النحو المقارن 1

:
Prepared by: Assist. Lecturer
Ahmed F. Majeed
PREPARED BY: ASSIST. LECTURER: AHMED F. MAJEED 1
Chapter one: Introduction
1.1What is Contrastive Grammar?

1.2 How are the Grammars of two languages contrasted?
1.3 the Sentence
1.4 the Structure of the sentence
1.5 the predicate
1.6 Arabic Predicate
1.7 how elements of a sentence are related
1.8 Class and System

1.1 What is Contrastive Grammar?
Contrastive Grammar is part of the larger field of
contrastive linguistics. Contrastive linguistics is concerned
with comparing two or more languages for the purpose of
identifying similarities and differences.
Contrastive Grammar aims at pointing out similarities

and differences between the grammars of two or more
language. For practical reasons, only certain areas of two
grammars are usually compared and contrasted.
Two Types of contrastive linguistics may be distinguished:
1) Theoretical
2) Applied

The objective of the theoretical type is to encourage
contrastive Studies within the framework of general
linguistics.
While, applied contrastive has pedagogical objective; it

may be used profitably in second and foreign language
learning. Applied Contrastive linguistics is also useful
for those who are interested in Translation.

1.2 How are the grammars of two languages contrasted?
By using Three main Stages which are as follow:

a) Description of language E
b) Description of language A
c) Contrasting the results
The basis of contrastive study may be:
Syntactic
Semantic
(formal)

Example:
1. Perhaps Ali will attend the meeting
2. ‫قد يحضر علي االجتماع‬
“‫ ”قد‬and “Perhaps” may be compared. It is possible to state that “‫ ”قد‬is

a particle, whereas “perhaps” is an adverb. The basis of this
statement is syntactic.
On the other hand, one may mention that both “‫ ”قد‬and “perhaps”
belong to modality and that they express a certain degree of doubt.
Here the basis is semantic.
Both Semantic and Syntactic bases are used in contrastive analysis.

They often complement each other.

1.3 the Sentence:
A sentence is a set of words that is complete in itself,
typically containing a subject and predicate, conveying
a statement, question, exclamation, or command, and
consisting of a main clause and sometimes one or more
subordinate clauses.
‫ ويُقال َجمل الشيء يعنى‬،‫ال ُج ُملة في اللغة بض ّم الميم والجيم هي الجماعة من الناس‬
‫مركب‬
ٌ ‫ أ ّما في االصطالح فهي كال ٌم‬،‫ كما يٌقال ُجملة لك ّل جماعة غير منفصلة‬،‫َجمعه‬
‫ وهي كالم تا ّم المعنى‬،ً‫من أكثر من كلمة أُسندت إحداهما إلى األخرى إثباتا ً أو نفيا‬
.‫ ويس ّميها بعض العلماء قضية‬،‫يشتمل على مسند ومسند إليه‬

Grammarian usually divided their material into stretches of
various sizes term units.
The larger of these units is a sentence. The other units are, the
clause, the phrase, the word and the morpheme.

A clause is a group of related words containing a subject that
tells readers what the sentence is about, and a verb that tells
readers what the subject is doing.

Independent Clause
An independent clause, also called a main clause, is a clause that
can stand on its own. It contains all the information necessary to
be a complete sentence. An independent clause has a subject that
tells you what the sentence is about and a verb that tells you what
the subject is doing. It expresses a complete thought, relaying that
something has happened or was said.
For example,
'My dog loves pizza crusts,'
The subject is “dog”, the verb is “loves” and your reader now
knows that 'your dog loves pizza crusts,' making it a complete
thought.

Dependent Clause
A dependent clause, also called a subordinate clause, is a clause that cannot
stand on its own because it does not contain all the information necessary to
be a complete sentence. A clause is dependent because of the presence of
words such as before, after, because, since, in order to, although, and
though.
For example, if you begin the sentence 'My dog loves pizza crusts' with
Because, you still have the subject, dog, and the verb, loves, but it is now an
incomplete thought, 'Because my dog loves pizza crusts.'
To complete the thought, you must attach the dependent, or subordinate,
clause to an independent, or main, clause.
For example,
'Because my dog loves pizza crusts, he never barks at the deliveryman.'
The thought is now complete, and your reader knows that 'because he loves
pizza crusts, your dog never barks at the delivery man.'

