Int. J. Security and Networks, Vol. 14, No.

2, 2019 95

An improved multi-objective genetic algorithm and

data fusion in structural damage identification

Along Yu*
School of Physics and Electronic Electrical Engineering,
Huaiyin Normal University,
Huaian, 223300, China
Email: yal@hytc.edu.cn
*Corresponding author

Jiajia Ji
School of Electrical Engineering and Control Science,
Nanjing Tech University,
Nanjing, 211816, China
Email: jiajia@njtech.edu.cn

Shiyu Sun
School of Physics and Electronic Electrical Engineering,
Huaiyin Normal University,
Huaian, 223300, China
Email: 151882987@qq.com

Abstract: With the aging of civil engineering structures, it is urgent to detect the damage status
of structures for timely maintenance. Genetic algorithm has been gradually applied to structural
damage identification owing to its powerful global search capability and better adaptability. In
this paper, we present a novel multi-objective genetic algorithm based on fuzzy optimisation
theory to identify damage for large-scale structures. Furthermore, fuzzy logic data fusion is
implemented to process a large amount of data collected by displacement sensors, acceleration
sensors and stress sensors in order to improve the accuracy of identification results. The
experimental results show that the improved multi-objective genetic algorithm has faster
convergence speed and higher computational efficiency than traditional genetic algorithm.
Besides, the data fusion method can process the displacement parameter and the frequency mode
parameter synchronously, which shows more reliable recognition results than single-class
parameter identification.

Keywords: large-scale structures; genetic algorithm; damage identification; fuzzy optimisation;

data fusion.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Yu, A., Ji, J. and Sun, S. (2019)
‘An improved multi-objective genetic algorithm and data fusion in structural damage
identification’, Int. J. Security and Networks, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp.95–102.
Biographical notes: Along Yu received his PhD in Measuring and Testing Technologies and
Instruments from the Southeast University in 2005. He is currently a Professor in the School of
Physics and Electronic Electrical Engineering at the Huaiyin Normal University. His current
research interests are measurement and control technology, intelligent system and wireless sensor
network technology.

Jiajia Ji is currently a Master student at the Nanjing Tech University. He received his Bachelor’s
in Electrical Engineering and Automation from the Sanjiang University in 2016. His current
research interests are measurement and control technology and wireless sensor network
technology.

Shiyu Sun received his MS in Control Science and Engineering from the Nanjing Tech
University in 2016. His research interests are intelligent system and wireless sensor network
technology.

