Nota Test

1
ADS452
aslokman/ads452/Oct2021
LEARNING OUTCOME
▪ At the end of this chapter, students should
be able to understand :
▪ 1.The concept of ethics
▪ 2.The difference of ethics, morality and

values
▪ 3.The importance of studying ethics
▪ 4.The sources of ethics
aslokman/ads452/Oct2021 2
▪ Ethics ▪ Morality
▪ Greek’s Ethos ▪ Latin’s Moralis
▪ Ethos – individual character ▪ Moralis – Customs and manners
ETHICS MORALITY
▪ Ethics is a branch of philosophy (LOVE OF ▪ A system of rules for guiding human

WISDOM)which is called moral philosophy conduct, and principles for evaluating
(McKinnon, 2014) those rules
▪ Ethics is the study of morality ▪ Morality is a system whose purpose is to
prevent harm and evils, and promote
▪ Their primary focus is on the study of human flourishing (Bernard Gert, 1998)
morality and the application of theories
▪ Moral system comprised of moral rules
▪ Ethicists who study about morality use and principles
philosophical method in their analysis and
investigation of moral issues.
ETHICS MORALITY
▪ Ethics or moral philosophy, ask the basic ▪ “Morality or ethics deals basically with
question about the good life, about what human relationships –how humans treat
is better and worse, about whether there other being so as to promote mutual
are any objective right and wrong, and welfare, growth, creativity and meaning,
how we know it if there is”. (McKinnon, as they strive for good over bad and right
2014) over wrong (Thiroux, 2008)
▪ Ethics in the setting of a nation’s
administration provides a framework to
guide towards the right action, whereby
an individual acts in accordance with the
stated principles.
GOOD BAD
RIGHT WRONG
HAPPINESS DISCONTENT
Good and Bad is defined through human experience and human relationship.
Consistent with
Perfection of Acquired
Acquiring the
character through
intellectual maximization of
(virtuous scientific
virtues faculty as human
character) knowledge
being
The decision on good over bad, right over
wrong depends on values.
Value comes from Latin valere means having

worth or being worth.
Values are abstract desirable goals that serve as

guiding principles in peoples’ lives (Rokeach,
1973)
Values are enduring beliefs that influence

choices actors make from available means to
achieve the desired end (Kakabadse et al, 2003)
WHY IS VALUES IMPORTANT IN ADMINISTRATION?
▪ Values are emphasised in work ▪ Values are championed as the way to

execution and personality as public tackle unethical behavior and
servants. corruption in public service.
▪ Values are important in public ▪ Governments rely on values,
service as it becomes a yardstick to character traits and norms to
ethical behaviour (Lewis & Gilman, eradicate corruption and bribery
2012) and indispensable as it (Basu, 2011;Mc Cusker, 2006)
modelled attitude and how we ought
to achieve a particular standard ( ▪ Values as factor influencing
Molina & McKeown, 2012) inclination to commit bribery among
Malaysian enforcement officers
▪ Values have the strongest influence (Khairun Dalilah & Norhasliza, 2015;
in the ethical decision and individual Suzeliyana & Nor Azlina, 2015)
ethics (Heintzman, 2007; Sabitha &
Mahmood Nazar, 2005)
PRESCRIPTIVITY UNIVERSALIZABILI
action guiding TYgeneralisable
OVERRIDINGNESS PUBLICITY
superior power & open & made
influence known
PRACTICALITY
workable
Ethics addresses questions of
good and bad, or right and
wrong.
To solve moral problems resulted

WHY STUDY from many choices about what is
good and bad, better and worse,
ETHICS? and even right and wrong.
Political reason, economic reason,

social reason, religious reason
etc.
Laws
• Natural & civil
Rules & regulations

• Code of ethics & code of conduct
SOURCES OF
ETHICS Conscience
• Conformity to one’s own sense of
right conduct
Religion
• Faith in which an individual
strongly belief in
ETHICAL THEORY
ADS452
ASLOKMAN/ADS452/OCT2021
LEARNING OUTCOME
At the end of the learning session, student
should be able to;
Discuss various ethical theories learnt.
Compare the differences between deontological and
teleological theories.
INTRODUCTION
Do we think of ethical matters, and do we need to?
How do we reason in thinking and acting ethically?
Why do we need to?
How do we know what is right or wrong?

