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Literature Review on Incarcerated Population

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Literature Review on Incarcerated Population

Race

Incarcerated populations are disproportionately composed of racial and ethnic minorities

in the United States. Social service providers who work with this population must be aware of

the unique needs of each group to provide culturally competent care. African Americans, for

example, are more likely to have been incarcerated for nonviolent offenses and have higher rates

of recidivism than other groups. They are also more likely to suffer from mental health and

substance abuse disorders. Latino/as, on the other hand, are more likely to be incarcerated for

immigration-related offenses. They may also face language barriers and have difficulty accessing

social services upon release from prison (Blankenship et al., 2018). Asian Americans have the

lowest incarceration rates but are also the least likely to receive social services after departure.

Providers must know these disparities to provide the most effective care possible.

There is a significant body of literature on social services and the incarcerated population,

with a particular focus on the race of the incarcerated population. Several studies have found that

the race of the incarcerated population significantly impacts the quality and availability of social

services. For example, a survey by Reisner et al. (2014) found that black and Latino prisoners are

more likely than white prisoners to be held in prisons that lack adequate social services, such as

mental health and addiction treatment, educational and vocational programs, and family

reunification services. This is likely because most prisons, including the majority of rural state

prison systems, are funded by the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) and therefore receive less

money per prisoner than urban facilities. As a result, per capita funding levels for major

correctional program areas such as education and mental health tend to be lower in the rural
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prison system than in urban prisons, even though both groups have comparable rates of crime

(Reisner et al., 2014). Consequently, many residents of rural prisons are isolated from social

services while incarcerated or waiting for an appropriate facility to open their placement. In

addition, a study by Human Rights Watch found that many states have reduced funding for

prisoners who wish to participate in vocational and educational training programs.

In addition, research has shown that the race of the incarcerated population significantly

impacts the quality of social services. A Vera Institute of Justice study found that black and

Latino prisoners are more likely than white prisoners to be held in prisons with fewer social

services and that those services are often of lower quality (Sugarman et al., 2020). For example,

black and Latino prisoners are more likely to be held in prisons with inadequate mental health

care, education and vocational programs, and family reunification services. In addition, research

has found that the quality of social services in prisons can vary widely within a state (Sugarman

et al., 2020). For example, in Louisiana, a study found that the New Orleans Parish Prison and

the St. Tammany Parish Prison are both located within 10 miles of one another but provide very

different levels of social services. The former provides a full range of education and job training

programs with high graduation rates. In contrast, the latter does not offer any vocational

programs, does not provide prisoners with orientation materials for long-term stays or transfer

instructions for short-term stays at other facilities, and has limited educational programs

available to prisoners.

Research on incarcerated populations has also demonstrated that race is one factor

determining how long a person will remain incarcerated. The Sentencing Project found that

African-American and Latino prisoners are more likely to be sentenced to state prison for

extended periods than white prisoners. In 2011, the Sentencing Project found that black males
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were sentenced to an average of 14.4 years in prison compared with 11.3 years for white males

and 3.1 years for Latino males. This difference has persisted, with similar racism-related

disparities in the length of sentences between blacks and whites, even as the white rate has

declined since 2005 (but not since 1996).

Fobian et al. (2018) have shown that the race of the incarcerated population significantly

impacts the availability of social services. A study by the Sentencing Project found that black

and Latino prisoners are more likely than white prisoners to be held in prisons that are located in

areas with fewer social services. This is particularly problematic because it can make it difficult

for black and Latino prisoners to access the services they need after release. For example,

research has shown that black and Latino communities tend to have fewer resources than white

communities (Fobian et al., 2018). As a result, it is more difficult for formerly incarcerated

people to find work and housing in these communities after they are released.

In addition, research on the racial composition of the incarcerated population has shown

that race is one factor determining how long a person will remain incarcerated. A study by Wang

et al. (2019) found that “overall, African Americans serve 12.1 percent longer sentences than

non-African Americans with similar criminal records.” The study also found that “African-

American men are 73 percent more likely than non-African Americans to receive prison

sentences for similar crimes.

Income

Incarcerated people are more likely to come from low-income households and lack stable

employment, which can lead to further involvement in the criminal justice system. Social service

providers who work with this population can help them to find and maintain employment,
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connect with resources in the community, and work on other goals that will improve their overall

well-being. Improving the ability to find employment will decrease recidivism rates, ultimately

benefiting both the individual and society. In 2010, there was a total of 1,421,800 people in jail

or prison throughout the U.S. (Bureau of Justice Statistics). Previous studies have found that this

population is three times more likely to live in poverty than incarcerated people (Nkansah-

Amankra et al., 2013). Additionally, as many as 60% of incarcerated people experience a mental

illness and 20% are dependent on alcohol or other drugs. This population also has high substance

abuse issues and difficulty accessing drug treatment programs.

Incarcerated people struggle with stable employment for a variety of reasons. For

example, they may face legal problems that prevent them from obtaining a job that requires a

criminal background check. This can lead to repeat offenses, increasing the risk of being

incarcerated again. Inmates are less likely to find employment in the community and have

difficulty gaining the skills necessary for finding work (Jiang & Probst, 2017). They often lack

appropriate field training or education and face discrimination regarding hiring practices. This

research project examines the factors contributing to employment outcomes for people who have

been released from prison and are living in Wisconsin counties. The study focuses on people

who have been released from prison since 2006 and have been living in one of Wisconsin's 93

counties for at least six months post-release (Jiang & Probst, 2017).

