Sl.

Temperature
Damage Mechanism Damage / Effect Due To Critical Factors Other Factors Affected Materials Affected Unit Appearance Mitigation Insepction & Monitoring
No. Deg F
Loss in toughness in Ferrite phase 600 - 1000.
Damage is cumulative.
alloys.
Fractionator trays & internals in FCC,
1. Alloy composition (Low Cr Rapid at 885. Bend test, Impact test of
885 embrittlement can be reversed (de-embrittled) 400 SS Crude, Coker & Vacuum units. Low ferrite or non-ferrite alloys.
885 Embrittlement Dramatic upward shift in Ductile-to-Brittle Content). samples removed from
Metallurgical change due to exposure to by heat treatment at 1100 followed by rapid cooling.
1 transition temp. 2. Increased amount of ferrite Occurs over a long time above Not apparent. service.
temp range. But it is not practical for many equipments. If de- Duplex SS like Alloy Failure occurs when welding or Avoid exposing susceptible material to
phase or below 885.
embrittled component is exposed to same service 2203, 2304, 2507. straightening Vacuum tower trays of 409 embrittling temp range.
Embrittled equipment may be susceptible 3. High operating temp Increase in hardness.
condition, it will re-embrittle faster than it did SS & 410 SS.
to cracking during shutdown & startup Occurs over a thousand of
initially.
when metal temp is below 200. hours below 600.
Lean amine is not corrosive because of low
conductivity, high ph & protective iron sulfide film
due to small amount of H2S. But accumulation of
HSAS above 2% significantly increases corrosion.
1. Operating practices
Also overstripped lean Amine is corrosive if there is
2. Type of amine Amines unit for removal of H2S, CO2,
Corrosion is not caused by Amine itself oinadequate H2S to maintain protective iron sulfide
General or local corrosion in Amine 3. Amine concentration Severe local corrosion above Mercaptan from process streams in
but results from dissolved acid gases film. Proper operation.
Amine Corrosion treating process. 4. Contaminants 220 Crude, Coker, FCC, Hydrogen reforming,
2 (CO2, H2S), amine degradation products, CS VT, UT, Corrosion coupon.
5. High temp (because of acid gas flashing & Hydroprocess & Tail gas units.
heat stable amine salts (HSAS) & other Corrosion is high in rich Amine. 300 SS
Primarily in CS. 6. High velocity (limited to two phase flow)
contaminants.
3-6 fps for rich amine & Regenerator & Regenerator reboiler.
Corrosion rate is most to least in following type of
20 fps for lean amine).
Amines : MEA, DGA, DIPA, DEA, MDEA.

Severe localized corrosion in case of two phase

flow.

A form of Alkaline SCC. Cracking is more in MEA & DEA services but also
Combined action of tensile stress & 1. High tensile stress occurs in DIPA & MDEA. PWHT all CS welds as per API RP 945.
Amine SCC CS Alkanolamine systems are used to remove Intergranular branching cracks
3 Surface breaking cracks at or adjacent corrosion in aqueous alkanolamine 2. High Amine concentration WFMT, ACFM
LAS H2S or CO2 from HCBN streams. filled with oxide initiate on ID.
to non-PWHT CS welds or highly cold system. 3. High temp. Cracking occurs often in lean amine service. Pure Use clad SS or Alloy 400.
worked parts in lean amine service. alkanolamine does not cause cracking.

PWHT.

Cu alloys - Alloy composition Weld hardness should not exceed 225

Cu alloys - Cracks with bluish
(High Zn content above 15%), BHN. Monitoring pH.
Cu alloys: Surface breaking cracks in Cu alloys in aqeous corrosion products.
residual stress, pH above 8.5,
aqeous ammonia. ammonia. Transgranular or Intergranular
Ammonia SCC O2. Cu alloys - Zn content below 15%. EC of heat exchanger
4 Cu-Zn alloy heat exchanger tubes. depending upon environment &
tubes.
CS: Cracks at non-PWHT welds in CS in anhydrous stresss.
CS - low water <0.2% in CS - addition of water >0.2% to ammonia,
anhydrous ammonia. ammonia.
ammonia, residual stress, Non- WFMT.
CS - Intergranular.
PWHT, O2. Use of LS steel <70 KSI.
90-10CuNi, 70-30CuNi, 300 SS, Ni alloys
are immune.

NH4HS concentration:
below 2% - not corrosive,
1. High NH4HS concentration Design proper velocity for NH4HS
above 2% - corrosive
Ammonium Bisulfide General or local corrosion in N2 in process is converted into Ammonia 2. H2S partial pressure concentration above 2%.
above 8% - highy corrosive CS Hydroprocessing reactor,
(NH4HS) Corrosion Hydroprocessing reactor effluent & reacts with H2S to form NH4HS. Below 3. High velocity or turbulence
5 NH4HS precipitaes below 150 Brass FCC reactor, UT, Profile RT.
(Alkaline Sour Water) system & units handling alkaline sour 150, NH4HS precipitaes out of gas phase 4. pH Maintain velocity 10-20.
O2 & Iron in wash water lead to high corrosion. Cu alloys Coker furnace.
water. & cause fouling & plugging. 5. High temp
6. Alloy composition 300 SS, Duplex SS, Al alloys, Ni alloys.
Presence of Cyanides destroy protective sulfide
film.
Corrosion under Ammonium Chloride or
Amine salt deposits in absence of free
water phase. Ammonium chloride salts are hygroscopic & readily
1. Concentration (NH3, HCl, Crude tower overhead,
Ammonium Chloride absorb water.
amine salt) Hydroprocessing reactor effluent system, Salts have whitish, greenish Wash water to flush salt deposits.
6 Corrosion General or local corrosion or pitting. When high temp streams containing NH3 All materials RT, UT.
2. Temp Catalytic reformer reactor, or brownish appearance.
& HCl get cooled, Ammonium Chloride Small amount of water can lead to severe corrosion
3. Water availability FCCU & Coker fractionator overheads. Limit chlorides in process.
salt are formed which corrodes of >100mpy
equipment at temp above water dewpoint
(>300).
Organic compounds present in some Proper design to reduce stress
They may also result from additives used
Aqueous Organic crude oils decompose in the crude CS concentration.
7 in upstream UT, MT.
Acid Corrosion furnace to form low molecular weight LAS
operations or desalting
organic acids that are soluble in water Proper operation.

1. Physical location Marine or moist atmosphere. Corrosion rate:

Atmospheric 2. Moisture CS Marine: 20 mpy
Chlorides, H2S, Fly ash & air borne contaminants
8 Corrosion General or local corrosion. Moisture associated with atmospere. 3. High temp Upto 250 LAS Poorly coated items. Industrial: 4-10 mpy Suface preparation & coatings. VT, UT.
from cooling tower drift & furnace stack.
4. Presence of salts, S Cu alloyed Al Inland: 1-3 mpy
compounds & dirt Bird turds accelerate corrosion. Rural: <1 mpy.