The morally right things to do is always best
supported by arguments (Rachel & Rachel, 2013).
Thus, feelings must be guided by reason in order to
discover the truth (Rachel & Rachel, 2013)
This includes moral judgment – action to approve
things that is right or wrong.
Reasoning is based of facts and verified
knowledge.
Moral arguments is guided by principles that is case
based.
The question – are the principles justified and used
correctly by us?
IMPORTANCE OF GOOD REASONING SKILLS
(MC KINNON, 2012)
Able to evaluate moral issues critically
Able to develop and rely on widely shared reason

based views
Able to discuss moral matters collectively
Able to verify moral principles
ETHICAL THEORY
Root word from Greek ‘theoria’ means a way of seeing (see/view
moral phenomena)
• Ethical theory is a systematic exposition of a particular view about
what is the nature and basis of good or right.
• Ethical theory helps in making ethical judgment on any matters that
would like to be identified as right or wrong.
• It provides reasons or norms for judging acts to be right or wrong
and attempts to give justification for these norms.
• It provides ethical principles or guidelines that embody certain
values.
• It provide clear guidelines and principles in making ethical decision
RELATIONSHIP ETHICAL
THEORY
BETWEEN
ETHICAL ETHICAL
THEORY AND PRINCIPLE
ETHICAL
JUDGMENT ETHICAL
JUDGMENT
CATEGORY OF ETHICS
Ethics is a systematic attempt to understand moral
concepts and justify moral principles and theories.
Western philosophy explained moral concepts using 3
main categories of ethics (Stewart, 2009);
i. Meta ethics – causes of right & wrong
Ii. Normative ethics – the study of right & wrong of
human behaviour
iii. Applied ethics – practical ethics based on the right
& wrong concept
Ethical behavior explained by normative
NORMATIVE ethics is based on three broad
philosophical tradition (Stewart, 2009);
ETHICS Deontology – duty based
Teleology – consequences based
Virtue ethics – character based
NORMATIVE ETHICS
ETHICAL EGOISM
TELEOLOGY Consequentialist
ETHICAL THEORY UTILITARIANISM
KANT’S MORAL THEORY

DEONTOLOGY Non-
consequentialist
NATURAL LAW
VIRTUE ETHICS
DEONTOLOGY
Deontology originates from Greek, deon meaning duty.
It looks for objective, ultimate or absolute standards for assessing
rightness or wrongness of human actions (Sheeran, 1993).
This approach believes that real, objective standards of morality exist
to govern human behaviour and it is discovered using human
reasoning (Sheeran, 1993).
Concentrates on the nature of action & motive to determine right or
wrong action.
Its priority is obligation and duty in making decision facing ethical
dilemmas.
One should subscribe to a set of moral standards regardless of
possible consequences of inherently right or wrong action (Pojman,
2012).
Therefore, it is also known as a non-consequentialism theory
Deontology theory include Kant’s moral theory
KANT’S MORAL THEORY
The theory was advocated by Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher (1724-
1804).
This moralist approach regards human rationality as the base of ethics.
The moral requirements are based on a standard of rationality known as

‘Categorical Imperative’ (Johnson, 2010).
Three formulation of the imperative are (Garofalo & Gueras, 1999;2003);

