Earth and Life Science Spreading Seafloor Theory – 1960’s, Harry Huss, occurs at
divergent plate boundaries.
I. Natural Science – knowledge about the natural surroundings.
A. Physical Science – deals with the study of non-living things.
1. Mathematics – study the figures expressing quantities.
2. Chemistry – study the composition, structures, changes, and
properties of matter.
3. Physics – study the properties of matter, energy and their
interactions.
4. Earth Science - Earth science or geoscience includes all
fields of natural science related to the planet Earth. This is a
branch of science dealing with the physical, chemical, and
biological complex constitutions and synergistic linkages of
Earth's four spheres, namely biosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere, and geosphere.
a. Astronomy – study heavenly bodies or firmaments.
b. Geology – study the earth’s crust and strata
c. Meteorology – study the atmosphere and weather
d. Geography – study of earth’s surface, forms, physical
features, climate, political division
B. Biological Science – deals with the study of living things
1. Botany – study of plants
2. Zoology – study of animals
II. Applied Science – a way of producing the finding of science
to produce new things to make living easier.
A. Technology – practical application of science for modern
living.
1. Machine – devices/tools that helps human activities faster
and better.
2. Products – materials produced or made through artificial
means
3. Process – a way of doing things. Example: cultured plants,
preservation.
III. Social Science – knowledge about the way people act and
live with each other.
A. Sociology – study the origin, history, and constitution of
human society
B. Psychology – study the natures, functions, and phenomena
of human kind and behavior.
C. Archeology – study the past cultures, skeletal remains or
fossils and artifacts.
Science – is it as systematized or organized body of
knowledge. It is also characterized as mutable.
Empiricism – it is derived from the sense of experiences. (17th
and 18th century, John Locke, George Berkeley and David
Hume. This also forms theories, laws and principles → can be
tested for rejection or acceptance.
A. Theories – abstract idea. Refer to body of explanation that
either already validated or not yet validated. Explain WHY
phenomenon.
Example:
Continental drift theory – 1920’s, Alfred Wegener, continents or
land forms drifting or fitting together.
Plate Tectonic Theory – 1980’s, Alfred Wegener, Earth is
composed of inner and outer core
➔ Leads to revolutionize Earth Science → focuses on the
Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Geosphere and Biosphere.
P, N, E → atom → molecules → organelles → cells →
tissues→ organs → organ system → organism →
species →population → community → ecosystem → biomes
→ biosphere
Note; ecological niche → function of an organism in
ecosystem.
Example: scavengers → for decomposition → produce
humus.
GMO →
Science → living thing came from non-living things →
Abiogenesis.
B. Laws – statement that explains/predicts variety of
phenomenon. Embodied mathematical relationships or
equations between and among quantities under prescribed
condition/s. Answers WHAT phenomenon happens.
C. Principles – test of all knowledge, truth can be source or
judge. Knowledge that already been validated and are already
well stablished by evidences. Qualitative rather than
mathematical. HOW phenomenon happens and how it works.
Scientific Method - a method of procedure that has
characterized natural science since the 17th century,
consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and
experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of
hypotheses.
- Explicit body of knowledge→ world’s collective journal
- Implicit body of knowledge → hidden knowledge yet to be
discovered or invented.
- A core drive of a research processes.
a. Primary data – involves generation of new data focused
discovery
b. Secondary data – existing data.
Steps in Scientific method
1. Formation of the problem
2. Gathering data through observation and experimentation
3. Formulate hypothesis
4. Test your hypothesis
5. Conclusion
Hypothesis – supposition on the basis of limited evidences as
starting point for further investigation.
ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE
I. CREATION THEORY – is a theological narrative of the
beginning of the universe, earth and every created living and
non – living. Because of the Absolute Sovereign Being – GOD.
➔ CREATIO EX NIHILO – a Latin word means “creation out
of nothing”, is the doctrine that matter is not eternal but had to
be created by some divine creative act.