Relative Clause
A relative clause is a clause that begins with a relative pronoun
such as who, whom, whose, which, or that, or a relative adverb
such as when, where, or why. It is a type of dependent clause.
For example,
1- Who loves pizza crusts,
The relative pronoun is who.
2- Where he chews and drools with great enthusiasm,
The relative adverb is where.
Like dependent, or subordinate, clauses, relative clauses cannot

stand alone as complete sentences. You must connect them to
main clauses to finish the thought.

Noun Clauses
A noun clause is a dependent clause that functions as a
noun in a sentence. It is used as a subject, an object of a
verb, an object of a preposition, and a complement.
Never separate a noun clause from the main clause with

commas or other punctuation marks since noun clauses
are part of main clauses.

Types of Noun Clauses
1. That clauses: It begins with (that).
She thought that the exam was cancelled.
2. If/Whether clauses: It begins with (if or whether).

The teacher wants to know if the students understood the formula.
3. WH-Question clauses: It begins with a question word e.g. where,

what, who, when, or how.
I don’t know who she is.

A small group of words standing together as a conceptual unit,
typically forming a component of a clause.
There are 5 phrase types:
Phrase Type Example Main word (HEAD)
1. NOUN PHRASE The young girl Noun: GIRL
2. VERB PHRASE Has been reading Verb: READING
3. ADJECTIVE PHRASE Very noisy Adj. NOISY
4. ADVERB PHRASE Too quickly Adv. QUICKLY
5. PREPOSITIONAL
After the match Prep. AFTER
PHRASE

All words belong to categories called word classes (or parts of speech)
according to the part they play in a sentence. The main word classes in
English are listed below.

A morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in a language. A
morpheme is not identical to a word, and the principal
difference between the two is that a morpheme may or may not
stand alone, whereas a word, by definition, is freestanding.

Morpheme
Bound Free
Zero
Derivational Inflectional Allomorphs morphemes/nu Open class Closed class
ll morphemes
Nouns Conjunctions
Verbs Preposition
Adjective Determiners

Derivational morphemes
Derivational morphemes, when combined with a root,
change either the semantic meaning or part of speech of
the affected word.
For example, in the word happiness, the addition of the
bound morpheme -ness to the root happy changes the
word from an adjective (happy) to a noun (happiness). In
the word unkind, un- functions as a derivational
morpheme, for it inverts the meaning of the word formed
by the root kind. Generally, the affixes used with a root
word are bound morphemes.

Inflectional morphemes
Inflectional morphemes modify a verb's tense, aspect, mood, person,

or number, or a noun's, pronoun's or
adjective's number, gender or case, without affecting the word's
meaning or class (part of speech). Examples of applying inflectional
morphemes to words are adding -s to the root dog to form dogs and
adding -ed to wait to form waited. An inflectional morpheme changes
the form of a word. In English, there are eight inflections.

Allomorphs
Allomorphs are variants of a morpheme that differ

in pronunciation but are semantically identical. For
example, in English, the plural marker -(e)s of regular
nouns can be pronounced /-s/ (bats), /-z/, (bugs), or /-
ɪz, -əz/, (buses), depending on the final sound of the
noun's plural form.

Zero morphemes/null morphemes
Generally, these types of morphemes have no visible

changes. For instance, the singular form of sheep is
"sheep" and its plural is also "sheep". The intended
meaning is thus derived from the co-occurring determiner
(e.g. in this case "some-" or "a-").

1.4 The Structure of the sentence
A sentence is made up of two parts:
Subject Predicate
 The subject of a sentence tells WHO or WHAT the

sentence is about.
 The subject is usually found at the beginning of the
sentence.