Income is one of the most important predictors of health and well-being outcomes, and

incarcerated people are more likely to experience poverty and income insecurity. A lack of stable

income can lead to poor nutrition, housing insecurity, and difficulty accessing healthcare, leading

to increased involvement in criminal activity. Social service providers can help incarcerated

people to access government benefits and connect with community resources that can provide
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financial assistance. In addition, social service providers can help incarcerated people to develop

job skills and find employment opportunities upon release.

Incarcerated people are more likely to have mental health and substance abuse disorders

than the general population. Social service providers can help them access treatment and support

services to address these needs. In addition, social service providers can help them develop

coping and problem-solving skills that prevent them from returning to criminal activity (Gottlieb,

2017). Gottlieb (2017) also mentioned that incarcerated people are more likely to commit suicide

than people who are not incarcerated. Social service providers can help them develop social

support networks and access mental health services to prevent self-harm. They can also help

them to develop coping and problem-solving skills that can strengthen positive behavioral

patterns.

A lack of stable employment and a lack of access to mental health and substance abuse

care contributes to an increased risk of recidivism among formerly incarcerated individuals.

Improving access to these services will improve overall well-being and reduce the likelihood that

they will return to criminal activity upon release from prison (Eckenrode et al., 2014). In

addition, it will ultimately benefit their communities by reducing crime rates in their area. The

literature on social services for incarcerated people is limited, but the available research suggests

that these services can improve health and well-being outcomes. Social service providers who

work with this population can play a crucial role in helping them to achieve their goals and lead

healthier, more productive lives.

The first step for social service providers is to learn about the needs of their clients. This

can be accomplished through information sharing and targeted outreach aimed at incarcerated
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people. It is also essential to understand the barriers these individuals face when it comes to

employment and how they can overcome them. Incarcerated people are more likely to return to

criminal activity if they have no financial means. Working with them on community resources,

such as housing assistance or food stamps, will help them meet their basic needs and increase the

likelihood that they will remain out of jail (Eckenrode et al., 2014). Social service providers can

help incarcerated people develop coping and problem-solving skills in order to prevent future

engagement in criminal activity.

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References

Blankenship, K. M., Del Rio Gonzalez, A. M., Keene, D. E., Groves, A. K., & Rosenberg, A. P.

(2018). Mass incarceration, race inequality, and health: Expanding concepts and

assessing impacts on wellbeing. Social science & medicine (1982), pp. 215, 45–52.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.08.042

Eckenrode, J., Smith, E. G., McCarthy, M. E., & Dineen, M. (2014). Income Inequality and

Child Maltreatment in the United States. PEDIATRICS, 133(3), 454–461.

https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-1707

Fobian, A. D., Froelich, M., Sellers, A., Cropsey, K., & Redmond, N. (2018). Assessment of

Cardiovascular Health among Community-Dwelling Men with Incarceration History.

Journal of Urban Health, 95(4), 556–563. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-018-0289-8

Gottlieb, A. (2017). Incarceration and Relative Poverty in Cross-National Perspective: The

Moderating Roles of Female Employment and the Welfare State. Social Service Review,

91(2), 293–318. https://doi.org/10.1086/692357

Incarceration and Relative Poverty in Cross-National Perspective: The Moderating Roles of

Female Employment and the Welfare State | Social Service Review: Vol 91, No 2. (2017).

Social Service Review. https://doi.org/10.1086%2F692357

Jiang, L., & Probst, T. M. (2017). The rich get richer and the poor get poorer: Country- and state-

level income inequality moderates the job insecurity-burnout relationship. Journal of

Applied Psychology, 102(4), 672–681. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000179

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Nkansah-Amankra, S., Agbanu, S. K., & Miller, R. J. (2013). Disparities in Health, Poverty,

Incarceration, and Social Justice among Racial Groups in the United States: A Critical

Review of Evidence of Close Links with Neoliberalism. International Journal of Health

Services, 43(2), 217–240. https://doi.org/10.2190/hs.43.2.c

Reisner, S. L., Bailey, Z., & Sevelius, J. (2014). Racial/Ethnic Disparities in History of

Incarceration, Experiences of Victimization, and Associated Health Indicators Among

Transgender Women in the U.S. Women & Health, 54(8), 750–767.

https://doi.org/10.1080/03630242.2014.932891

Sugarman, O. K., Bachhuber, M. A., Wennerstrom, A., Bruno, T., & Springgate, B. F. (2020).

Interventions for incarcerated adults with opioid use disorder in the United States: A

systematic review focusing on social determinants of health. PLOS ONE, 15(1),

e0227968. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227968

Wang, E. A., Lin, H., Aminawung, J. A., Busch, S. H., Gallagher, C., Maurer, K., Puglisi, L.,

Shavit, S., & Frisman, L. (2019). Propensity-matched study of enhanced primary care on

contact with the criminal justice system among individuals recently released from prison

to New Haven. BMJ Open, 9(5), e028097. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-028097