CHAPTER THREE

IMPORTANCE OF FORESTS IN ETHIOPIA

Ethiopia owns diverse vegetation resources that include high forests, woodlands, bush lands,
plantations, and trees outside forests. Each of these vegetation resources variously contributes to
the production, protection and conservation functions, and play significant role in the national
and local economy. There are six key economic roles that forest resources play in Ethiopia: (i)
foreign currency earnings, mainly from export of non-wood forest products; (ii) import
substitution for energy; (iii) contribution to the GDP; (iv) employment generation; v) livelihood
support for millions of citizens, and vi) provision of environmental services that support other
sectors, particularly agriculture, construction and energy.

At local level forests and trees provide food, medicine, energy, fodder, farm implement and
construction materials. Upon conversion forestlands have been offering fertile croplands to
sustain crop production. When protected forests are used as rangelands, act as biological
measures to conserve soil and water and provide watershed protection. Studies show that 90% of
the energy used in Ethiopia originates from biomass, and nearly 80% of human and 90% of
livestock populations in Ethiopia depend on traditional herbal medicine for primary health care
(WHO 2002 and Yinger et al. 2007). FAO (2002) estimated that Ethiopia’s fuel wood
consumption amounts to 84 million m3 per year.
In working out the total economic value of forests (all the goods and services provided by forest
ecosystems) the economic benefits are divided into several categories making distinctions
between use values and non-use values.
The use values include direct use values, indirect use values and option values.
 Direct use values are economic benefits obtained from direct use of the forest, which can
be extractive (e.g. timber, fuel wood, edible plants, medicinal plants, etc.) or non-
extractive (e.g. recreation, tourism, etc.).
 Indirect use benefits refer to environmental services provided by forests that are of
indirect value, such as carbon sequestration, the provision of habitat to protect
biodiversity or various ecosystem protection services such as the ability to reduce soil
erosion and siltation of rivers.

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Nursery establishment and plantation management target group NRM year II Instructor JemalAli
  Option value refers to the value people may place on maintaining the option to enjoy the
direct or indirect use values at some time in the future, including preservation of a natural
gene bank.

1.1 Values of Forest Ecosystem services in Ethiopia

A. Biological diversity
Ethiopia is an important center of biodiversity and endemism on the African continent. The
highest levels of endemism and biodiversity are principally found in the highlands and the
Somali region. An inventory of fauna and flora in Ethiopia indicates that there are 277 species of
terrestrial mammals, 862 species of birds, 201 species of reptiles, 63 species of amphibians,
150 species of fish and 7000 species of higher plants. Among these, 11% of mammals, 3.3% of
birds, 4.5% of reptiles, 38% of amphibians, and 12% of higher plants are endemic (EFAP, 1994).

Biological diversity is important for many reasons, including its role as a storehouse of genetic
material that can be used to selectively breed plants and animals (aiming at improving yields), its
contribution to natural pest and disease control (as natural ecosystems provide habitat for
numerous species that naturally control potential agricultural pests) and its ability to provide
valuable pharmaceutical products.

B. Pharmaceutical Research
There are some 600 species of medicinal plants recorded in Ethiopia. And medicinal plants are
the primary source of health care for an estimated 85% of the population (rural and urban)
(Girma Deffar, 1998). A World Bank assisted project has been operating in the Bale Mountains
with the aim of promoting sustainable use of medicinal plants. This could be taken as an
indication of the potentials attached to Ethiopia’s biodiversity for pharmaceutical research/ bio-
prospecting.

One way of estimating the values related to pharmaceutical research is the willingness to pay of
pharmaceutical firms for the right to bio-prospect a certain area (depending on the quality of the
site). According to Anke Rojhan (2006), for example, the values for the initially identified 18
global biodiversity hot spot sites lie between US$ 231 and US$ 9,000 per hectare.

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The Ethiopian highlands that include in particular the Bale and Semien mountains have appeared
in the list of the 36 revised biodiversity hot spots under “Eastern Afromontane” hotspot owing to
their exceptional feature of plant endemism (Conservation international, 2006).The problem with
these areas is the high level of threat and lack of documented information.
Rojahn (2006), has assigned a modest pharmaceutical research value of USD 20 per ha to the
south-west montane rain forests of Ethiopia considering the disturbance and the level of
degradation of these areas.