➔ Can be found from the first of the Bible, “Genesis”, universe
created in six days.
➔ Bible composed of 66 books, (39 – Old Testament, 27 –
New Testament)
➔ Contents: Books of the law, Historical books, Poetical
books, Prophetical books (major and minor prophets) – Old
Testament; Biographical books/Gospel, Historical books,
Doctrinal books, Prophetical books – New Testament.
II. BIG BANG THEORY – proponents were Alexander
Friedman and Georges Lamaitre (1920).
➔ Radiation – describe the condition of the universe.
A. 13.7 or 13.8 BYA
- Universe massive inflation grew.
- Continue to expand → dense soup of particles about 1 billion
oC → 1 million times hotter than the sun today.
- Universe soup is called “PHOTON BARYON FLUID” made of
Photon, Baryon and Electron.
- PHOTON → a light particle, carries energy of radiation. It
travels in the form of waves
o Short wavelength → carries high energy
o Long wavelength → carries low energy
- During this time no atom or matter formed.
- Stays in cosmic soup for a while.
B. 380,000 Years
- As the universe expand.
- Stretches the wavelength of photons
- Resulting the distribution of energy across the space
- Dispersion of energy cause to cool cosmic soup to 3000 oC –
half of the sun temperature.
- PHOTON traveling in longer wavelength is not energetic to
scatter off electron in orbit.
- Photon-baryon-fluid evaporated.
- “Let there be light and matter”. A surface of last scattering
(Universe First Light). First light of the cosmos, a snapshot of
the young universe.
- Photons can now move much longer distances long
information this time further.
C. Electron are free to orbit Baryonic nuclei forming the basic
form of life. (Very first element
formed Hydrogen then followed by Helium).
- Photon wavelength continue to stretch.
- 100 million years → matter condense to form stars
- 600 million years → home galaxy, Milky Way formed
- 8.6 billion years → sun forms, giving birth to solar system.
- Today universe is 13.7or 13.8 billion years old.
- Photons early cosmos, continue to stretch becoming
INVISIBLE low energy microwave which are nearly radio
waves.
D. 1960 – two scientist Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson in bell
labs detect radiation as NOISE in radio telescope.
- Discover COSMIC RADIATION is constant from every
direction of the sky.
- After paper publication of apparent NOISE, recognizes as
remnant Radiation observable moment in the evolution of the
universe.
- COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND (CMB) – baby
picture of the cosmos.
- Today CMB is a heat radiation from the evaporation of the
early cosmic soup
- Evidence: universe was once a hot dense fluid that has been
expanding.
➔ Additional description of events occurrence of BIG BANG:
1. Inflationary epoch (10-35 to 10-33 s) → universe expanded
from the size of an ATOMIC nucleus to 1035 meters in width.
2. Formation of the basic universe (10-6 s) → universe
continued to expand. It became distinct, possessing gravity,
strong nuclear force, weak nuclear force, and electromagnetic
force. At the first seconds, universe was made up of
fundamental particles and energy: quarks, electron, photons,
and neutrinos, among others.
3. Formation of the basic elements (3s) → Protons and
Neutrons combined to form hydrogen nuclei. Then hydrogen
nuclei began to combine in pairs to form helium nuclei. This
process is NUCLEOSYNTHESIS.
4. Radiation era (10,000 years) →most of energy in the
universe was in the form of radiation.
These included different wavelength of lights, X-rays, radio
waves, and ultraviolet rays. They formed what was called the
cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB).
5. Matter domination (300,000 years) → matter began to
dominate at the end of the radiation era. At this stage lithium
atom began to formed. Electrons joined with hydrogen and
helium nuclei to make small neutral atoms.
6. Birth of stars and galaxies (300 million years) → slightly
irregular areas of a gas cloud gravitationally attracted nearby
matter and became denser. Dense gas clouds collapsed and
eventually gained enough mass to ignite and produce light.