External treatment system, deaerating

1. Concentration of dissolved
Boiler Water CS equipment, feed water lines, pumps, O2 corrosion - pitting. Laying down & continuously maintaining
Dissloved gases like O2 & CO2 lead to O2 gases (O2, CO2) WFMT during shutdown.
Condensate General corrosion & Pitting in Boiler & LAS economizers condensate return system. protective layer of Fe3O4 (magnetite).
9 pitting corrosion & Carbonic acid 2. Low pH
Corrosion Condensate return piping. 300 SS CO2 corrosion - smooth
corrosion. 3. High temp Water analysis.
Cu alloys Steam generation grooving O2 scavenging treatment.
4. Quality of feedwater
system on both water & fire sides.
Minimize localized temperature excursions &
hot spots.
Visual.
10
Proper burner management.
IR monitoring.
Proper maintenance og refractory.
 Using materials designed for low temp.
Defects in weld.
Straight, Non-branching, Controlling operating condition (Temp & No particular inspection.
Equipment manufactured to ASME Sec VIII
High thickness. Largely devoid of any Press).
CS Div-1 prior to Dec 1987.
Sudden rapid fracture. 1. Low toughness associated plastic Periodic inspection at
Low temp below Charpy LAS
Brittle Fracture 2. Flaw size, shape, stress Steel cleanliness & Grain size. deformation. Minimize press at ambient temp during high stress locations.
11 impact transition temp (Ductile- Particularly Older Steels Autorefrigeration events in light HCBN
Little or no evidence of ductility of concentration shutdown & startup.
to-Brittle transition temp) (methane, ethylene, propylene, butane)
plastic deformation. 3. High stress on flaws During shutdown & startup. Cleavage with limited Inspection of susceptible
400 SS processing units (alkylation plant, olefin
intergranular cracking & very PWHT. vessels for pre-existing
plant, polymer plant).
During hydrotest due to high stress & low toughness at little microvoid coelescence. flaws.
testing temp. Warm pre-stress hydrotest followed by
low temp hydrotest.

Parallel to weld in HAZ or

1. Residual stress level adjacent base metal within 2"
Can occur at relatively low level of residual PWHT of 1200 - 1225 as per WRC 458
A form of Alkaline SCC. Combined action of tensile stress & 2. Water chemistry of weld. Monitoring pH, Carbonate
Carbonate SCC stresses. (Ref 8),
corrosion in systems containing water (pH 8-10, CS level.
12 (Alkaline SCC)
Surface breaking cracks adjacent to non- phase with Carbonate & some amount of Carbonate, LAS Spider web of small crack.
Usually occurs at welds or cold worked areas that Barrier coating, Cladding, 300 SS or Alloy
PWHT welds. H2S. H2S, WFMT, ACFM.
are not stress erlieved. 400, Inhibitor.
Cyanide, Ammonia). Mistaken for SOHIC or SSC,
however CSCC is further
Hardness test.
High gas phase carbon activity (HCBN, Coke, CO, CO2,
Methane, Ethane). CS
1. Exposure to carburizing Metallography.
Substantial increase in hardness & LAS Alloys with strong surface oxide or
Absorption of Carbon into a material at environment or carbonazeous
loss in ductility. Low O2 potential. 300 SS sulfide film formers (Si, Al).
Carburization high temp when in contact with material Fired heater tubes particularly during Destructive sampling.
13 Above 1100. 400 SS
carbonazeous material or carburizing 2. High temp decoking cycles.
Increase in level of Ferromagnetism in Significant carburization occurs during Decoking Ni alloys with Reduce carbon activity through low temp &
environment. 3. Alloy composition (Low Cr & Carburized layers are
some alloys. cycles where temp exceed operating temp. significant iron content high O2 / Sulfur partial pressures.
Low Ni content) ferromagnetic. 300 SS
(Alloy 600 & 800)
should be checked for
Sulfur inhibits Carburization.
magnetism.

Concentration of caustic or alkaline salt In CS, general corrosion CS

Caustic Corrosion Caustic is added to process streams for Proper design.
14 Local corrosion. under evaporative or high heat transfer Presence of NaOH, KOH. above 175 & very high LAS Boilers, steam generating equipment UT, RT.
neutralization. Water flooding.
condition. corrosion above 200 300 SS

Equipment should be water washed

before steam out.
WFMT, EC, RT, ACFM.
1. High Caustic strength (50-
Caustic SCC A form of Alkaline SCC. Parallel to weld in weldment
100 ppm) CS Equipment handling caustic including Avoid steam out in non-PWHT caustic
(Caustic Steam out of non-PWHT caustic lines & equipments or HAZ or adjacent base. PT cannot find tight
15 Exposure to Caustic. 2. High temp LAS H2S & Mercaptan removal unit & H2SO4, lines & equipments.
Embrittlement) Surface initiated cracks adjacent to in caustic service. crack.
3. Stress level approaching 300 SS HF alkylation units.
non-PWHT welds. Spider web of small cracks.
yield PWHT at 1150.
RT cannot find fine crack.
Ni alloys.

Copper
Sharp-edged pitting.
Brass Pump casing, impeller, piping at d/s of
1. Inadequate Net Positive NPSH available is the diffecernce between actual
CI control valve orifice.
Suction Head (NPSH) presure or head of liquid & vapor pressure of liquid. Gouged appearance in rotary
Cavitation Formation & instantaneous collapse of CS Avoiding conditions that allow absolute
16 A form of erosion. parts. Visual
innumerable tiny vapor bubbles. LAS Restricted flow or areas where turbulent pressure to fall below vapor pressure.
2. Temp approaching the NPSH required is the head required to prevent
300 SS flow is subjected to rapid pressure
boiling point cavitation at given flow rate. Sound like pebbles are being
400 SS change within a localized region.
thrashed inside.
Ni alloys

Low chloride for hydrotest.

1. High Chloride level
2. pH
3. High temp
Chloride SCC Combined action of tensile stress, temp &
17 Surface breaking cracks. 4. High tensile stress
acqueous Chloride environment.
5. Presence of O2.
6. Alloy composition (Ni 8-10
%)
Presence of dissloved O2 increases cracking
tendency. CS, LAS, 400 SS are not susceptible.
Multiple branched,
300 SS in chloride environment.
There is no particular safe limit for Chloride. Transgranular. Alloy with Ni above 45% is immune.
Above 140 300 SS PT, EC.
CUI.
Lower pH - general corrosion. Craze-crack apparearance. Alloy with Ni above 35%
Above Ph 2 - SCC is highly resistant.
Alkaline pH region - SCC tendency decreases.
Duplex SS are highly resistant.

300 SS is highly resistant. Other SS are

also resistant.
1. Partial pressure of CO2
C02 Corrosion CO2 dissolves in water to form Carbonic Increasing Cr content in steel offers no major Corrosion as high as 1000
18 Local or pitting corrosion 2. Low Ph CS LAS VT, UT, RT.
acid. resistance until a minimum of 12% is reached. mpy. Corrosion inhibitor.
3. High temp.
Increasing pH above 6.
Nitride layers are
magnetic. 300 SS should
be checked for
magnetism.

19 Alloys with 30-80% Ni. VT for dull, dark gray

apearance.

Hardness test.