C. Carbon sequestration
The rapid increase in global temperatures (0.3 – 0.6°C over the last 100 years and an expected
1.4 to 5.8 °C over the next 100 years) is expected to lead to regional and global changes in
climate that could have significant impacts on human and natural systems. Much of the observed
warming of the earth's surface is believed to be due to increased concentrations of 'greenhouse
gases' in the earth's atmosphere, which have altered the earth's radiative balance, i.e., the
'greenhouse effect' (B. Kristrom and K. Skanberg, 2001).The main greenhouse gases are carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), of which CO2 is by far the most
important (accounting for 65 percent of the greenhouse effect). Most of the CO 2 emissions
derived from human activity are the result of fossil fuel combustion (76 percent of the total).
Tropical deforestation and forest degradation account for an estimated 23 percent, and the
remaining 1 percent comes from cement manufacture (FAO, 1998).

The greatest gains in reducing CO 2 emissions, therefore, can come from controlling the burning
of fossil fuels. However, because forests (as both sources and sinks of CO 2) can both contribute
to and mitigate climate change, they are highly important in strategies to address this problem
because forests can slow down global warming by storing carbon. Various forestry-based
strategies (Afforestation/ reforestation and reduced deforestation) are being implemented around
the globe for the purpose of offsetting CO2 emissions.

Climate change impacts will affect everyone, particularly our country as we are situated in the
sub-Saharan Africa, where countries are already vulnerable to climate variability and have the

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least capacity to respond (S. Nicholas, 2007). Ethiopia can benefit from global initiatives from
clean energy development and reduced deforestation.
Following are three examples to show the carbon sequestration value of Ethiopia’s forests.

Carbon sequestration value of the Munessa-Shashamanne Forest

In an attempt to provide a better insight to the emerging opportunity related to carbon finance,
Getachew Tesfaye (2007) found out that the carbon sequestration value of the Munessa
Shashamanne forest is ETB 127.3 million per year and argues that this is higher than any other
alternative land-use system.

Carbon finance opportunities in the Bale Mountains

A feasibility assessment commissioned by BERSMP (a programme of FARM-Africa and SOS
Sahel) was conducted recently to see the opportunities with regards to carbon finance in the Bale
Mountains. According to this study, there is a huge potential both under a Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM) eligible Afforestaion/ Reforestation (AR) component and a Reduced
Deforestation and Degradation (REDD) component to be offered on the voluntary market.

Around 600,000 ha in the Bale Mountain Eco-region has been identified as suitable project area
for a REDD project. In addition, some 3,000 ha will be set up as a CDM eligible reforestation
project (2,000 ha of which to be managed by the Forest Agency and another
1,000 ha for a community based woodlot planting project).

The value of carbon in the Sheka forest

Assigning 200 tons of carbon /ha and 115 tons of carbon /ha to closed forest and open forest/
bamboo for the Sheka forest, the total value of carbon stored in the forest is estimated to be ETB
2 billion (with an average value per ha of ETB 18,199) (Asefa Seyoum,
2007).
Moreover, the researcher also calculated the carbon sequestration value (in the meaning of
avoiding damage from global warming and desertification) of the forest taking the value of net
annual carbon sequestration of tropical forests (8 tons/ ha) and the price of USD 20/ton of carbon

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to be some ETB 1360/ ha/year. This means that the total carbon sequestration value of the Sheka
forest (102,237 ha) amounts to ETB 139,042,619/ year.

The values related to carbon sequestration function of the Ethiopian forests demonstrate two
aspects: one by serving as a carbon storage, the forests are contributing to mitigation of climate
change costs and second, the finance that can be generated through marketing of carbon credits
could contribute to develop the forest resources and also rural development helping as an
incentive to keep the forests.

D. Hydrologic functions
Most rivers originate from mountains or hills that are covered by forests, which play an
important regulatory role in hydrological processes. Mountain forests capture and store rainfall
and moisture, maintain water quality, regulate river flow, reduce erosion and protect against
landslides.
Increased infiltration recharges underground storage. Reduced sedimentation coupled with
uptake of soil water by forest plants has various added advantages that include reduced load of
nutrients and pollutants entering water bodies and being exported down-stream. In areas of good
vegetation cover, water is released to water bodies slowly instead of in flush floods and ensures
regular supply of water and soil moisture over a longer period of time. In the absence of
vegetation, permanent rivers gradually change in to intermittent rivers and progressively into dry
riverbeds. Ground water level will also decrease leading to drying up of springs and shallow
wells (Gedion Asfaw, 2003).