Huge clouds of gas could be the birthplace for dozens of stars.
Groups of stars become galaxies.
➔ Four basic forces:
1. Strong force → short-ranged (10-13 cm) attractive force
which binds the nucleus
2. Electromagnetic force → long-ranged force that binds
atoms which can either be attractive or repulsive.
3. Weak force → short-ranged force present in radioactive
decay
4. Gravitational force → weak, long-ranged, and attractive
force which binds the Solar System.
➔ Evidences of Big Bang Theory
1. Galaxies moving away – 1924, Edwin Hubble found that
stars are not uniformly distributed in space. (Red Shift)
2. Presence of CMB
3. Abundance of light elements – like helium, hydrogen, with
traces amounts of lithium and beryllium found in the
observable universe agrees with the hypotheses of the big
bang
➔ Although Big Bang theory is the acceptable model of the
origin of the universe because it can explain many observed
features of the universe, there were still unresolved problems.
III. STEADY STATE THEORY
➔ Proposed by Bondi, Gold, and Hoyle in 1948.
➔ They proposed that the universe is unchanging in time and
uniform in space.
Additional thought:
➔ Isaac Newton idea of the Universe
o Newtonian Static of Unchanging Reality – the idea of
perfections and absoluteness
o God created the COSMOS, therefore it cannot be imperfect
o The Static world/closed universe govern by the law of
classical mechanics help together by the force of gravity –
produced by the Almighty.
➔ Edwin Hubble
o Showing the idea of Red Shift
➔ Albert Einstein
o Idea of theory of special and general relativity
➔ Georges Lamaitre
o Idea of universe as cosmic egg
➔ 1940’s - famous paper published → Alpha, Beta, Gamma
paper.
o Ralph Alpher, Hans Bethe, George Gamow
o Idea of nucleosynthesis
➔ 1960’s – discovery of COSMIC MICROWAVE
BACKGROUND (CMB) Radiation.
I. ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
 In the origin of the universe, there was an era (MATTER
ERA) when stars and galaxies began to form.
 GALAXY – is defined as gravitationally bound system of
stars, stellar remnants (means properties of stars / means light
from the star), interstellar gasses and dark matter.
 Dark Matter – composed of particles that do not absorb, emit,
reflect lights. e.g. black holes.
 Milky Way – one among billion of galaxies in the observable
universe.
 Observable Universe – means the region of the universe from
Earth’s vantage point (point of view)
II. SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL
A. GEOCENTRICSM / Geocentric Model
- Proposed by an astronomer named “Eudoxus”
- 1st model of universe around 380 B.C.
- Means a series of cosmic sphere containing star, sun and
moon, all built around the Earth at is center.
- GOLDILOCKS ZONE – habitable zone
B. HELIOSCENTRISM / Heliocentric Model
- Proposed by a Polish astronomer “Nicolaus Copernicus”
- Published 1st book of heliocentric book: “De revolutionibus
orbium coelsetium”, means on the revolutions of the heavenly
bodies (1543).
 Angular momentum
- Quantity of rotation of a body, a product of its moment of
inertia and angular velocity.
- L = mvr (m=mass, v=velocity, r-radius)
 Forces in circular motion
1. CENTRIPETAL FORCE – is the component of force acting
on an object in curvilinear motion
which is directed towards the axis of rotation or centre of
curvature.
2. CENTRIFUGAL FORCE – is a pseudo force in a circular
motion which acts along the radius
and is directed away from the centre of a circle.
III. THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
A. Vortex Theory / Descartes’ Vortex Theory
- Solar System was formed into bodies with nearly circular
orbits because of the whirlpool-like motion in the pre-solar
materials.
- Explains that the orbits of the planets are the primary
whirlpool motion and the satellites the secondary whirlpool
motion.
- 1st proponent of the model, Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650), a
French Mathematician and Physicist.