 The complete subject of a sentence includes all the words
that tell who or what the sentence is about.
Example:
Everyone in my house is keeping a secret.
 The simple subject includes the single main word (noun or

pronoun) that tells who or what the sentence is about.
Example:
I left my lunch in Dad’s truck this morning.
 A compound subject contains two or more subjects that have
the same predicate. The simple subjects in a compound
subject are usually joined by and or or.
Example:
Myon and I were wet, tired, and disappointed.
Subject Predicate
John Will arrive tomorrow
Mary Is helping her mother
The little child Is crying next room
‫علي‬ ً ‫يصل غدا‬
‫ماري‬ ‫تساعد امها‬
‫الطفل الصغير‬ ‫يبكي في الغرفة المجاورة‬
Traditional Arab grammarians term the subject “‫”المسند اليه‬

and the predicate “‫ ”المسند‬and the relation is called
“‫”االسناد‬.

‫اإلسناد في النحو العربي هو ضم تركيب لغوي إلى آخر على وجه اإلفادة التامة‪ ،‬بحيث يكتمل‬
‫معنى الجملة‪ ،‬ويمكن االكتفاء بالتركيبين ليص َّح الحديث‪.‬‬
‫هو العالقة القائمة بين ركني الجملة العربية لتربطهما معا في حكم ففي الجملة االسمية لدينا المبتدأ‬
‫والخبر ‪ ،‬فنسند الثاني إلى األول‪ ،‬فيكون األول مسندا إليه‪ ،‬والثاني مسندا‬
‫الشمس طالعةٌ‪ ،‬فقد أسندنا الطلوع إلى الشمس‪ ،‬فالطلوع مسند وهو الخبر‪ ،‬والشمس مسند‬ ‫ُ‬ ‫فإن قلنا‪:‬‬
‫إليه وهو المبتدأ‪.‬‬
‫وفي الجملة الفعلية ذات الفعل والفاعل‪ ،‬نسند الفعل إلى الفاعل‪ ،‬فيكون األول مسندا والثاني مسندا‬
‫إليه‬
‫فإن قلنا‪ :‬طلعت الشمس‪ ،‬فقد أسندنا فعل الطلوع إلى الشمس‪ ،‬فالطلوع وهو الفعل هنا هو المسند‪،‬‬
‫والشمس هي المسند إليه وهو الفاعل‪.‬‬
‫‪PREPARED BY: ASSIST. LECTURER: AHMED F. MAJEED‬‬ ‫‪26‬‬

‫المسند اليه‬
‫(مبتدأ أو فاعل)‬
‫الفاعل‪ :‬انتصر الفريق‬ ‫•‬
‫نائب فاعل‪ُ :‬ه َ‬
‫زم الفريق‬ ‫•‬
‫المبتدأ الذي له خبر‪ :‬الفريق منتصر‬ ‫•‬
‫ما كان اصله مبتدأ‪ :‬إن الفريق منتصر – كان الفريق منتصرا ً‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫المسند‬
‫(فعل أو خبر)‬
‫الفعل التام‪ :‬أنتصر الفريق‬ ‫•‬
‫خبر المبتدأ‪ :‬الفريق منتصر‬ ‫•‬
‫المبتدأ الذي ليس له خبر‪ :‬أمنتصر انت؟‬ ‫•‬
‫ما كان اصله خبر‪ :‬ان الفريق منتصر – كان الفريق منتصرا ً‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
1.5 The predicate
In English the predicate may comprise the verb alone (V), the
verb and one or more of the following elements: the
complement (C), the object (O), and the adverbial (A).
1.The are readying. (V)

2.She is clever. (C)
3.He is here. (A)
4.She bought a dress. (O)
5.They elected him (O) their chairman. (C)

SUBJECT - VERB
Some Action Verbs do not need OBJECTS.
These are called INTRANSITIVE verbs.
Some examples: jump, fly, race, and cry.
S V
The bird is flying.