For example, the Bale mountains area is of significant value to approximately twelve million
people that are dependent on its ecological processes, primarily water. The Bale massif is the
source of four major rivers – the Wabe Shebelle, Weib, Welmel and Dumal. In addition, the
water for numerous springs in the lowlands originates from the Bale Mountains. These rivers are
the only sources of perennial water for the arid lowlands of the east and southeast of Ethiopia,
including the Ogaden and Somali agricultural belt. The livelihoods and food security of the
people in these lowland areas, particularly during the dry season, are therefore highly dependent
on good environmental management in the highland areas (S. Williams, 2002).

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E. Soil protection / stabilization
One major use of forests is the service they deliver through protection and stabilization of soils.
Degraded soils/ vegetation lead to direct runoff rates of up to 80% of the rainfall, while
vegetation covered soils retain more than 90% of the rainfall (Gedeon Asfaw, 2003).
Soil erosion resulting in loss of land productivity leads to loss in current and future incomes.
According to Eyasu Elias (2003), the annual loss in grain production due to erosion in 2000 was
170,000 tonnes, meaning that the loss of income in terms of lost agricultural production was US
$150 million.
Flooding is an annual phenomenon in Ethiopia but the floods in 2006 were disastrous
particularly in Dire Dawa and South Omo (Dasenech and Nyangatom woredas). In Dire Dawa,
for example, the flood claimed over 256 lives and displaced more than 5,500 people.

The flood also damaged ETB 50 million worth of property, including major or total damage to
1,000 houses in the flood prone areas of the town. Vegetation degradation from the landscape
was mainly the cause of these floods (Anonymous, 2006). The situation is exacerbated by
reduced capacity of rivers due to siltation.

Bizuayehu Tefera (2006), also points out that a number of costly irrigation dams that were
constructed in the 1980 s had to be abandoned due to sedimentation. Among these are the
Gode irrigation project (in the eastern Ethiopia) and the Borkana dam (north-eastern
Ethiopia).
Two examples (related to siltation problems in two dams, a potable water supply dam and a
hydropower dam) to demonstrate the economic consequences of vegetation degradation, and
another one on the estimated soil conservation value of the Sheka forest are given below:

F. Intermediate inputs to other sectors

Forest services provide intermediate inputs to other sectors such as agriculture, livestock grazing
or tourism, but the value of these services is not recognized and, hence, is attributed to the using,
rather than the forestry sector (FAO, 2003). The following examples can be considered:

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Agriculture
The substantial and widespread role of forests, woodlands and trees as inputs to crop and
livestock production is widely acknowledged even though few studies have quantified those
contributions.
In shifting cultivation systems involving fallow systems, the natural regeneration of trees and
other plants helps to restore soil fertility and reduce competition from weeds. In agro forestry
systems, woody species 'mine' up nutrients through their roots and release them to the surface
soils through their leaves. Crop production increases due to improvements in soil fertility
contributed from agro-forestry species.

Each year farmers convert several thousand hectares of forest to agricultural land uses and
benefit from the nutrients, soil structure, etc. inherited from the previous forest and woodland
ecosystems.
Some 35% (175,000 km2) of the Ethiopian rangelands are found under forest cover (mainly bush
and shrub). Trees and shrubs constitute a major source of fodder for Ethiopia’s 35 million
livestock heads. Fodder deriving from forest resources is 10% and 60% of the required feed in
wet and dry seasons respectively.

Tourism
Forests are habitats of wildlife. Tourism based on wildlife resources (as in the Semien and
Bale mountains, for instance) or scenic forest areas such as Adaba-Dodola brings considerable
foreign revenue to Ethiopia.

For example, between 1993 and 2002, a total of some 23 million Birr was earned from visitors of
8 national parks, sport hunting and live exports (EWCO, 2003). The income obtained by tour
operators, wildlife safaris, hotels, car rentals, tourist guides, souvenir shops, etc. is also
substantial. Also in Adaba-Dodola, income in 2004 from provision of services to tourists
amounted to ca. ETB 125,000 from some 1000 tourists who visited the area.
Eco-tourism values of forests are usually estimated as economic cost that visitors to a particular
site incur or in the form of opportunity cost of time and travel expenses to visit the area. In the
absence of eco-tourism activities in the Sheka forest at present, the economic value of tourism

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was estimated by comparing its potential with other similar sites. Accordingly, Asefa Seyoum
(2007) estimated the tourism value of the Sheka forest to be ETB 3.25 per ha/year or ETB
332,270 for the entire forest.