 ‘Act according to the maxim that you can will to be a universal law’
 ‘Treat human beings as an end and not as means only’
 ‘Each rational and autonomous being must be considered as a legislator in the
kingdom of ends’
The imperative’s consistent idea is an action that is
will by all, whereby will is accepted as ethical or vice
versa.
The imperative summed up morality as one hence
served as a commandment from which all obligations
and duties are derived (Amundsen & Andrade, 2009).
This means that the only good reason for doing the
right thing is because of duty, thus duty becomes the
‘operational reason’ for an action or the key element
of a decision to act (BBC, 2014)
NATURAL LAW THEORY
• Aristotle developed ethical philosophy based on nature
which emphasized that goals are embedded in natural
things as there was an order in nature.
• Natural beings (humans, plants & animals) had a principle
of order within them that directed them toward their
goals under the maxim “the good is that at which all
things aim”.
• Human differ from other natural beings as they have
intelligence.
• What is naturally good for human is to function well and
perfecting their human capacities.
• The ultimate good for human – happiness, blessedness,
prosperity.
• This theory follows a Judean Christian tradition where Thomas
Aquinas, based his perspective of natural law on a religious
term in which he believed that god created the universe
according to plan and thus put into the natures of things their
natural orientation.
• Their good is to fulfill their natures as this was intended by god.
• He held that natural law was part as divine law.
TELEOLOGY
Teleology originates from Greek, telos meaning goal or
end.
This approach is based on a moral judgement on the
consequence of action.
Thus also known an consequentialism theory.
An action is ethical when it produces the greatest
benefit compared to any other alternative.
One of the most common forms of ethical deliberation
focuses on the consequences is the Utilitarian theory.
UTILITARIANISM
The theory is advocate by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mills.
It is a consequentialist theory meaning that an action is good, and
moral based on the consequences.
The main idea of utilitarianism is the Principle of Utility where an
action is considered good when it promotes happiness for the
society, right when it maximizes possible good for all persons
affected by the action (Stewart, 1991).
Maximum happiness should be the guide to all actions done by
human.
The famous phrase of ‘the end justifies the mean’.
• Emphasised on the greatest benefit an
individual gain through his actions
ACT UTILITARIAN • Actions providing the greatest social good is
better than the law
• Emphasised the adherence to rule in order to

produce the greatest benefit
RULE UTILITARIAN • Actions is guided by the rule in order to
achieve maximization of happiness
ETHICAL EGOISM
The theory claims that one ought to pursue one’s self interest
exclusively.
An individual do not have any moral duty towards others but only
towards oneself.
The ultimate principle of conduct is the principle of self interest, which
sums all of one’s natural obligations and duties (Rachels, 2013).
It does not however forbid one from helping others as long as the act
benefits oneself, which makes the act right.
Ethical egoism endorses individual who act for their self interest for a
long run benefit. It promotes doing good thing to oneself and avoid
harming oneself.
It advocates that we divide the world into 2 groups : ourselves
and other people (Rachels, 2013)
The interest of the first group is far superior than the second group.
Category of ethical egoism;
Personal ethical egoism
Individual ethical egoism
Universal ethical egoism
VIRTUE ETHICS
Virtue comes from ancient Greek, ‘vir’ referring to strength or
manliness and ‘arete’ meaning excellence.
It is a theory concentrating on the notion that moral life is about
developing good character (McKinnon, 2014).
The character of a moral agent is the driving force to ethical
behaviour and does not depend on the consequences of the
action.
Virtue ethics is about how we ought to act and concerned on the
traits of character of a person (Amundsen & Andrade, 2009).
Ethical dilemma can be tackled using specific moral qualities and become a means to
improve moral behavior in public service (Lynch &Lynch, 2003) whereby lack of
virtue caused unethical behavior in public managers (Lawton & Macaulay, 2004)
Two elements of virtue according to Aristotle’;
• Excellence of character
MORAL VIRTUE • Concerns with how one position himself in acting well
• Excellence of mind
INTELLECTUAL VIRTUE • Concerns with the ability to understand, reason and
judge well
Aristotle assumed that ‘virtue’ is what human required to flourish
(Stewart, 1991) which leads to the purpose of life which is to live
harmoniously with others (Admunsen & Andrade, 2009).
Therefore, virtue ethics have a fundamental practical application
(Lawton & Macaulay, 2004) and it exists in both action and
character of the person.
Virtue ethics propose that an ethical decision is not made purely on
abstract moral values but related to specific circumstances in which
the decision is made (Van Staveren, 2007).
ETHICS IN PUBLIC
ADS 452 & PRIVATE
ADMINISTRATION
2
• At the end of the learning session, student should be