SUBJECT – VERB
Some more examples
S V
The alarm sounded.
S V
The baby is crying.

SUBJECT – VERB – DIRECT OBJECT
Some Action Verbs need DIRECT OBJECTS.

These are called TRANSITIVE verbs.
Some examples: kick, give, deliver, and call.
S V DO
The quarterback threw the ball.

1.6 Arabic Predicate
In Arabic the predicate may or may not contain a verb.
Arabic Sentences
Non- Verbal
Verbal
Containing no Verb
Containing a Verb
Nominal Sentence

‫تُقسم الجملة في اللغة العربية إلى جملة فعلية وجملة اسمية؛ أما الجملة الفعلية فتس ّمى بذلك ألنها‬
‫ثان أو ثالث إلتمام معنى‬
‫تبدأ بفعل‪ ،‬ولكل فعل فاعل قام به‪ ،‬وقد يحتاج الفعل لمفعول به أول أو ٍ‬
‫الجملة‪ ،‬بخالف الجملة االسمية التي تبدأ باسم يسمى المبتدأ؛ البتداء الجملة به‪ ،‬ولكل مبتدأ خبر‬
‫يخبر به عن المبتدأ‪.‬‬

‫‪Verbal Sentences‬‬ ‫الجملة الفعلية‬
‫معنى مفيدا ً واضحا ً سواء كان الفعل مضارعاً‪ ،‬ماضيا ً أو أمراً‪،‬‬ ‫ً‬ ‫هي الجملة التي تبدأ بفعل‪ ،‬وتؤ ّدي‬
‫يأتي اسما معربا ً‪ ،‬مبنيا ً أو‬
‫َ‬ ‫ويلحقه فاعل أو نائب فاعل يت ّمم معناه‪ ،‬وللفاعل صور ع ّدة منها أن‬
‫مصدرا ً مؤوالً‪ ،‬ويُس ّمي ك ّل من الفعل والفاعل مسندا ً ومسندا ً إليه‪ ،‬ففي جملة (فر َح الول ُد) فإنّنا نسند‬
‫الفرح إلى الولد‪ ،‬فالفعل (فرح) مسند‪ ،‬و(الولد) مسند إليه‪.‬‬
‫‪ -1‬لمع البرق‪.‬‬
‫‪ -2‬عوى الذئب‪.‬‬
‫كل جملة تبدأ بفعل تسمى‬ ‫‪ -3‬يسقط الثلج‪.‬‬
‫جملة فعلية‬ ‫‪ -4‬يشتد البرد‪.‬‬
‫‪ -5‬اقطف الوردة‪.‬‬
‫‪ -6‬خذ الكتاب‪.‬‬
‫‪Nominal Sentence‬‬
‫الجملة األسمية‬
‫هي الجملة التي تبدأ باسم مرفوع يُعرب مبتدأً‪ ،‬وتت ّمم وتكمل معناه صفة مشتقة مرفوعة تُعرف‬
‫بالخبر‪ ،‬والمبتدأ ال يكون إال كلمة واحدة دائماً‪ ،‬فال يأتي جملة وال شبه جملة‪ ،‬أ ّما الخبر فإنّه يأتي‬
‫على صور عدة منها االسم المفرد‪ ،‬والجملة بنوعيها االسمية والفعلية‪ ،‬وشبه الجملة من الجار‬
‫والمجرور والظرفية‪.‬‬
‫‪ -1‬الدار واسعة‪.‬‬
‫‪ -2‬الجو معتدل‪.‬‬
‫كل جملة تتركب من مبتدأ‬ ‫‪ -3‬الغبار ثائر‪.‬‬
‫وخبر تسمى جملة اسمية‬ ‫‪ -4‬الشارع مزدحم‪.‬‬
‫‪ -5‬الطريق ضيقة‪.‬‬
‫‪ -6‬الفأرة مختبئة‪.‬‬