B. Collision Theory / Buffon’s Collision Theory
- George Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707 – 1788), a
French Naturalist in 18th century.
- Proposed that the planets were formed by the collision of the
sun with a giant comet.
- Resulting debris formed into planets that rotate in the same
direction as they revolved around the sun.
C. Nebular Theory / Kant-Laplace Nebular Theory
- Based on the idea od Descartes, Immanuel Kant (1724 –
1804) and Pierre Simon Laplace (1749
– 1827) proposed nebular theory.
- Suggest that a great cloud of gas and dust, called NEBULA
begins to collapse because of gravitational pull. Cloud
contracted, it spun more rapidly.
- Spinning cloud flattens into pancake-shaped objects with a
bulge at the center.
- As NEBULA collapses further, local regions contract on their
own due to gravity.
- Local regions became the sun and the planets.
- Problem: is assumed that the total angular momentum of the
system was the sun, which is not the case. 0.5% of the total
angular momentum was contained in the sun’s spin. The
remainder was in the planetary orbit.  there attempts to
explain the major flaw but unsuccessful.
D. Tidal Theory / Jeans-Jeffrey ‘s Tidal Theory
- Sir James Hopwood Jeans (1877 – 1946) a British
Mathematician and Astrophysicist and Harold
Jeffreys (1891 – 1989) suggested a DUALISTIC THEORY in
which the sun and planets were produced by different
mechanism.
- Proposed that the planets were formed from the substance
that was torn out from the sun. As a speeding massive star
passed near the sun, it pulled off material due to gravitational
attractions. Torn-off materials subsequently condensed to form
the planets
E. Solar Nebular Theory
- Main concern is to solve the Nebular hypothesis about
angular momentum of the sun.
- Redistribution of the angular momentum has been central in
the development of SNT.
- Solar system was formed as a result if the condensation of
hydrogen gas and dust referred as interstellar gas and dust
cloud.
- An explosion of a star (SUPERNOVA) might have caused the
dust and cloud to collapse, forming the sun and planets.
- Gas and dust collapsed due to gravitational force. Center
compressed enough to become PROTOSTAR, leaving outer
material suspended around the center.
- Cloud continues to shrink, its rotational speed increases and
become a rapidly rotating disk.
- Contraction converts GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY into HEAT
ENERGY, causes the center to glow.
- When temperature is sufficient enough, NUCLEAR reaction
begins at the core of the protostar, later become SUN.
- Remaining gas and dust cloud form disk-shaped bodies (due
to rotation) called SOLAR NEBULAE
- Solar Nebular Theory involves different stages:
1. Accretion of grain-sized particles to form centimeter-sized
particles which would later grow to several kilometers in
diameter. Objects formed are called PLANETESIMALS.
2. Involves the formation of more massive objects from
coalescing planetesimals. Massive objects are referred to as
PROTOPLANETS. Later become planets.
- After Solar System formed, it was speculated that after 1
million years, it generated very strong solar wind
- Swept away all of gases left in the protoplanetary nebulae. As
the protoplanet become larges enough, its gravity pulled in the
nebular gas  then form GAS GIANTS
- Solar System is composed of only solid, protoplanetary
bodies and gas giants. Eventually after millions of years, Solar
System ended up with planets that had stable orbits.
 Other terminology
- PERIHELION – is the point of the Earth's orbit that is nearest
to the Sun.
- APHELION – is the point of the Earth's orbit that is farthest
away from the Sun.
- PERIGEE – the point in the orbit of an object (such as a
satellite) orbiting the earth that is nearest to the center of the
earth.
- APOGEE – the point at which the Moon is farthest from Earth
each month.
