
educational matters at first, yet after realizing how proper teaching method,
understanding and care could change the lives of the retarded children in the society,
she felt the same improvement could be made for ordinary children.
In that connection, she set up a school in Casa dei Bambini in Rome in 1907. Her
experiment in teaching became notable and successful in the education of young
children.
As a result of her success, many children’s houses developed throughout Italy.
Subsequently training colleges and international training courses in the Montessori
method appeared in many other countries such as England, Ireland, Holland,
Denmark, Germany, France, U.S.A, India Argentina and many others.
She continued improving on her methods through further experimentations. By the
time she died, she had been recognized by UNESCO as an educator. Montessori’s
contribution to educational thought was unique, yet within the mainstream of
contemporary educational developments. Her educational doctrines include the
following:
a. Freedom of the child
b. She believed in spontaneous or auto-education
c. Child’s own mastery of the environment and not being enslaved by it.
Montessori’s method in the application of the theory called for individualized
teaching for the use of special apparatus. She suggested that, since her child has his
own growth pattern, he must also have his own educational program geared towards
his own growth and unique physical abilities and needs.
Therefore, in order for the teacher to provide the right kind of individualized
environment, there must be specially designed and carefully graded deductive
materials. Such materials used in teaching really assist in practical activities, sensory
training and in intellectual development. At the same time, they help the child to
become independent in the adult world.
According to Montessori, the traditional school/learning will develop naturally from
the sensory activities. Writing should come first. When the child is ready, he will on
his own initiative begin to write the whole words. Reading arithmetic and the
language studies will soon follow.
However, each child works individually and independently at self-selected activities
proceeding to the next stage when he is ready.
Unlike Dewey, Montessori was not often criticized as being Godless. She was not
Devout catholic who reconciled science and religion in her life and in her educational
theory.
 MAJOR WESTERN EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES IN AFRICA

Assignment
1. Compare and contrast the British and the French colonial policies on African
education