‫أمثلة‬
‫جاء الخبر اسم مفرد ( مفي ٌد)‪.‬‬

‫مكونة من مبتدأ (مرتعُه)‬
‫جاء الخبر فيها جملة اسمية ّ‬ ‫‪ ‬العل ُم مفي ٌد‪.‬‬
‫وخبر (وخي ٌم)‪.‬‬
‫ٍ‬ ‫‪ ‬الظل ُم مرتعُه وخي ٌم‪.‬‬
‫ظ)‪ ،‬وفاعل‬ ‫جاء الخبر جملة فعلية مكونة من فعل (يحف ُ‬ ‫ظ القصيدة َ‪.‬‬ ‫الطالب يحف ُ‬
‫ُ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫(ضمير مستتر تقديره هو)‪ ،‬ومفعول به (القصيدة َ)‪.‬‬ ‫العصفور في القفص‪.‬‬
‫ُ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫جاء خبر المبتدأ على صورة شبه جملة من الجار‬ ‫‪ ‬الرايةُ فوقَ المدرسة‪.‬‬
‫والمجرور ( في القفص)‪.‬‬
‫شبه جملة ظرفية ( فوقَ المدرسة)‪.‬‬

1.7 How elements of a sentence are related
A simple sentence or rather a clause in English has the following
structure: S V (C) (O) (A). The structure assumed to be made of
places occupied by elements.
Sentence
Elements Places
Subject S
Verb V Subject S
Direct object DO Verb V
Indirect Object ID Object O
Adverb A Complement A

Example: S V O
• My friend has written a short story
 In the above example there are three places occupied by three elements
S,V,O.
 The normal word order of these elements is SVO.
 Note that the order is written with no commas.)
Arabic Equivalent: O S V
‫• كتب صديقي قصة قصيرة‬
 In the above example there are three places occupied by three elements S,V,O.
 The normal word order of these elements is VSO.

Example: S V A
• The child is in the garden
 The clause has three places occupied by three elements S,V,A.
 The normal word order of these elements is SVA.
Arabic Equivalent: A S
‫• الطفل في الحديقة‬
 In the above example there are Two places occupied by three elements S,A.
 The normal word order of these elements is SA.

There are 5 Basic Sentence Patterns
Subject + Verb
I swim. Joe swims. They swam.
Subject + Verb + Object
I drive a car. Joe plays the guitar. They ate dinner.
Subject + Verb + Complement
I am busy. Joe became a doctor. They look sick.
Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object
I gave her a gift. She teaches us English.
Subject + Verb + Object + Complement
I left the door open. We elected him president. They named her Jane.

In modern linguistics, there are two major theories which explain
or describe how places are related to each other: Constituency
and Dependency
In English grammar, a constituency is a relation between a linguistic

unit (i.e., a constituent) and the larger unit that it is a part of. For
instance, all the words and phrases that make up a clause are said to
be constituents of that clause. A constituent can be
a morpheme, word, phrase, or clause. When you are analyzing a
sentence, for example, to find the subject or predicate or identify the
different parts of speech, you are parsing the sentence into its
constituents.

 Phrase Structure Trees show three aspects of the sentence structure
o linear order of words in the sentence
o the groupings of words into phrases
o the hierarchical structure of phrases
 The simple English sentence consists of two principal constituents
o Noun Phrase (NP)

o Verb Phrase (VP)

Abbreviations used in Phrase Structure Tree
 N Noun  NP Noun Phras

 A Adjective  AP ADjective Phrase
 V Verb  VP Verb Phrase
 P Preposition  PP Prepositional Phrase
 Adv Adverb  S Sentence or Clause
 Det Determiner
 Conj Conjunction

S
NP VP
Pronoun V NP
(N)
Art N
He Likes the Toy

S
NP
VP
Adv NP
N V
N
Maria Never Ate brownie

S
NP VP
Det N V NP PrepP
Det N Prep NP
Det N
The child found the puppy in the garden

Sentence
Verb Phrase
Prepositional Phrase
Noun Phrase Adjective Phrase Noun Phrase
Det N Modal V Adv Adj. Prep. Det Noun

This boy must seem incredibly stupid to that girl.
The Dependency Theory
It is much similar to the method followed by Arab grammarians.
It is not based on part – to whole relation; it assumes that the
relation between two items is that one of them govern the others.
This relation is direct. For instance, the verb governs the noun or
the noun depends on the verb.
This relation is clear in the Arabic sentence where the verb is said
to govern its subject in the subjective (nominative) case and its
object in the objective (accusative) case.