Metallography.
 Velocity should be high enough to
minimize fouling.
Low velocity below 3 fps result in fouling &
increased corrosion.
Velocity depends on
General corrosion, local pitting Scaling potential:
1. Fluid temp CS tube material & water quality.
corrosion, MIC & Fouling. If cooling water is used in shell side rather than the
2. Type of water (fresh or salt) SS
Cooling Water preferred tube side, corrosion can be accelerated Fresh water -process temp
Dissolved salts, gases, organic 3. Type of cooling system (open Cu Water cooled Exchanger & Cooling Grooving along weld fusion Design prcocess side inlet temp below Cooling water monitoring,
20 Corrosion Weld or HAZ corrosion in ERW CS. due to dead spots & staagnant areas. above 140.
compounds or MIC or closed system) Al tower lines at ERW weld areas. 140. Flow meters.
4. High O2 content Ti
SCC or Pitting or Crevice corrosion in Increasing process side inlet temp or cooling water Brackish or salt water outlet
5. Low velocity Ni alloys Cooling water should be used on tube
300 SS. outlet temp increases corrosion. temp above 115.
side to minimize stagnation.
Salt or brackish water is highly corrosive.
Proper design, operation & chemical
treatment.

Corrosion accelerate cracking rate by thinning.

A form of fatigue cracking. 1. Material Rotating equipment (crack initiate from Proper design to reduce stress
Corrosion promotes failure at lower stress & lower
Corrosion Fatigue Combined effect of cyclic loading & 2. Corrosive environment pitting in shaft) concentration.
21 number of cycles than pure mechanical fatigue. All materials "Rabbit ear" appearance. UT, MT.
Crack initiate at stress concentration corrosion 3. Cyclic stersses De-aerator
such as surface pits. 4. Stress raisers Cycling boilers Proper operation.
No fatigue limit load (contrary to mechanical
fatigue).

Corrosion near damaged insulaton,

Warm & Marine locations are more prone than
vapor barrier, weatherproofing or
cooler, drier, mid-continent locations.
protrusions through insulation or
termination ponts at insulation like
Environments with airborne contaminants like Proper Coating & Painting.
flanges.
Chlorides & SO2 CS, LAS: 10-350 Pitting or local corrosion in VT by stripping the
Corrosion Under CS
Pitting or local corrosion in CS & LAS. 1. Design & type of insulation. CS & LAS. Proper maintenanace of insulation / insulation.
Insulation Water trapped under insulation or LAS Corrosion near insulation support rings,
22 2. High temp. Contaminant in insulation like Chlorides may leach out SS: 140-400 vapor barriers to prevent moisture
(CUI) fireproofing. 300 SS ladder & platform clips, lifting lugs,
SCC in 300 SS if Chloride is present. 3. Environment. and aggravate corrosion. SCC in 300 SS if Chloride is ingress. UT, Real time profile RT,
Duplex SS nozzles, dead legs, vents, drains,
Severe: 212-350 present. IR.
hangers & supports.
Equipments that operate below water dew point. Low Chloride vinsulation for 300 SS.
CUI occurs even on piping & equipment
Equipments in cyclic thermal operation or intermittent
with good insulation & no visual sign of
service.
corrosion.

Low creep ductility occurs at lower temp in creep Low creep ductility is not Combination of UT, RT,
range or low stresses in upper temp creep range. apparent. Mimimize metal temp.
EC,
Furnace tubes, supports, hangers,
dimensional
Thresold temp: internals, hot wall reactors. Avoid stress concentrators.
Creep damage and creep cracking occurs above Creep damage starts with measurements, replication.
thresold temps. creep voids at grain
Slow & continuous deformation 1. Material property (High CS - 700 All materials Catalytic reformer - reactors, furnace tubes. Alloys with improved creep resistance.
Creep & Stress boundaries at initial stage. Focus on weld of CrMo
At high temp under load below yield strength, Coarse grain) LAS - 800 H2 reforming unit- furnace tubes.
23 Rupture Increase of temp of 25 or increase of 15% stress Fissures & cracks occur at alloy pressure vessels
Time dependant deformation of stress. 2. High load or stress 12Cr - 900 Low Creep Ductility: FCC - main fractionator, regenerator Higher PWHT of 1¼Cr-0.5Mo.
can reduce remaining life to half or more. later stage. operating in creep range.
stressed components. 3. High temp 304 SS - 950 1Cr-0.5Mo 1¼Cr-0.5Mo internals.
Other 300 SS - 1000 Minimize hot spots & localized overheating.
Cracking occurs where high temp and stress At temp above thresold Fired heater tubes - VT for
Alloy 800 - 1050 DMW (due to differential thermal
concentrations occur together. limits, deformation (like bulging, blistering, sagging.
expansion stresses). Minimize process side fouling, fire side
bulging) occurs. Deformation deposits / scaling. Dimensional measurement
Creep cracks, once initiated, can progress rapidly. eventually lead to rupture. for diametric growth.

Selective corrosion mechanism. Colour change or deep etched

One or more elements of an alloy is
Dealloying attacked leaving a low density
24
(dealloyed) often porous structure.
Sudden unexpected failure due to
degraded mechanical properties.
Softening, loss of tensile strength &
creep strength.
Decarburization Removal of Carbon & Carbides from
25
CS & LAS leaving an iron matrix.
Decarburization is associated with
HTHA in H2 service.
1. Alloy composition
2. Exposure condition & temp
3. Degree of aeration
4. pH
5. Exposure time
1. Time
Exposure to high temp, during heat
2. High temp
treatment, from exposures to fire.
3. Low carbon activity.
appearance.
UG CI piping exposed to soil. Add Tin to Cu alloys.
Zn removed from Brass. Cu alloys VT for colour change.
Dealloyed Brass is in reddish
Iron removed for CI. Alloy 400 Brass & Al brass heat exchanger tubes Add Phophorus, Antimony, Arsenic to Brass.
copper colour instead of
Ni removed from CuNi & Monel. CI & tubesheets in brackish & sea water Metallography.
yellow brass colour.
applications. Heat treatment of Al Brass.
Charcoal gray color in GI.
Softness.
Alloy steels with Cr & Mo. Replication.
In gas phase operating conditions with low carbon
CS Fired heater tubes, Hot formed pressure
activity, carbon from metal diffuse to the metal surface Decarbirized layer will be free
LAS vessel parts. Selection of steels for high temp H2 Hardness test to confirm
and react with gas phase constituents. of Carbide phase. CS will be
environment as per API RP 941. softness.
pure Pig iron.