able to;
• Explain public sector and public sector ethics
• Discuss the evolution of public sector ethics
• Explain ethical infrastructure/integrity system
• Explain public service values
• Differentiate public and private sector ethics
LEARNING OUTCOME
PUBLIC SECTOR ETHICS
WHAT IS PUBLIC SECTOR?

(Amundsen & Andrade, 2009)
The government with all its ministries, department, agencies,

federal/state/local administration and public enterprises.
It is administrative level in charge of implementing decisions

and policies made by the political level otherwise known as civil
service, public service, state administration or bureaucracy.
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• Public service ethics concerns with; (Lilla, 1981)

• The morality of public policies
• Moral obligation of career public officials
• Public service ethics evolved from the notion that
public officials are professionals who are detached
from politics.
• They serve their superiors (politicians) by executing
directives and feeding information based on their
expertise.
• The underlying ethos of public administration is
democracy.
5
• After the WWs, public officers no longer only following

superiors’ orders but have the power to manage
resources and programs with unclear guideline.
• Thus, officers have the power of discretion.
• Friedrich vs. Finer (1940’s) debate on the discretionary
power of public officers set the base for administrative
responsibility.
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BASE FOR ADMINISTRATIVE

RESPONSIBILITY
Friedrich
Finer
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EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC SERVICE

ETHICS
Democratic Weberian Market Community

oriented oriented oriented oriented
Adapted from Mazur (2013)
8
IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC
SERVICE ETHICS
Implement
Vast activities
government’s
conducted by
decisions &
public officers
policies
A specific set of
Serving the
public service
public interest
values
A different
Discretionary
context and power of public
principles of officers
operation
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• Otherwise known as ethics

management, ethics regime or
integrity system (Amundsen &
Andrade, 2009).
• It acts as the tool for the
government to promote ethics,
inculcate values, monitor &
evaluate the ethical behavior of
ETHICAL public officials.
INFRASTRUCTURE • The tools can take 2 different
approaches to ensure ethical
behavior (Rohr, 1989) ;
• Compliance/ rule based (Low
road)
• Integrity/ values based (High
road)
10
• Compliance approach focused on

prevention of unethical conduct
by detecting integrity violations,
sanctioning employees who
transgress law, rules or
organizational norms (Lawton et
al., 2013).
• Integrity approach focused on the
ETHICAL advocacy of ethical behavior and
INFRASTRUCTURE values by promoting and
educating employees on the
ethical acceptable decisions and
actions.
11
• A Code of Ethics (COE) is an

integrity- based approach to
behavior.
• COE generally appears when an
occupation is organized into a
profession.
CODE OF • Profession is a group of persons

who want to cooperate in serving
ETHICS the same ideal better than they
could if they did not cooperate
(COE) (Davis, 1991).
• COE can serve either as a moral
reference or a convention
between professionals (i.e.
doctors, engineers, lawyers,
architects.
12
• COE serves as an ethical guide to

how public officers conduct
themselves in the course of their
duty.
• It is known as an external control
CODE OF to behavior and is an integrity-
based system.
ETHICS • It is more than just law as its project
(COE) ideals & tailor ethical behavior, a
mechanism to clarify values & bind
individuals to a broader group &
public values (Cooper, 1990).
• It can be aspirational, guiding and
regulatory in character.
13
• COC is also a rule-based

approach to behavior.
• It is a set of rules outlining the
responsibilities of or proper
practices for an individual or
CODE OF organization (Amundsen &
Andrade, 2009).
CONDUCT • ‘Principles, values and standards or
(COC) rules of behavior that guide the
decisions, procedures and systems
of an organization in a way a)
contributes to welfare of its
stakeholders and (b) respects the
rights of all constituents affected
by its operations’ (IFA, 2007)
14
• Public official has the duty to take all