G. Reflections in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

According to the Ethiopian Strategy Support Programme (2007), the GDP of Ethiopia in
(2006/7) was ETB 115,589,480,000 in current prices. Agriculture (containing crop [ETB
32,246,432,000], animal farming/hunting [ETB 13,164,690,000] and forestry [ETB
5,482,785,000]) altogether is valued at ETB 50,893,906,000.

Based on experiences of other countries and without a full evaluation of the ecosystem services
of Ethiopia’s high forests, the value could exceed 6 billion UDS per year (ETB 59.6 billion)
[Table 2 above]. Even without estimates for all of the ecosystem services, without including
forest goods and without considering all vegetation types, this is greater than half the entire
current GDP. Even if we take only half of forest area estimates, the percentage share of forestry
is much more significant than the current 4.7%. The low values are attributed mainly to the fact
that the non-marketed goods and services provided by forest ecosystems are not often included
(partly due to measurement difficulties) in the national accounts in many countries including
Ethiopia, although they are critical to the society at large.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
FOREST SEED COLLECTION AND HANDLING

1.1.2 Preliminary considerations for a quality forest seed

The major aim in seed collection and handling is to get good quality seeds in sufficient quantity
and quality. Seed quality entails:
 the right species and provenance
 genetic and physiological quality
 reliable seed source

A. Selection of Species and Provenance

Species choice: This is an important consideration determining the success of any afforestation
effort. Species choice depends on ones objective /purpose, site characteristics and species
requirements. Approaches for species selection:
 Conducting a species trial: It is time consuming and conflicts with the economic and
ecological pressures of obtaining results quickly, especially in developing countries.
Because of this pressure, one is tempted to use ‘miracle species’ without adequate
preliminary testing in the conditions of the country in question. Leucaena spp is a case in
point. Moreover, indigenous spp often are unfortunately neglected since little or no data
are available with regard to seeds and information about flowering, maturing and
dispersal, collection techniques and pre-treatment and storage methods.
 Environmental matching: comparing the environmental condition of the planting area
with equivalent climatic areas in the world.
 Provenance selection: Choosing the right sp. is not the end for achieving plantation
goals. The seed tree should grow in an environment, which is similar as nearly as
possible to that of the area in which seedlings are to be planted. Therefore, the right
provenance is equally important. However, there is usually confusion regarding the use
of the terms ‘provenance’ and ‘origin’. OECD (1994) defines the term provenance
simply as ‘the place in which any stand of tree is growing’ or ‘The locality in which there
is a population of trees of a given sp. possessing distinct genetic characteristics and

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 evolved under the local environment, site or origin of seed from trees with such
characteristics is known as the provenance’.
As a general rule, efforts should be made to obtain seeds from trees of native stock growing as
close as possible to the proposed planting area. Seeds should be collected within a distance of
from 100-200 km and within 500 m in elevation of the area in which it is to be planted.
Preferably, seeds used in arid zones should come from parent trees growing in the driest
localities within the prescribed limits.

B. Genetic Variation
Genetic variation is the number of different genotypes within a population. It determines the
survival and reproductive capacities in a given environment.
 It is the result of natural selection (environment) and mutation.
 The level of variety determines the flexibility of a population to changing environment.
Again, the greater the adaptive capacities of a population gene pool, the greater are the
possibilities to colonize different ecological zones.
 There is close connection between genetic variation and the ability of a species or
population to produce viable and fit progenies.
 Populations within a small number of individuals frequently show a high degree of
inbreeding.
 Several researchers pointed out that crops derived from self-fertilization frequently show
a high rate of non-viable or hollow seeds or that decreases in yield are observed in the
progenies.
However, one should bear in mind that all desirable attributes are seldom found in a single tree.
So, a practical way is to select trees based on demonstrable characteristics: the phenotype as it is
an expression of the interaction between the genotype and the environment.

C. Selection of seed sources

Seed Sources
Individual trees or stands from which seed is collected are called seed sources. At the farmer-
and NGO-level, seed sources can be classified into four types according to the intensity by which
they are managed and the quality of seed produced. These four types are:

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  seed orchards,
 seed production areas,
 seed stands, and
 Seed trees.

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Seed orchards. Seed orchards (SOs) are stands established for the specific purpose of seed
production. They usually consist of families of superior genetic quality and are planted at a
regular spacing and specific design. Seed orchards should be established from a minimum of
30 families from seed (a seedling seed orchard) or vegetative material (a clonal seed orchard).
The more families included the broader the genetic base of the germplasm produced. A seed
orchard may produce seed or vegetative material. In order to maintain the genetic superiority
of the seed produced, seed orchards should be isolated from possible contamination by pollen
of unimproved stands of the same species. Isolation is discussed in more detail below.