Nickel base filler material have coefficient

High stresses on weld when 300 SS filler materials of therfmal expansion closer to CS &
are used. LAS.
Above 510:
Locate DMW in low temp region if 300 SS 100% PT after buttering
Diffecernce in co-efficient of thermal 1. Filler material DMW joints generate
DMW results in narrow region of high hardness at filler material is used. 100% UT on buttered layer
Dissimilar Metal Cracking in ferritic material of DMW expansion between ferritic & austenitic 2. Heating & cooling rate significant thermal expansion Ferritic
toe of the weld near fusion line in ferritic side & Buttering ferritic side with SS or Ni alloy & after PWHT.
Welding (DMW) by 25-30%. 3. High metal temp / thermal fatigue stresses. (CS or LAS) welded with All dissimilar welds between ferritic and
26 susceptible to SSC & HSC. do PWHT prior to completing DMW to 100% RT.
Cracking Cracks at Toe of weld in HAZ of ferritic 4. Exposure time Austenitic austenitic materials.
minimize hardness & environmental
material. Crack can result from creep damage, 5. Poor weld geometry 800 - 950: Diffusion of carbon (300 SS)
H2 environment can create H2 disbonding. cracking. RT, UT shear wave for
fatigue, SSC or hydrogen disbonding. 6. Thermal cycling out of HAZ of ferritic material
On buttered joint, thk of weld metal should DMW in fired heater tubes.
and into weld metal.
SS has higher coefficient of thermal expansion than CS, be min 0.25" after machining bevel.
LAS, Ni alloys. Install "Pup piece" that has intermediate
thermal expansion co-efficient.
 Corrosion resistant alloys.
1. High velocity
Accelerated mechanical removal of Erosion:
2. Concentration of impacting Localized loss in thickness
surface material. Relative movement between, or impact Change in shape, geometry. Visual.
medium Bend, Tee, Pump, Blower, Impeller, Turbine in the form of pits, grooves,
Erosion (Abrasive from solids, liquids, vapors or any
3. Size, shape, density & high Two phase flow icreases corrosion. blade, Agitator, Exchanger tubes, Orifizes, gullies, waves, rounded holes
Wear) & Removal of protective films or scales & combination. Increasing substrate hardness using Corrosion coupon.
27 hardness of impacting All materials Nozzles, Wear plates. & valleys.
Erosion-Corrosion exposing metal surface for further harder alloys, hard facing or surface
particles Softer alloys such as Cu, Al easily worn out.
corrosion. Erosion Corrosion; hardening treatments. IR scan for refractory
4. Low hardness & corrosion Piping at downstream of valves. The losses exhibit directional
Corrosion contribute to erosion by erosion.
resistance of material pattern.
Localized loss in thickness. removing protective layers. Impingement plates & tube ferrules in
5. Angle of impact
heat exchangers.

Avoiding conditions that allow absolute

28 Visual
pressure to fall below vapor pressure.
Maintain metallic surface temp at back
end of Boiler & fired heaters at above
Economizer section and stack of fired
S & Cl in fuels form SO2, SO3, HCl2 CS, LAS - General corrosion H2SO4 dewpoint temp.
CS, LAS - General corrosion with broad & heaters & boilers that burn fuels containing
Flue Gas Dew Point during combustion. At low operating 1. Concentration of HCl dewpoint depends concentration of HCl2. HCl acid dewpoint - 130. CS with broad & shallow pits. UTG
shallow pits. S.
29 Corrosion temp, these gases & water vapor in flue contaminants (S & Cl2) in fuel LAS Sodium Carbonate shall be added to final
gas condense to form Sulfurous acid, 2. Low operating temp H2SO4 dewpoint depends on concentration of SO3. H2SO4 dewpoint - 280. 300 SS 300 SS -SCC with surface rinse to neutralize asid constituents in oil VT, PT.
300 SS -Surface breaking SCC. SS Heat recovery steam generators
H2SO4, HCl. breaking & craze appearance. fired boilers.
(HRSG) suffer CL SCC.

Avoid use of 300 SS in Cl environment.

50Cr-50Ni alloy like Alloy 667.

Fired heaters, Gas turbines using fuels with Blending or changing fuels.
Unburned coal particles add Carbon to fly ash deposits Melting point of liquid species Hard, glassy, tenacious scale.
At high temp, contaminants in fuel melts 1. Concentration of molten salt contaminants.
and produce reducing environment on tube surface (slag) in Water wall corrosion:
Fuel Ash Corrosion & deposits on metal surfaces as molten forming contaminants Proper burner management.
where corrosion occurs & Carburization of tube 700 When scales are removed,
(Molten Salt Severe metal loss of 100 to 1000 mpy salts (slag). These molten salts dissolve (Vanadium, Sodium, S, Heater tube hangers, supports.
30 surfaceoccurs, especially on 300 SS. All materials steel surface has "Alligator- VT
Corrosion) associated with slagging. the surface oxide and enhance transport Potassium, ) in fuel Firing with low O2 or by injecting additives
Oil ash: 1000 hide" appearance as shallow
of O2 to the surface to re-form iron oxide 2. High metal temp Heater tubes are not affected because their into fuel to increase melting point of slags &
Corrosion rate under reducing conditions is 2 to 5 times grooves penetrated steel in a
and thus corroding the metal. 3. Alloy composition. skin temp are cooler than melting point of reduce tendency of metal deposits to stick to
faster than in oxidising conditions. Coal ash: 1030 - 1130 Cross-hatched pattern.
slags. metal surface.

Reducing operation temp.

Due to surface films & or local environment, same Proper design.
Corrosion at the junction of dissimilar
alloy can act as both anode & cathode.
metals joined together in an electrolyte
1. Two different materials in Coating of more noble material.
like moist or aqueous environment, or General loss in thickness or
Galvanic Corrosion contact Corrosion rate in anode is more if there is small
31 soil containing moisture. All materials crevice, groove or pitting of VT, UT.
2. Electrolyte anode to cathode ratio. If more active material is coated,
more active material.
3. Electrical connection breaking in coating will create a large
General loss in thickness or crevice,
In Galvanized steel, anode to cathode relationship anode to cathode ratio & corrosion rate
groove or pitting of more active material.
reverses at water temp above 150. of active material will be more.
Special backfill

Proper coating Measuring structure to

32
Dealloying of iron matrix from Gray CI,
Graphitic Corrosion leaving porous Graphite.
33
Loss of strength, ductility & strength.
Loss in strength, creep resistance &
ductility.
Random Graphitization - Loss in
Graphitization strength. No loss in creep resistance.
34
Concentrated Graphitization - Loss in
creep rupture strength, loss in load
bearing capability & increase in potential
for brittle fracture.
soil potential.
CP to be performed & monitored as per
NACE RP 0169.
1. Alloy composition Charcoal gray color.
White CI is not affected because there is no free Primarily Gray CI
2. Exposure condition & temp BFW piping, pumps, valves.
Stagnant condition, contact with soil, contact graphite.
3. Degree of aeration Below 200 Damaged area is soft and can Coating, Cement lining, CP. UT
with soft water, mine water, dilute acids. Also Nodular &
4. Low pH UG CI piping particularly fire water piping. be gouged with knife or hand
Graphite is cathodic to iron matrix. Mallaeable CI
5. Exposure time tool.
Weld HAZ graphization is found in narrow band Not apparent.
Change in microstructure after long term corresponding to low temp edge of HAZ. In multipass
operation in temp range. weld butt joint, HAZ overlap each other, covering the Observed only by
entire cross section. Graphite nodules form at low temp metallographic exams. Metallography of full
Graphitization is the decomposition of edge of HAZ, resulting in a band of weak graphite thickness samples.
1. Chemistry
Carbide phases into Graphite Nodules at across the section. Advanced stages related to
2. High stress CS Hot wall piping & equipment in
elevated temp. loss in creep strength shows Field replica
3. High temp 800 - 1100. FCC LAS containing Cr (above 0.7%).
Non-weld graphitization is occurs locally along planes micrifissuring / microvoid metallography is
4. Time of exposure. C-0.5Mo LAS Catalytic reforming Coker
Random Graphitization - graphite nodules of localized yielding. Also occurs in chain like manner in formation, surface / subsurface inadequate because
are distributed randomly. regions of plastic deformation due to cold working or cracking or creep deformation damage may occur
bending. that is difficult to detect. midwall.
Concentrated Graphitization - chain or
local planes of graphite nodules. Bainitic grades are less susceptible than coarse pearlite Because of its appearance,
grades. Weld HAZ graphization is

High temp sulfidation corrosion rate in presence of Downstream of H2 injecton points.