IV. SOLAR SYSTEM
 the collection of eight planets and their moons in orbit around
the sun, together with smaller bodies in the form of asteroids,
meteoroids, and comets. The planets of the solar system are
(in order of distance from the sun) Mercury, Venus, Earth,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune
 HELIOSPHERE – the region of space, encompassing the
solar system, in which the solar wind has a significant
influence
A. SUN – he Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System.
It is a nearly perfect ball of hot plasma, heated to
incandescence by nuclear fusion reactions in its core, radiating
the energy mainly as light, ultraviolet, and infrared radiation. It
is the most important source of energy for life on Earth.
B. INNER PLANETS / TERRESTRIAL PLANETS
o Composed mostly dense, rocky and metallic materials.
1. MERCURY
2. VENUS
3. EARTH
4. MARS
C. ASTEROID BELT – located between Mars and Jupiter.
Thoughts of as remnants of the earlystage of solar system
formation. Never formed planets because of Jupiter’s high
gravitational force.
o ASTEROIDS – made up of rocks and sometimes refers as
minor planets. Its atmosphere-free and orbit around the sun
o CERES- known asteroid
o METEOROIDS – is a small rocky or metallic body in outer
space. significantly smaller than asteroids.
o METEOR – meteoroids enter Earth's atmosphere (or that of
another planet, like Mars) at high speed and burn up, the
fireballs or “shooting stars”
o METEORITES – meteoroid survives a trip through the
atmosphere and hits the ground
D. OUTER PLANET / GAS GIANT PLANETS / JOVIAN
PLANETS
o Made up mostly of hydrogen and helium.
1. JUPITER
2. SATURN
3. URANUS
4. NEPTUPE
 DWARF PLANET – a celestial body that -orbits the sun, has
enough mass to assume a nearly round shape, has not
cleared the neighborhood around its orbit and is not a moon
o Example are Pluto, Eris, Ceres, MakeMake.
 FROST LINE – is the distance of Solar Nebula from the
protostar.
o As the radius of the protostar increases, temperature
decreases
o WARM REGION – terrestrial planets are formed
 Lights elements remains gaseous with high temperatures
 Metals and rocks condense with high temperature
o COOL REGION – gas giants or Jovian planets are formed
 Light elements condense into ice with low temperature
o Rocky particles and icy particles undergo the process of
ACCRETION forms terrestrials and Jovian planets
o ACCRETION – is the process in which solids agglomerate to
form larger and larger objects and eventually planets are
produced.
 KUIPER BELT – located beyond Neptune, is a reservoir of
short period comet like HALLEY’S COMET  orbits the Sun
less than 200 years.
o Outer most region of the Solar System
o COMETS – composed mainly ice (frozen water and gas) and
nonvolatile dust (silicate minerals and carbon grains). Become
active when its orbit near Sun.
o SUN’S HEAT SUBLIMATE frozen gases, forming jet of
streams.
o VAPOR JETS create a spectacular tail streaming out of the
Sun.
 HYDROGEN WALL – is the outer boundary of our home
system, the place where our sun's bubble of solar wind ends
and where a mass of interstellar matter too small to bust
through that wind builds up, pressing inward
 TERMINAL SHOCK – the boundary marking one of the outer
limits of the Sun's influence, and is one boundary of the solar
system. It is where the bubble of solar wind particles slows
down so that the particles are traveling slower than the speed
of sound
 HELIOPAUSE – boundary between solar wind and interstellar
wind.
o where the pressure of the two winds is in balance. This
balance in pressure causes the solar wind to turn back and
flow down the tail of the heliosphere
 INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM – region between the stars that
contains vast, diffuse clouds of gases and minute solid
particles. Such tenuous matter in the interstellar medium of the
Milky Way system, in which the Earth is located, accounts for
about 5 percent of the Galaxy's total mass.
 OORT CLOUD – located farther than Kuiper belt, remained
unexplored.
o Long period comets have orbits 200 years up to millions of
years
o TRANS – NEPTUNIAN OBJECTS (TNOs) – Objects orbiting
beyond Neptune.

SUBLIMATION
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
ATMOSPHERE -- PROTECTION