Within the standard Arabic theory, the Within the standard Arabic theory, the
noun is governed in on of the imperfect verb is govern in on of the
following three cases following three cases
Noun Imperfect Verb

‫االسم‬ ‫المضارع‬
(accusative)
(Nominative)
Subjunctive
Objective
Subjective
Indicative
Genitive
Jussive
‫النصب‬
‫النصب‬
‫الجزم‬
‫الرفع‬
‫الرفع‬
‫الجر‬

1.8 Class and System
Words which can fill a certain place in a sentence are said to belong to the same class.
The boy went home.
The merchant  walked  quickly

Ali  travelled  slowly
He  go  to school
She  left  in sorrow
Noun / Verb / Adverbial

Noun Phrase Verb Phrase Class
Class Class

 A system is a choice the speaker / writer of a language must make
between two or more terms at the level of a clause, a phrase, etc.
 In English and Arabic there is a system of number.
Arabic Number
English number System
System
Singular
Singular
Plural
Plural
Dual

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Prepared by: Assist. Lecturer

1.1What is Contrastive Grammar?

PREPARED BY: ASSIST. LECTURER: AHMED F. MAJEED 2

Contrastive Grammar aims at pointing out similarities

PREPARED BY: ASSIST. LECTURER: AHMED F. MAJEED 3

While, applied contrastive has pedagogical objective; it

PREPARED BY: ASSIST. LECTURER: AHMED F. MAJEED 4

By using Three main Stages which are as follow:

PREPARED BY: ASSIST. LECTURER: AHMED F. MAJEED 5

“‫ ”قد‬and “Perhaps” may be compared. It is possible to state that “‫ ”قد‬is

Both Semantic and Syntactic bases are used in contrastive analysis.

PREPARED BY: ASSIST. LECTURER: AHMED F. MAJEED 6

PREPARED BY: ASSIST. LECTURER: AHMED F. MAJEED 7

PREPARED BY: ASSIST. LECTURER: AHMED F. MAJEED 8

PREPARED BY: ASSIST. LECTURER: AHMED F. MAJEED 9

PREPARED BY: ASSIST. LECTURER: AHMED F. MAJEED 10

PREPARED BY: ASSIST. LECTURER: AHMED F. MAJEED 11

Like dependent, or subordinate, clauses, relative clauses cannot

PREPARED BY: ASSIST. LECTURER: AHMED F. MAJEED 12

Never separate a noun clause from the main clause with

PREPARED BY: ASSIST. LECTURER: AHMED F. MAJEED 13

2. If/Whether clauses: It begins with (if or whether).

3. WH-Question clauses: It begins with a question word e.g. where,

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3. ADJECTIVE PHRASE Very noisy Adj. NOISY

4. ADVERB PHRASE Too quickly Adv. QUICKLY

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Inflectional morphemes modify a verb's tense, aspect, mood, person,

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Allomorphs are variants of a morpheme that differ

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Generally, these types of morphemes have no visible

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A sentence is made up of two parts:

 The subject of a sentence tells WHO or WHAT the

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 The simple subject includes the single main word (noun or

Traditional Arab grammarians term the subject “‫”المسند اليه‬

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1.The are readying. (V)

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Some Action Verbs need DIRECT OBJECTS.

Some examples: kick, give, deliver, and call.

The quarterback threw the ball.

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‫جاء الخبر اسم مفرد ( مفي ٌد)‪.‬‬

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In English grammar, a constituency is a relation between a linguistic

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