H2 is greater than that in absence of H2.
High temp Sulfidic corrosion in presence 1. High temp
Hydroprocessing units like Desulfurizers,
High temp H2/H2S of H2 environment. 2. Presence of H2 High Cr (7-9 %) alloy.
Presence of H2 in H2S containing HCBN Corrosion increases with increase in temp and H2S CS LAS Hydrotreaters Hydrocracker units. Iron sulfide scale is 5 times the
35 Corrosion 3. High concentration of H2S Above 500 VT, UT, RT.
stream at high temp. content. 400 SS volume of lost metal.
Uniform corrosion accompanied by 4. Alloy composition 300 SS.
Corrosion rate is higher in gas oil
formation of iron sulfide scale. (Low Cr)
Susceptibility is determined by chemical desulfurizers & hydrocrackers than in
composition of alloy. naphtha desulfurizers by a factor of 2.

Normal practice is to use temp safety

factor of 20 to 50 when using API RP 941
curves. Damage is random &
Loss in strength.
H2 reacts with Carbides in steel to form Decarburization, Blistering. difficult to monitor.
1. High temp Hydroprocessing - hydrotreater,
Methane. Crack & Fissuring. 0.5 Mo steels are not recommended for
High Temperature Damage occurs randomly in weld or 2. H2 partial pressure hydrocracker,
Loss of Carbide causes loss in strength. CS new construction in hot H2 service and UT using combination of
36 Hydrogen attack HAZ or base metal. 3. Time (exposure time is Catalytic reformer,
Methane pressure builds up, forming Low Cr LAS Cracks are intergranular & hence its curve is removed from Nelson velocity ratio & AUBT.
cumulative) H2 producing unit,
bubbles, fissures that may combine to adjacent to Pearlite area in set of curves.
Decarburization, Blistering. Crack & 4. Stress H2 clean up unit.
form cracks. CS. AET cannot detect
Fissuring.
High Cr alloy (above 5Cr). damage.

300 SS.
 Desalting.

All materials Caustic injection downstream of desalter.

Crude,
General or local corrosion. Dew point corrosion where vapors 1. High HCl concentration Excessive corrosion in CS & LAS at pH below 4.5.
HCl Corrosion Vacuum,
37 containing water & HCl2 condense from 2. High temp Particularly Alloy 400 & Titanium. UT, Profile RT.
Hyroprocessing,
300 SS - pitting & Cl SCC. overhead stream. 3. Alloy composition. Presence of oxidizing agents (O2, ferric & cupric ions) 300 SS
Catalytic reformer.
400 SS Titanium performs wellin oxidising
conditions but corrode rapidly in dry HCl
service.

In CS, Residual element (RE) content (%C, %Cu,

%Ni, %Cr) has an effect on corrosion.
For base metal,
%C > 0.18 Upgrading CS ot Alloy 400 for operating
%Cu + %Ni < 0.15 temp above 150
1. Low HF acid concentration UT, RT.
High corrosion accompanied by HSC For weld metal, CS
(increasing water content
or Blistering or HIC or SOHIC. %Cu + %Ni + %Cr < 0.15 LAS HF alkylation units - But Alloy 400 is susceptible to SCC when
above 3%) Monitoring small bore
HF Acid Corrosion High corrosion above in CS 300 SS flare piping & downstream units exposed to in contact with moist HF vapors in
38 2. High temp piping, flange face
General or local thinning in CS. CS forms protective fluoride scale in dry above 150 400 SS acid carry over, dead legs, flange faces, prtesence of Oxygen.
3. Alloy composition corrosion, blistering, HIC,
concentrated acid. CuNi heat exchanger tubes.
4. Presence of contaminants SOHIC in HF units as per
SCC in Alloy 400. Alloy 400 Upgrade to Alloy C276 if Alloy 400 cracks.
like O2 & S. API RP 751.
Presence of water destabilize the protective fluoride
scales into volumnous non-protective scales. Minimize Water, Oxygen, Sulfur.

High velocity remove protective scale and cause

accelerateted corrosion.
Proper operation & velocity.

39 Alloy 20, UT, RT, Corrosion coupon.

Alloy 904L,
Alloy C-276.
Susceptible if weld & HAZ hardness exceeds 235
PWHT.
BHN. CS
Hydrogen Subsurface initiated, surface breaking
1. Presence of H2 LAS
Embrittlement (HE) brittle cracks. Low strength material. Improve ductility.
40 Penetration of atomic H2 into steels. 2. High strength High temp decreases damage. Ambient to 300 400 SS H2S & HF units Intergranular cracks. PT, MT, WFMT, UT, RT.
Hydrogen flaking Reduce residual stresses.
3. Stress above thresold PH SS
Loss in ductility. Reduce hardness.
H2 comes from wet electrodes or wet H2S or HF, HS Ni alloys
Use low H2 electrode.
cleaning, pickling, high temp H2 gas atmospheres.
Use CS with less CE (0.43).
Aqueous HF acid environment. All piping & equipment in acqueous HF acid
1. High hardness above 237 PWHT.
Hydrogen Stress service. Hardness testing.
Surface breaking cracking with local BHN (RC 22) Cracking occurs more rapidly, within hours in HF CS
41 Cracking - HF (HSC) Same mechanism like SSC in wet H2S Intergranular cracks
zones of hardness in weld & HAZ. 2. High strength environment. HSLAS ASTM 193 B7M bolts are softer and can be
environment except that HF acid is HSLAS like ASTM A193 B7 bolts & WFMT.
3. High stress used in place of B7 grades.
generting H2. compressor components.
(But B7M bolts are also cracked if over
torqued).
CS
300 SS in contact with or previously
Liquid Metal LAS MT - to detect cracks in
Specific combination of rubbed with GI.
Embrittlement (LME) HS steels 300 SS should not be in contact with GI. ferritic steel
metals in contact with low
or Contact of specific alloys with some High tensile strength and tensile stress promotes 300 SS Crack are intergranular, brittle & PT - 300 SS & Ni alloys.
42 Sudden & brittle cracking. melting poing metals like Zn, Mercury in crude oil embrittles Alloy 400,
Liquid Metal Cracking molten metals. cracking. Ni alloys filled with low melting metal. Grinding the affected cracked area will RT - to locate Mercury
Mercury (Hg), Cadmium, Ti, Al, Cu alloys.
(LMC) Cu alloys not fix LME. (high RT density) deposits
Lead, Cu, Tin.
Al alloys in exchanger tubes.
Cadmium & Lead affects HS steels.
Ti alloys

Rotary equipment shafts. Fatigue cracks are Surface

Microstructure & Heat treatment (Fine grain initiated, Brittle,
materials are better). Small bore piping (SBP). Transgranular & Non- Proper design (Minimize stress
1. Geometry branching. concentration).
Sudden, unexpected failure. 2. High stress level Design of component (notches, stress raisers). High pressure drop control valves & steam
Mechanical Fatigue 3. No. of cycles reducing stations. Propagation of multiple Avoid sharp corners, edges.
43 Cyclical stresses for an extended period. All materials PT, MT, SWUT.
Surface initiated cracks at notches or 4. Material properties CS, LAS & Titanium exhibit stress endurance limit parallel cracks.
stress raisers. (Stregth, Hardness, below which fatigue crack not occurs, regardless of Pressure swing absorber. in H2 purification Remove grind marks, burrs.
Microstructure) No. of cycles. unit. Mechanical fatigue cracks are
Cycling equipment like Coke drums. Clamshell type Finger print Use low stress stamps & marking tools.
300 SS, 400 SS, Al do not exhibit endurance limit. Quench nozzle connections in water having concentric rings or
washing system. waves called "Beach marks".