necessary action to comply with the
code’s provision.
• The code specify standards of integrity
CODE OF & conduct to be observed by the
public officials, helping them to meet
CONDUCT the standards and inform the public of
conduct expected of the public
(COC) officials (Amundsen & Andrade, 2009).
• Examples of COC – UN International
Code of Conduct for Public Officials,
Council of Europe’s Model Codes of
Conduct for Public Officials
15
• This is an integrity approach to

behavior.
• The focus is to use training and
education to curb unethical
behavior of individuals.
• It enables organization members
to understand, share and apply
ETHICS values stated in the COE (de Colle
& Gonella, 2002) and identify &
TRAINING deal with ethical problems while
developing moral intuitions in
everyday actions & choice
(Sacconi, de Colle & Baldin, 2002)
• Ethics training helps public officials
judge the moral legitimacy of their
decisions & enable them to apply
moral principles and values into
the decisions.
16
• An ethics committee is a special

committee established to
‘examine current concerns about
standard of conducts of all public
ETHICS officials… make recommendation
to change present arrangement to
COMMITTEE ensure the propriety in public life’
(OECD, 2000)
17
• An ombudsman/ombudsperson is a
public official representing the public
interest by investigating and address
complaints made on maladministration
or violation of rights.
• An ombudsman has the duty to
resolved the complaints through
recommendation or mediation
between two conflicting parties.
• Ombudsman do not have power to
initiate legal proceedings or
ETHICS persecutions but provide supports and
options to whistleblowers or persons
OMBUDSMAN with ethical concerns.
• Ombudsman is independent from
power influences, impartial and
neutral, its responsibility is recognized
by the community, on their
responsibility, maintain confidentiality
and privacy to those who reports a
problem.
• It is a legal and compliance 18
approach to behavior.
• The laws are to sanction corrupt
behaviour of public officials.
• Most countries have Penal Code
to punish misconduct that is not
acceptable in public service.
• Two most frequent criminal action
of public officials are partiality in
ANTI- decision making and abuse of
office/public trust.
CORRUPTION
• A dedicated anti corruption
LAWS law/ethics law specify stringent
standards for public servants
• For example, Ireland’s Public
Bodies Corrupt Practices Act
19
• Agency that is created specifically

to oversee unethical behavior and
may focus on investigation of
unethical behavior, prevention of
ANTI- unethical behavior or guidance to
avoid unethical behavior or a
CORRUPTION combination of all three (Lawton,
Rayner & Lasthuizen, 2013).
AGENCY
• Initial reason of creating the
(ACA) agency is due to the corruption
committed by public officials.
20
• There are 4 models of ACA

(Heilbrunn, 2004; Quah, 2007) as
follows
• Universal model – power to
investigate, prevent &
communicate
ANTI- • Investigative model- small &
centralised investigation
CORRUPTION commission
AGENCY • Parliamentary model- reports
to the Parliament & free from
(ACA) executive & judiciary
• Multi-agency model – several
different agencies working
together
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PUBLIC SERVICE
VALUES
• Public values are central to public administration.
• Public values are values that provide normative consensus
about (Bozeman, 2007);
• rights, benefits, prerogative to which citizens
should/not be entitled
• the obligation of citizens to society and the state, vice
versa
• the principles upon which the governments and
policies must be based
• Public values is a criteria for action (Molina, 2009) as public
administration is action oriented (Denhardt & Denhardt,
2006)
• The challenge is different values co-exist within government
& different behavior is expected of public officials (Lawton
et al., 2013)
22
CATEGORY OF PUBLIC SERVICE