Seed production areas: Seed production areas (SPAs) are stands of trees in either natural
forests or plantations that are improved for the specific purpose of seed production.
Improvement consists of selective thinning to achieve optimal spacing for seed production
and to remove poor quality trees, including those that have been attacked by pests and
diseases. Thinning should be conducted so that the superior trees retained are approximately
evenly spaced. Recommended spacing between seed trees will depend on species size and
shape at reproductive age. The objective is for the crowns of seed trees to receive full
exposure to sunlight. Like seed orchards, seed production areas should be isolated from
contamination by pollen of unimproved stands of the same species. An appropriate isolation
distance depends on the tree species and its pollination method. As a general rule, seed
orchards and seed production areas should be isolated by a distance of at least 200m.

Seed stands. Seed stands are groups of trees, in either natural forests or plantations,
identified as having superior characteristics - such as straight stem form or rapid growth.
Seed stands are managed for seed production, but only seldom benefit from selective thinning
or other management intended to improve the quality of seed produced from the stand.
Seed trees: Seed trees are individual trees from which seed is collected. They should have
superior characteristics - such as straight stem form or rapid growth. They may be in either
natural forests or plantations.
Criteria for seed trees selection
Seed tree selection criteria differ for various tree types.
 Timber tree criteria
 Above average tree height and stem diameter
 Straight stem form
 Long, clear merchantable bole
 Uniform crown, without heavy branches or double-stem
 Free of pests and diseases
 Good quality timber
 Mature tree that produces ample quantities of seed
 Fodder trees and living fences
 Rapid growth
 High leaf production
 High nutritive values of leaf
 Good coppicing ability
 Tree stature and shape that fits the intended planting system and site
 Free of pests and diseases
 Drought resistance
 Mature tree that produces ample quantities of seed
 Fruit trees
 Good growth
 Abundant, sweet, and big fruits
 Uniform crown with low branches
 Free of pests and diseases
 Mature tree that produces ample quantities of seed

Number of seed trees to select

Most tree species are preferentially out crossing – female flowers of one tree are fertilized by
pollen from the male flowers of a different tree. However, most tree species have a mixed
mating system – they can produce seed by out crossing or self-pollination. In order to
maintain genetic diversity, seed should be collected from a large number of trees - at least 30
trees. Out crossing among a large number of trees maintains a broad genetic base, which will
maintain adaptability to a wider range of environmental conditions. A broad genetic base

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reduces the possibility of inbreeding, which often causes growth depression and susceptibility
to pests and diseases in the progeny. As mentioned previously, a common problem is that
often only small numbers of seed trees are available on farm or public lands, as few as 10
trees in some cases. Seed should be collected only from the best of these trees. When the
number of trees available is limited, a farmer group approach to seed collection can help
maintain genetic diversity. Using the criteria discussed above, individual farmers collect seed
from the good quality seed trees accessible to them.

The seed collected by individual farmer are placed in a common pile, thoroughly mixed
together and then re-distributed. Each farmer receives the same quantity of seed they
contributed to the common pile. This process will greatly increase the genetic diversity of the
seed collected by the group. While an individual farmer in the group might be able to collect
seed from only 5 to 10 trees, a group of 6 farmers can collect seed from 30 to 60 trees.

Distance between seed trees

Spacing between trees is an important consideration when selecting seed trees.

Seed trees should be spaced at a distance greater than that associated with seed dispersal.
Seed dispersal distances vary by tree species and environmental conditions of the site. In
general, the distance between selected seed trees should be at least 50 m. Trees spaced closer
than 50 m have a higher possibility of being closely related, i.e. share common parents or
earlier ancestors. The genetic variation will be reduced when seed is collected from closely
spaced trees. There is a risk of inbreeding in the next generation and consequentially the
negative effects discussed above.