Corrosion product is
voluminous carbon dust Sulfur forms protective sulfide layers and
A form of carburization. Fired heater tubes, Thermowells, Furnace containing metal particles, retsrds carbon transfer from atmosphere to
Metal dusting mechanism: LAS
components. metal.
1. Process stream composition 300 SS Oxides & Carbides.
Metal Dusting
Accelerated local pitting with soot or 2. High operating temp 1. Saturation of metal matrix by carburization. Ni alloys Compression wave UT.
(Catastrophic Carburizing gas / process streams Catalytic reforming, Sufficient H2S level in process environment
44 graphite dust. 3. Alloy composition. 2. Precipitation of metal carbides at surface. 900 - 1500 Dust is swept away by
Carburization) containing Carbon & H2. Coker, to form protective sulfide layer.
3. Deposition of graphite from atmosphete onto metal No known metal alloy is process stream, leaving RT.
Gas turbines,
Preceeded by Carburization & carbides at surface. immune to metal dusting thinned or pitted metal.
Methanol reforming unit, Sulfur is catalyst poison in some processes
charecterized by rapid metal wastage. 4. Decomposition of metal carbide under graphite. under all conditions.
Thermal hydrodealkylation. and hence introductin of H2S in process iis
LAS - uniform & small pits. not practical always.
HAS & SS - local, deep round
Treatment of water with biocides like Cl,
Organisma grow under conditions like lack of O2, Bromine, Ozone, UV light. Monitoring effectiveness
CS
light or dark, high salinity, pH 0-12 & low temp. of treatment by
LAS
Microbiologically Biocides control but not eliminate measuring biocide
1. Acqueous environment 300 SS Exchanger, Tank bottom, Piping with CS - Cup shaped pit.
Induced Corrosion Living organisms like bacteria, algae, Organisms thrive on nutrients including inorganic Organisms survival & growth: microbes. So contimued treatment is residual,
45 Local pitting 2. Stagnant or low flow. 400 SS stagnant or low flow, Piping in contact
(MIC) fungi. substances like Sulfur, H2S, Ammonia and organic 0-235 necessary. microbe count & visual
Al with soil. SS - Subsurface cavities.
substances like HCBN, Organic acids. appaearance.
Cu
Minimize low flow or stagnation.
Ni alloys
Organisms require C, N2, P for growth. Foul smell.
Maintain coatings & CP.
 Higher Mo alloy (minimum of 2 to 2.5 %)
1. High NA content (High
CS Crude & Vacuum units - tower internals, or 317L SS.
Neutralization number or Total
Naphthenic Acid High temp corrosion in Crude, Vacuum UT, RT.
Acid Number) Corrosion is severe in two phase flow. Above 425. LAS heater tubes & in hot HCBN streams
Corrosion & Downstream units. Reduce TAN.
46 2. High temp 300 SS downstream.
(NAC) Monitor TAN & Sulfur
3. Low Sulfur content NA remove protective iron sulfide scales. Severe above 750. 400 SS
Local corrosion, Pitting corrosion. Increase Sulfur content. content.
4. High velocity Ni alloys Upstream of H2 mix points.
5. Alloy composition
Use inhibitors.
Nitride layers are
Dull, dark gray apearance. magnetic. 300 SS should
be checked for
Very high surface hardness (400-500
Diffusion of N2 into surface exposed to Rare to occur. N2 diffuses into surface & forms magnetism.
BHN). 1. High temp CS
high temp process stream containing Begins - 600. needle like particles of iron-
Nitriding 2. Time LAS
47 high level of N2 compounds like Steam methane reformers, nitrides that can be confirmed Alloys with 30-80% Ni. VT for dull, dark gray
Loss of high temp creep resistance 3. Partial pressure of Nitrogen Nitrided layers are magnetic. 300 SS
Ammonia, Cyanides particularly under Severe - 900. Steam gas cracking, by metallography. apearance.
strength, toughness, ductility, weldability, 4. Alloy composition (Low Ni) 400 SS
reducing conditions. Ammonia synthesis.
corrosion resistance.
Nitrided layer tend to crack & Hardness test.
flake.
Metallography.
Monitor process
conditions for
establishing temp at
CS
General thinning. which oxidation occurs.
1. High metal temp CS - above 1000. LAS
Oxidation Oxygen reacts with metals at high temp & Increasing Cr level produce a more protective oxide Fired heaters & Boilers whn metal temp
48 General thinning. 2. Alloy composition (Low Cr 300 SS High Cr alloys
converts metal to metal oxide scale. scale. exceeds 1000. Outside surface covered with Skin thermocuples & IR
content) 300 SS - above 1500. 400 SS
oxide scale. survey can be used to
Ni alloys
monitor temp.

UTG.

Low chloride for hydrotest.

CS, LAS, 400 SS are not susceptible.

Alloy with Ni above 45% is immune.

49 PT, EC.
Alloy with Ni above 35%
is highly resistant.

Duplex SS are highly resistant.