VALUES (KERNAGHAN, 2003)
Ethical Democratic Professional People
Integrity Rule of Law Effectiveness Caring
Fairness Neutrality Efficiency Fairness
Accountability Accountability Service Tolerance
Loyalty Loyalty Leadership Decency
Excellence Openness Excellence Compassion
Respect Responsive Innovation Courage
Honesty Representative Quality Benevolence
Probity Legality Creativity Humanity
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PUBLIC VS PRIVATE
ETHICS
• Public sector has a different context and
environment compared to the private sector due
to three reasons (Van der Wal, 2016);
• - Public problems are complex and often
faced with unresolvable ‘wicked problem’
• - Public sector involves various stakeholders
• - People working in public organizations have
unique values and interest in dealing with
public issues – ‘an altruistic motivation to serve
the interests of a community of people, a
state, a nation or humanity’
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PUBLIC & PRIVATE SECTOR

DIFFERENCES
Features Public Private
Strategic goal Public good Profit
Financial goal Reduction of cost, Profit, Market share
effectiveness
Stakeholders Taxpayers Stockholders, owner,
market
Budget priorities Government, Public Market
Environment Wide & complex Organization
Governance Multi actors Board of Directors
stakeholder
Decision making Pluralistic Monopolistic
Justification for National security Protection of IP
secrecy
25
PUBLIC & PRIVATE SECTOR

SIMILARITIES
Both sector involved in planning, organizing, coordinating &

controlling activities.
Similar hierarchical structure of authority
Deals with human capital – face similar challenge in personnel

issues
Emphasized on discipline and frugality of resources usage
Influencing each other in work reforms – competition, output

measures, corporate management style
Maintains similar accounting aspects
26
• The many challenges faced by

organizations are (Sims, 1992)
• International competitions
CHALLENGE OF
• New technologies
ETHICAL • Increased quality
BEHAVIOUR IN • Employee motivation and
ORGANISATION commitment
• Managing a diverse workforce
• Ethical behavior

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1

▪ 2.The difference of ethics, morality and

▪ 4.The sources of ethics

▪ Ethics is a branch of philosophy (LOVE OF ▪ A system of rules for guiding human

Value comes from Latin valere means having

Values are abstract desirable goals that serve as

Values are enduring beliefs that influence

▪ Values are emphasised in work ▪ Values are championed as the way to

To solve moral problems resulted

Political reason, economic reason,

Rules & regulations

Do we think of ethical matters, and do we need to?

How do we reason in thinking and acting ethically?

Why do we need to?

How do we know what is right or wrong?

Able to develop and rely on widely shared reason

Able to discuss moral matters collectively

Able to verify moral principles

Teleology – consequences based

Virtue ethics – character based

ETHICAL THEORY UTILITARIANISM

KANT’S MORAL THEORY

This moralist approach regards human rationality as the base of ethics.

The moral requirements are based on a standard of rationality known as

Three formulation of the imperative are (Garofalo & Gueras, 1999;2003);

• Emphasised the adherence to rule in order to

• At the end of the learning session, student should be

WHAT IS PUBLIC SECTOR?

The government with all its ministries, department, agencies,

It is administrative level in charge of implementing decisions

• Public service ethics concerns with; (Lilla, 1981)

• After the WWs, public officers no longer only following

BASE FOR ADMINISTRATIVE

EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC SERVICE

Democratic Weberian Market Community

Adapted from Mazur (2013)

• Otherwise known as ethics

• Compliance approach focused on

• A Code of Ethics (COE) is an

CODE OF • Profession is a group of persons

• COE serves as an ethical guide to

• COC is also a rule-based

• Public official has the duty to take all

• This is an integrity approach to

• An ethics committee is a special

• Agency that is created specifically

• There are 4 models of ACA

CATEGORY OF PUBLIC SERVICE

PUBLIC & PRIVATE SECTOR

PUBLIC & PRIVATE SECTOR

Both sector involved in planning, organizing, coordinating &

Similar hierarchical structure of authority

Deals with human capital – face similar challenge in personnel

Influencing each other in work reforms – competition, output

• The many challenges faced by

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