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2 SEED COLLECTION

By now, we have identified our parent trees (right species/ provenance, with the desired
quality), have trained crew (if necessary reference collection), determined the optimum age,
the next step is flower and seed survey which is necessary at least 1-2 months prior to actual
collection.
Flower Survey: It provides information on:
 Whether flowering is distributed regularly throughout the area,
 If flowering plus trees are distributed throughout the area,
 How many male trees are contributing to pollination,
 Whether male trees are distributed uniformly.
Seed Survey
Flower survey not enough, as many of the flowers might not develop in to seeds because of
abortion, failure of fertilization or other factors. Then, seed survey is a reliable tool towards
crop estimation. The information gathered includes:
 Checking existing stock
 Whether the crop is sound (not attacked by insects, disease etc.)
 Whether seeds are mature: Seeds should be harvested when or just before they are
matured. It is also important to make sure that a high proportion of it is viable when
harvested. Seed maturity is judged by the following methods:
 Field Methods:
 Colour: Seeds/ fruits turn from green to grey, shades of yellow, brown or reddish
when matured. Fleshy and pulpy fruits commonly lose their hardness and become soft
when matured. However, colour is not a reliable way of telling the maturity of seeds.
 Cutting test: One of the best ways to see if a fruit/ seed is ripe; simple and practical. It
also helps to see the soundness (viability and insect attack). The cutting test gives
more information than simply the colour. It enables us to discern the stage of maturity
of the embryo and endosperm. Most embryo and endosperm have ‘milky’ appearance
when immature followed by a ‘dough’ stage. Mature seeds have a fully developed and
firm embryo and endosperm.

 Laboratory Methods:
 Determining the maximum dry weight of seeds when they reach maturity (i.e.,
physiological maturity)

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  Chemical analysis ( based on the contents of fat, protein, carbohydrate; increase
during maturity)
 Seed radiography: shows different shades of colors showing the degree of maturity;
quick but needs skilled personnel and resources)
 Specific gravity: lower when seeds mature

2.1 Planning the Seed Collection:

1. Organizing collection teams: the number of teams depends on the scale (large, small) and
purpose (research, developmental) of collection.
2. Organizing equipment and transport: Ladders, climbing and safety equipment, safety
belts and ropes, helmets, climbing spurs, shears, hooks canvas, nets, binoculars, pruning
saws etc.
3. Organizing record keeping: different types of seed forms but information data to include:
collector, date of collection, species, location (locality, distance, latitude and longitude),
site characteristics, tree and stand characteristics, collection methods, amount…
signature!

2.2 Seed Collection Techniques

Collection techniques to use depends on factors like the way a species disperses, size of the
fruit/ seed, tree characteristics like diameter, height, bark thickness, crown size, tree
frequency, undergrowth and underground vegetation. Two major techniques:

1. Collection of Fallen Seeds

 After natural dispersal: for species with big seeds or fruits that drop when matured.
The method involves large plastic sheets or canvas, nets under the tree or clearing the
site under.
Advantage: Easy, cheap, requiring less skill
Disadvantage: loss of viability; attack by insects and fungi, competitors, inefficient for
tiny seeds
 After manual or mechanical shaking; For seeds/ fruits which detach easily after
shaking; manually it is limited to small trees, mechanical shakers ( high cost/hr, skill)

2. Collection from the Crown

This technique is advantageous when:
 fruits release too tiny seeds ( and it is difficult to pick from the ground)
 it is necessary to ascertain identity of mother trees
 it is needed to avoid competitors
 when seeds germinate soon after dropping
 when seeds rot easily once they have fallen

A) Access from the ground:

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In the case of shrubs or tree with low brunches, the collector would stand on the ground and
pick seeds, brunches are bent over and seeds released to bags or canvas.
 Advantage: Easy and cheap
 Disadvantage: fruits of lower brunches of some species contain few seeds, possibly of
insufficient pollination. Moreover, lower brunches often bear less viable seeds due to old
age and low photosynthesis.
B) Collection in the crown (climbing)
There is a limit of the height to which long handled tools can be used for collecting seeds and
then the climbing in to the crown of the mother tree is only the practical method. This is
necessary using Equipment: Ladder, climbing spurs, safety belts, safety ropes, glove,
helmet, and boots with non-slipping sole…
Disadvantages: dangerous, exhausting, time consuming, expensive, requires experience

C) Collection from felled trees

Easy and cheap, but never fell a tree for collecting seeds, use a tree felled for another
purpose.

3 SEED HANDLING

During the period immediately after collection, seeds are particularly susceptible to damage.
So, they should be handled carefully depending up on the nature of the seed.

Aspects to be considered are thickness, hardiness and permeability of the seed coat, moisture
content and dormancy. The two main classes of seeds with regard to handling requirement
are:

Orthodox: that can be dried to moisture content of approximately 5 % and can be stored at a
low or freezing temperature for a long time.

Recalcitrant: which cannot survive being dried below a relatively high moisture content
(often 20-25 %) and may not subsequently be stored for long periods without losing viability.