Flushing the equipment with alkaline or

caustic soda to neutralize sulfur acids.
PT
Keep firebox above dewpoint.
Since cracks are filled
Use L grades for 300 SS.
50 with tight deposits,
flapper disc sanding is
Use alloys containing small amount of Ti &
required to improve PT
Nb like SS 321, SS 347.
sensitivity.
Thermal stabilization heat treatment at 1650
(very difficult to apply).
For 100%
Low velocity. concentration,
CS
Phosphoric Acid 1. Acid concentration 304L SS for upto 120 &
General pitting corrosion or local 304L Phosphoric acid is used as catalyst in
51 Corrosion Presene of water in Phosphoric acid. 2. High temp Corrosion can penetrate 1/4 inch thick steel in 8 hrs. 316L SS upto 225. UT, RT.
corrosion. 316L Polymerization.
3. Contaminants like Chlorides
Alloy 20
Contaminants like Chlorides increase corrosion. Alloy 20 upto 85% concentration at
boiling temp.
Flushing the equipment with alkaline or
Metals form sulfide scales when exposed caustic soda to neutralize sulfur acids.
to Sulfur atmosphere. Sulfide scales react
PT
Cracking during shutdown, startup or with Oxygen & moisture in air & forms Keep firebox above dewpoint.
Regular grades & H grades of 300 SS are 300 SS FCC,
Polythionic Acid low temp operation in Sensitized 300 Sulfur acids (Polythionic Acid) which 1. Environment (high sulfur
susceptible to Sensitization. Alloy 600 Crude, Since cracks are filled
(Sulfur acid) SCC SS. causes SCC in sensitized 300 SS level) Sensitization occurs at 750 to Use L grades for 300 SS.
52 L grades are less susceptible. Alloy 600H Coker, Intergranular. with tight deposits,
(PASCC) 2. Material (must be sensitized) 1500
L grades sensitize if exposed to several hours Alloy 800 Hydroprocessing units - Fired heaters flapper disc sanding is
Cracking adjacent to weld or high Sensitization refers to formation of 3. High stress. Use alloys containing small amount of Ti &
above 1000 or long term above 750. Alloy 800H burning fuels containing Sulfur. required to improve PT
stress areas. chromium carbide in grain boundaries of Nb like SS 321, SS 347.
sensitivity.
metal depending on composition, time &
temp. Thermal stabilization heat treatment at 1650
(very difficult to apply).
Anchors must be compatible with
coefficient of thermal expansion of base
Insulating ceramic FCC - reactor, cyclones. metal & resistant to oxidation & VT during shutdown.
Mechanical damage (cracking, spalling & Galvanic attack of anchors.
Refractory 1. Refrractory selection fibres, Catalytic reforming reactor. Refractory showing excessive condensing sulfurous acids.
erosion) & corrosion of both thermal Oxidation, Sulfidation & other high temp
53 Degradation 2. Design Castables, Sulfur plant - WHB & reactor. cracking, spalling or lift-off from IR survey for monitoring
insulating & erosion resistant mechanisms. Refractory lined equipment should be designed for
3. Installation. Refratory bricks, substrate, softening. Proper selection, design & installation of hot spot to identify
refractories. erosion, thermal shock & thermal expansion.
Plastic refractories. Fired heaters, Bolilers. refractory & anchors. refractorty damage.

Proper curing of refractory.

1. Material (composition &
impurity)
Reheat Cracking 2. Coarse grain size Often occurs in coarse (large) grain section of weld HS LAS
(or) 3. Residual stresses from HAZ. Minimize restraints in thick wall during
Surface breaking cracks with little or
Stress Relief fabrication (welding or cold LAS (particularly Cr-Mo welding & PWHT.
no evidence of deformation. Cracks are intergranular with
Cracking Stress relaxation during PWHT or in working) Large grain size result in less ductile HAZ. with Vanadium) Heavy wall vessels in areas of high restraint
54 Above 750 little or no evidence of UT, MT, PT
(or) service at high temp. 4. High thickness like nozzle welds. Avoid notches & stress concentrators.
Occurs most often in heavy wall deformation.
Stress Relaxation 5. Notch& Stress concentrators Stress relief & heat treatment of 300 SS (done for 300 SS
sections and high strength materials.
Cracking 6. weld & base increasing Cl SCC & PTA SCC resistance) cause Avoid PWHT for thick wall SS.
metal strength reheat cracking in thicker sections. Ni alloys
7. Welding & Heat treating
condition
 All Boiler & Fired heater tubes.
Minimize localized temperature excursions &
Permanent deformation at relatively
Short Term Crude, Vacuum, Coker, Heavy oil hydro hot spots.
low stress level. 1. Temperature Ruptures look like open Visual.
Overheating - Time to failure will deccrease if internal pressure or processing units - furnaces with coking
55 Local overheating above design temp. 2. Time All materials "Fishmouth" failure & thinning
Stress Rupture load increases. tendencies. Proper burner management.
Bulging & eventually failure by stress 3. Stress at fracture surface. IR monitoring.
rupture.
FCC, Sulphur units - refractory damaged Proper maintenance og refractory.
equipment.
High Cr content
(17% or more).
Resistant alloys.
High ferrite No. (10 to 40%).
SS cyclones, piping ductwork, valves in
Avoid exposing susceptible material to
high temp FCC Regenerative service.
SS with sigma can withstand normal operating Not apparent. embrittling temp range.
Loss of fracture toughness in SS. 1. Alloy composition
Sigma Phase temp. But when cooling to temp below 500, it shows Physical testing of
Formation of Sigma metallurgical phase 2. High temp 300 SS weld overlays & TTP welds can be
56 Embrittlement complete lack of fracture toughness measured 1000 - 1700 All SS Can be confirmed by Controlling ferrite in welds in the range of samples removed from
Cracks, particularly at welds or in due to high temp exposure. 3. Time of exposure embrittled during PWHT of underlying CrMo
in Charpy impact test. metallographic exams & impact 5-9% for 347 SS & lesser ferrite for 304 service.
areas of high restraint. base metal.
test. SS
Sigma forms rapidly in 300 SS.
SS heater tubes.
Limiting exposure time during PWHT of SS
300 SS can exhibit 10% to 15% sigma. weld overlayed CrMo components.

Sigma forms rapidly in welds than in base metal.

1. Operating temp High dissolved salts.
2. High Moiture Special backfill
3. High O2 availability High acidity.
CS Soil to air interface.
Soil Corrosion External thinning with local loss due to 4. Low soil resistivity External thinning with localized Proper coating Measuring structure to
57 Exposure to soil CI
pitting. 5. Soil type & homogenity High temp. pitting. soil potential.
Ductile iron UG piping, Tank bottom.
6. CP CP to be performed & monitored as per
7. Stray current Estimation of soil corrosion as per ASTM STP741, API NACE RP 0169.
8. Coating type 580, API 581.

General thinning. The pH below 4.5 indicate strong acid & corrosion
1. High H2S content
Acidic sour water containing H2S & pH rate increases.
Sour Water Corrosion 2. Low pH (below 4.5 to 7.0) Overhead system of FCC & Coker gas Cu & Ni alloys.
Local corrosion if O2 is prsent. between 4.5 & 7.
58 (Acidic) 3. Low temp CS fractionation plants with high H2S levels & UT, Profile RT.
Decreasing the temp increasses H2S concentration.
4. High velocity low NH3 levels. 300 SS can be used for temp below 140.
CO2 environment leads to Carbonate CO2 may also be present.
5. High O2 concentration.
SCC. Increasing the H2S concentration decreases pH.

Change in microstructure after long term

Loss in strength, creep resistance. operation in temp range. Normalized steels are more susceptible than 850 - 1400.
annealed steels. Difficult to prevent.
CS
Increase in ductility. CS - agglomeration of unstable carbides 1. Chemistry Severe at 1300. Not apparent. Metallography of full
Spheroidization Hot wall piping & equipment in
from normal plate like form to a 2. High stress Fine grain steels are more susceptible than coarse Minimize long time exposure. thickness samples.
59 (Softening) C-0.5Mo LAS FCC
Reduction in hardness. spheroidal form. 3. High temp grain steels. Grahitization predominates Observed only by
Catalytic reforming Coker
4. Time of exposure below 1025. metallographic exams. Annealed steels, coarse grained steels, Si Field replica metallography.
LAS
Spheroidization & Graphitization occur LAS - transformation of carbides from small, Al killed steels are more susceptible than Si killed steels. Spheroidization occurs above kille steels are more resistant.
at overlapping temp ranges. finely dispersed form to large agglomerated 1025.
form.
Large grain size.
Newer steels with low impurity elements and
Deformation & aging at intermediate
sufficient Al (>0.015% wt) to fully de-oxidise
temp. Steels manufactured by Bessemer or Open hearth Older vintage CS with Damage will not be identified
the steel.
process contain more impurity. large grain size (pre- until fracture.
Strain Aging 1. Alloy composition Non-PWHT thick wall vessels with
60 Increase in hardness. 1980's) No inspection
2. Manufacturing process susceptible materials. Steels manufactured by Basic oxygen
Reduction in toughness & ductility. Cold worked materials that are not stress relieved. Brittle cracks revealed through
furnace process & fully killed with Al.
C-0.5Mo LAS Metallography.
Damage will not be identified until fracture. Welding in the viscinity of cracks & notches in
PWHT.
susceptible materials.
Susceptibility is determined by ability of alloy to
Reaction of Sulfur compounds with metals form protective sulfide scales.
1. Alloy composition (Low Cr CS
at high temp environment.
Sulfide scales. content) LAS Monitor process conditions
Sulfidation Damage of Ni alloys depend on Cr Content. Fired heaters & Boilers.
2. High temp 300 SS (S level & temp).
61 (Sulfidic Corrosion) Presence of H2 accelerates corrosion. Iron based alloys - above 500. FCC, Crude, Coker, Vacuum, Visbreaker & High Cr (7-9 %) alloys.
Uniform thinning or local corrosion or 3. Concentration of corrosive 400 SS
Cu alloys form sulfide at lower temp than CS. Hydroprocessing units.
high velocity erosion-corrosion. sulfur compounds. Ni alloys UTG & profile RT.
Primarily caused by H2S & other reactive
Cu alloys
sulfur species. Modified McConomy curves shows effect of temp on
steels for sulfidation.
CS corrosion is severe if velocity exceeds 2 to 3 fps
1. Acid concentration Waste water treatment plants.
CS corrosion is severe if acid concentration below Proper operation & velocity.
2. High temp
Sulfuric Acid Local corrosion. 65%. Local corrosion.
3. Alloy composition CS Sulfuric acid alkylation units -
62 Corrosion Alloy 20, UT, RT, Corrosion coupon.
4. High velocity 316L SS Reactor effluent line, reboilers,
Severe corrosion of CS HAZ. Heat releases at mix points with water and severe Severe corrosion of CS HAZ. Alloy 904L,
5. Contaminants deisobutanizer overhead system, caustic
corrosion occurs when acid is diluted. Alloy C-276.
6. Presence of Oxidizers. treating section.
Presence of oxidizers increase coroosion rate.

Presence of embrittling impurity elements like

Materials containing less embrittling
alloying elements Mn, Si, & tramp elements P, Tin,
impurity elements. Install blocks of original
Loss in toughness Antimony, Arsenic.
1. Thermal history Avoid exposing susceptible material to heats of alloy steel
650 - 1070 . Primarily 2¼Cr-1Mo Hydroprocessing unit - reactors,
2. Alloy composition (Low Cr embrittling temp range. material inside the
Upward shift in Ductile-to-Brittle Welds are more susceptible than base metal. (particularly exchangers, HP seperators Not apparent.
Temper content) Pressurizing sequence during startup & reactor near inlet and
transition temp. Metallurgical change due to long term Rapid at 900. manufactured before
63 Embrittlement 3. High metal temp shutdown to avoid brittle failure. outlet. Periodically
exposure to temp range. Temper embrittlement can be reversed (de- 1972) FCC, Can be confirmed by impact
4. Exposure time. Limiting J* factor for base metal to 100 remove the blocks and
Temper embrittled equipment may be embrittled) by heat treatment at 1150 for 2 hrs per Damage is severe after long Catalytic reforming, Coker unit, test.
max & X factor for welds to 15 max. do impact testing to
susceptible to Brittle fracture during inch thickness, followed by rapid cooling. But it is term exposure at 850. 3Cr-1Mo (less extent) Visbreaking units - reactors & exchangers.
Limiting (P + Sn) to less than 0.01%. monitor ductile-brittle
start-up & shutdown. not practical for many equipments. If de-embrittled
Limiting Equivelent P content for base metal transition temperature.
component is exposed to same service condition, it
& welds.
will re-embrittle faster than it did initially.

Cracking occurs where relative
movement or differential expansion is
constrained, particularly under
Thermal Fatigue
64 repeated thermal cycling.
Crack initiate at stress raisers &
notches.
Thermal Shock A form of thermal fatigue cracking.
65
Titanium Hydriding Loss of ductility with no sign of
66
corrosion or no loss in tkickness.
Coke drum shell.
Proper operation to control rate of
Stress risers. Steam actuated soot blowers (if the first Dagger shaped, Wide crack heating & cooling during shutdown &
steam exiting the soot blower nozzle filled with Oxide. startup.
Time to failure decreases with increasing stress & contains condensate).
increasing cycles. Single or Multiple. Proper design:
1. Magnitude of temp swing Mix points of hot & cold streams minimize stress concentration,
Cyclic stress caused by variation in temp. Temp swing of above 200. All materials VT, PT, MT
2. Number of cycles Startup & shutdown increases susceptibility. (condensate comes in contact with steam Usually follow the Toe of fillet incorporate flexibility to accommodate
system in De-superheater & H2 mix points weld. differential expansion,
Damage is promoted by rapid changes in surface in Hydroprocess units) avoid rigid attachment in boilers,
temp resulting in thermal gradient through Propagate transverse to the provide drain line in soot blowers,
thickness or along the length of component. Tubes in Superheater or reheater that stress. install liner or sleeve to prevent colder liquid
penetrate cooler waterwall tubes may crack to contact hot wall
at header connection.
Cyclic Stresses.
FCC, Prevent interruptions in the flow of high temp
High & non-uniform thermal stresses over
Coker, lines.
a short time when differential expansion SS has higher coefficient than CS, LAS, Ni alloys & Craze cracks.
1. Magnitude of temp differential Catalytic reformer, Proper design to minimize restraint.
or contraction occurs. are more likely to high stresses.
2. Coefficient of thermal All materials Hydroprocessing unit. Install thermal sleeves to prevent liquid PT, MT
Highly localized and difficult to
expansion of material impingement.
Usually occurs when cold liquid contacts High temp due to fire. locate.
Materials that lost ductility, such as CrMo Review hot/cold injection points for thermal
warm metal surface.
equipment. shock.
Thermal gradients in thk sections.
Occurs at: Specialized ET.
pH below 3
pH above 8 A quick test by bend test
Not apparent. Avoid Titanium in known hydriding
neutral pH with H2S content. Occurs above 165 or crush test in a vice.
1. High metal temp Sour water strippers & Amine units - services such as Amine or Sour water.
Diffusion of H2 into Titanium to form Unaffected Ti crush in
2. Solution chemistry (pH) Titanium alloys Overhead condensers, exchanger tubes, Only confirmed by
embrittled hydride phase. Occurs in H2 atmosphere at temp >350, in absence of Occurs in H2 atmosphere ductile
3. Alloy composition piping. Metallography or mechanical Limit solubility of H2 in pure Titanium to 50 -
moisture or O2. above 350. fashion.
testing. 300 ppm.
Embrittled Ti crack or
Occurs in cathodically protected equipment with shatter with little or no
protection potential <-0.9 v SCE. sign of ductility.