3.1 Between Collection and Processing

Seeds can lose a substantial degree of viability right after collection unless handled carefully
during the period of collection and processing at the seed-processing depot. The major effort
between the two periods is maintaining the seed viability and identity.
Maintaining Viability
There are often a lot of constraints on the collection site:
 less control over the environment in the collection site,

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  sometimes a long distance to carry the seeds,
 uncertain/ slow/ difficult transportation,
 different personal interests in the welfare of seeds (collector, processor, driver), and
 Some problems emanating from the seeds themselves.

Freshly collected seeds normally have a moisture content of at least 15 %; then, the higher
the moisture content and temperature, the higher will be the deterioration through the action
of fungi, moulds and overheating.

The higher the moisture content of recalcitrant seeds, the higher the danger that they will
die of suffocation, physiological breakdown and overheating if not properly stored, packed
and transported. The importance of good ventilation in reducing these dangers cannot be
overemphasized as too much ventilation can harm the seeds.
Therefore, there should be a balance between moisture content of seeds and degree of
ventilation. Besides, the temperature must be kept in between 20 and 30 OC.
 In maintaining viability, we can have Temporary storage/ extraction/ drying
For temporary storage, containers should not be filled to the top. Preferably small bags
should be used to facilitate air circulation and easy handling, and seeds should be
temporarily stored under shade or shelter. For orthodox seeds, some degree of advanced
drying is needed.
Seeds extraction close to the collection site:
 for reducing weight, especially bulky fruits and seeds, it may be advisable to dewing,
clean until final drying;
 For seeds/ fruits which ferment quickly and weaken viability, it may be advisable to
macerate the pulp… this also lowers the lingering dormancy in some species.

3.1.1 Maintaining Seed Identity

Seed lots should be labelled; identical labels placed both inside and outside (as an insurance
against accidental loss). Labels should be waterproof and the minimum information recorded
includes: species, seed lot number, geographic location, name of seed source, weight of seed
contained, date of collection, collector’s name

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3.2 Processing Seeds (Extraction)
Almost invariably it is the fruit not the seed that is harvested though they are loosely referred
as seeds. In majority of species, however, fruits are collected but seeds are sown.

The aim is to maximize production of clean seeds having maximum viability.

The processes involved are: maceration and de-pulping, drying, separation (tumbling,
threshing and de-winging) and cleaning.

3.2.1 Activities Prior to Extraction

Processing is often done at a central processing depot. However, the distance can be too long,
and seeds can lose their viability unless some prior measures are taken. Such as;
A place for temporary storage: dry cool and well-ventilated seeds may be kept in containers
or spread depending on their nature. In the latter case, wooden floors, wire trays are
recommended as opposed to concrete.
Facilities include: hammocks, racks, wire baskets, timber boxes.
 Pre-cleaning: cones and fruits need to be cleaned of twigs, bark foliage and other
impurities because they can carry fungus spores, invite insects)(by hand , floatation,
vibrators).
 Pre-curing: It is the deliberate storage and slow air drying of fruits and contained seeds in
order to render them more suitable for subsequent operation of kiln drying, extraction and
long term storage. The processes assisted by pre-curing are seed maturation and fruit
drying. This is because fruits do not ripen at the same time even for the same species; and
pre-curing promotes a gradual decrease of moisture content and also prevents case-
hardening.

3.2.2 Seed Extraction

It is the separation of fruits from seeds. This is necessary to:
 reduce weight and volume
 enable more rapid drying
 for storage under low risk of fungal attack
 Eliminate the negative impact of fruit chemistry on germination.
Extraction methods depend on the nature of the fruit:

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a) De-pulping: for fleshy fruits such as Podocarpus, Olea, Azadirachta, Melea, Prunus,
Juniperus. For such species the pulp must be removed soon to avoid fermentation and
heating.
The technique involves: Soaking the fruit, then the flesh hand squeezed or mashed by wooden
blocks, rolling pin or fruit press; or macerating flesh by rubbing it against or through a
screen. In maceration, the fruits are placed in water in a warm place to soften the pulp,
which is then broken down by vigorous stirring or rubbing against wire screening. HCl can
soften pulp, and NaOH can cut resin when Juniper berries are being treated.
b) Extraction by Drying
It uses natural or artificial heat source. Drying can be: under cover, sun drying or kiln drying.
i. Drying under cover: used as an extraction method for species that cannot withstand direct
sun light, and must be stored at a relatively high moisture content. Good ventilation required.
The time required depends on the relative humidity. This method can offer uniform drying to
prevent case hardening.
ii. Sun drying: For species that can withstand high temperature (e.g. many dry land species);
covering may become necessary when fruits/ cones are still fresh, and under very intense
sunshine.
iii. Kiln drying: Problems encountered when trying to control humidity and temperature may
complicate drying by natural methods. Then we resort to artificial methods:
 when large amount of seeds have to be processed,
 When regulation of temperature and moisture is required (often, natural drying may not
be sufficient to achieve the desired moisture content)
 When we want to save time.

3.2.3 5.2.3 Operations between extraction and storage

a) Cleaning and separation
b) Species related moisture content for storage
c) Grading
a) Cleaning and separation
 De-winging (especially when the wing is greater than the seed). It is done manually or by
machine (cement mixer, mechanical de-winger), by tumbling, or threshing
The characteristics by which sound seeds may be distinguished from inert matter including
sterile and empty seeds are: size, shape, colour, texture and specific gravity.

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The first three are the major criteria for visual separation, while seed-cleaning machines
employs size and SG.
 Screening or sieving:
 Blowing: This includes falling, floatation, rising, winnowing
 Liquid floatation
Degree of purity is expressed in percentage of purity. The maximum economically
achievable purity varies from species to species, and depending on size of the seed; the bigger
the size, the higher the purity.
b) Grading: this is done based on size because there is a high correlation between size and
vigor.
c) Drying/ moistening for storage: appropriate species related drying for storage of orthodox
seeds, or moistening recalcitrant seeds to the required moisture content.
Drying is achieved if the surrounding air is drier than the seed (seeds are hygroscopic), and
the drying process is a game between moisture content of the seed, Relative Humidity of air
and temperature.

3.3 Storing Seeds

Storing means that seeds are kept under conditions that maintain viability at reduced
physiological activity, and protecting seeds from deterioration by fungi and insect attack.
Storage is meant to bridge the time gap between collection and sowing.
Factors affecting the viability of stored seeds:
 Moisture content
 Seed maturity
 Initial viability
 Fungi, bacteria, insect
 Temperature: the lower the temperature, the higher the moisture content can be and still
reduced physiological activity. Recommended storage temp. for tropical species is
between +5 and - 10 oc. With very low temperature, there is the risk that latent water
crystallise and destroy the cell structure.
 Oxygen
a) Storing Orthodox Seeds
Seeds of species that can be dried to moisture content of approximately 5% and can be
stored at a low or freezing temperature for a long time are described as Orhtodox.

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 Example: Most Acacia sp., Albizzia sp., Eucalyptus sp., Entada africana, Erythrina
abyssinica, Hygenia abyssinica, Cordia fricana, Phoenix reclinata, Tamarindus
indica etc.
b) Storing Recalcitrant Seeds
Seeds that cannot survive being dried below a relatively high moisture content (often 20-25
%) and may not subsequently be stored for long periods without losing their viability are
described as Recalcitrant.
Example: Pouteria (Anningeria) adolfi-frederici*, Ficus sycomorus*, Syzgium
guineense, Tamarix aphylla, Azadirachta indica*, Hevea brasilensis, Prunus africana
(* indicative information)
These are the kind of seeds posing problems for the seed man; do not withstand appreciable
drying and requiring different processing and storage. Aeration is required while maintaining
the moisture (e.g. mixing seeds with sand/ peat at a ratio of 1:1).
 Moist storage can be done under a controlled low temperature (+3 to -3 oC).
 Re-moistening may be required if the room moisture content is not sufficient.
By and large, we can also have species that do no fall in to either of the two categories
that are Intermediate.
c) Storage Facilities
For orthodox seeds: at room temperature (20-25 oC), ambient moisture content, storage
possible for several years (Acacia, Prosopis spp.). However, long term storage may need
appropriate facilities: refrigerators, deep freezers, Storage containers (air tight and
impermeable for orthodox, and non-air tight and permeable for recalcitrant)
3.4 Dispatching
It refers to movement of seed lots from the supplier, seed center to users (nurseries in the
same country/ nurseries or other users) in another country. Seeds are packed to protect them
from changing temperature and moisture content.
Orthodox seeds are sealed in containers (e.g. polythene restricts moisture passage but allows
gas exchange). When distance is too long addition of a desiccant (silica gel) is recommended
to absorb moisture.
Recalcitrant seeds are dispatched together with their storage media (peat, saw dust,
vermiculite; moistened during long transport at high temperature.
Generally, minimize transport time, synchronize activities in the nursery to use seeds as
soon.

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Labelling is extremely important!

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