Copyright © 2019 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

96 A. Yu et al.
1 Introduction
The health problems of engineering structures are closely
related to human life and property safety. During the period
of service, structures are inevitably affected by fatigue,
corrosion, aging and some irresistible factors such as
earthquake, typhoon and destructive impacts (Das et al.,
2016), which are major and unavoidable factors
undermining the structures. With a long-term accumulation,
they will gradually crack and even collapse, resulting in
negative social impact if a timely detection and targeted
repair is not made. More and more attentions in the world
have been attached to the health monitoring and damage
identification for large-scale structures (Cha, 2015).
It is vulnerable to external interference for traditional
single-class sensor monitoring systems. Moreover, the
information obtained by these systems is not sufficient
to correctly identify structural damage. Therefore, multi-
sensor systems are widely accepted and implemented. It is
of great research value and scientific significance to apply a
large amount of information obtained by multi-sensor
system to assess structural damage status in time and
accurately. Furthermore, noise interference and error
information are inevitable. Thus, an integrated information
processing technology is necessary to obtain actual damage
status from a large amount redundant information. Multi-
sensor data fusion technology, also known as data fusion
technology, can solve the problem well by correlating multi-
source data to obtain an accurate evaluation for large-scale
structures.
In recent years, with the implementation of many new
technologies and methods to structural damage
identification, some achievements have been made. The
genetic algorithm was utilised to identify damages of the
beam structure modified by ANSYS, and the feasibility of
the method is verified (Zhu and Gao, 2007). Li (2012)
utilised genetic algorithm to identify frequency mode shapes
of actual plate structures. Zhu (2009) combined traditional
genetic algorithm with fuzzy optimisation theory and
improved the operation efficiency of genetic algorithm.
Nobahari and Seyedpoor (2010) presented a modified
genetic algorithm with two new operations to precisely
determine the sites and the extent of multiple structural
damage. Meruane and Heylen (2010) utilised a hybrid
real-coded genetic algorithm with damage penalisation to
locate and quantify structural damage. Marano et al. (2011)
proposed a modified real-coded genetic algorithm to
identify the parameters of large structure subject to dynamic
loads. Although genetic algorithm provides a powerful
method to identify structural damages, there are still many
problems that need to be solved. Firstly, traditional genetic
algorithm has some shortcomings such as inefficiency,
time-consuming and low accuracy, so it is difficult to ensure
practical results for large-scale structures. Secondly, it is
hard to meet requirements of parameter analysis for
different types of damage identification parameters, which
often results in inconsistency between search efficiency and
recognition accuracy. Thirdly, single-class parameter is
impossible to make an accurate judgment on structural
damage.
White is one of the earliest researchers to study the data
fusion theory and lays a theoretical foundation for the
development of multi-sensor data fusion (White, 1998). The
research on data fusion technology starts late in China, but
many achievements have still been made. Liu achieved
good results by using bias and D-S evidence theory for
decision-level fusion processing (Liu and Li, 2008). Jiang
et al. (2011) presented a novel damage identification
method of concrete filled steel tubular arch using data
fusion based on information allocation theory. Li and Li
(2013) integrated dynamic and static indexes with data
fusion theory.
In this paper, an improved genetic algorithm combined
with fuzzy logic data fusion is proposed to identify
structural damage, which can effectively improve
the operation efficiency and reduce the number of
genetic iterations. Different data collected by various
sensors are processed uniformly through fuzzy logic data
fusion, which can overcome the shortcomings of low
accuracy and low reliability caused by single-class
parameter damage identification. Besides, the application of
wireless sensor network effectively solves these
problems such as large data collection, processing,
transmission in the process of damage identification of
large-scale structure.
2 Traditional genetic algorithm
Genetic algorithm originates from computer simulation of
biological system, which is created by Professor Holland
and his students at Michigan University in the United
States. It is a heuristic algorithm that allows to arrive at
good solution, with a reasonable computational cost
appropriate to the application needs (Avendano et al., 2018).
The genetic algorithm operates on a population that consists
of n individuals, in which each individual consists of m
genetic genes and constitutes a search space for the
problem. The higher the individual’s fitness, the closer to
the target value. The population can continuously inherit
and evolve by means of the ‘survival of the fittest’ principle
(Greco, 2018). Individuals with higher fitness have greater
probability to inherit the next generation. According to this
rule, individuals continue to iterate until the emergence of
optimal individual x. The basic genetic algorithm is
composed of three genetic operators: selection, crossover
and mutation. Moreover, it is vital to determine parameters
such as coding method, fitness function, population size, as
well as the probability of crossover and mutation (Hong
et al., 2006).
2.1 Encoding
The method, converting the feasible solution of the problem
from solution space to search space, is called encoding,
which includes binary encoding, Grey code encoding, real
number encoding. Among them, the most classical method
 An improved multi-objective genetic algorithm and data fusion in structural damage identification
is binary encoding (Chen et al., 2015), which has the
advantage of easy implementation. However, the mapping
error would appear when the continuous function is
discretised. When the length of individual coding string is
long, the search space would be enlarged, and the
performance would be reduced. However the accuracy
would not reach the requirement if the length is short. Grey
encoding has better local search capability than binary
encoding. Real number encoding is suitable for a large
number of data and high-precision continuous function
optimisation problems. Besides, it is convenient for genetic
search in large spaces, and it can reduce the computational
complexity of algorithm.
2.2 Fitness function
Individuals’ strengths and weaknesses are measured by
fitness function. A feature of genetic algorithm is to find the
optimal value (Nyathi and Pillay, 2018), which is achieved
through fitness function. The higher the individual’s fitness,
the easier it is inherited to next generation. At the same
time, individuals with low fitness are likely to be eliminated
in the genetic iteration process.
2.3 Selection
Selection also refers to replication, which selects the
superior individual in the t generation population for the
t + 1 generation population. Replication cannot produce new
individuals and increase the highest fitness of population,
but it can increase the average fitness of population.
Common selection operators include roulette selection,
random competitive selection and optimal reservation
selection, etc.
2.4 Crossover
Crossover, that is, individuals in the population P(t) are
randomly paired to exchange some chromosomes with a
certain probability, and then generate new individuals. In
order to avoid search stagnation, the probability of
crossover should be chosen appropriately. Common
crossover operations include single-point crossover,
two-point crossover, uniform crossover, etc.
2.5 Mutation
Mutation refers to the fact that genes in an individual
change with a specified probability to form a new
individual. The probability of mutation is generally small.
When the algorithm approaches to the optimal solution, the
crossover operator cannot perform a more detailed search
on the search space, but the local search can be achieved
through the mutation operation. At the same time, mutation
operation can maintain the diversity of population and
prevent precocity. Common mutation operators include
basic-bit mutation, effective-bit mutation, Gauss mutation,
etc.
97
3 Improved genetic algorithm
3.1 The significance of algorithm improvement
The traditional genetic algorithm has the advantage in that it
is applicable to global and multi-dimensional problems, and
it does not require a fitness function to be differentiable
(Honda, 2018). However, it exhibits slow convergence rate
in the case of large amount of data, and falls into the local
optimal value easily in large-scale structural damage
identification. These problems severely hinder the
application of genetic algorithm in large-scale structural
damage identification. In order to solve these problems, an
improved genetic algorithm based on fuzzy optimisation
theory is proposed in this paper, which greatly improves the
computational efficiency by parallel processing of selection
operators.
3.2 Fuzzy optimisation theory
3.2.1 Relative membership degree
During the optimisation and decision process, we assume
that xij is the eigenvalue of the jth sub-goal for the ith
decision. In the same time, xij can be considered as the
fitness of the ith individual for the damage of the jth region in
this paper. Define the maximum target value and the
minimum target value of the decision centralisation target j
as the upper bound and the lower bound, respectively. Then
the relative membership degree of the target can be defined
as follows.
For benefit-type target (maximum of objective
function):
( xij − min xij ) / ( max xij − min xij )
rij = (1)
For cost-type target (minimum of objective function):
( max xij − xij ) / ( max xij − min xij )
rij = (2)
3.2.2 Multi-objective system fuzzy optimisation model
In this paper, the target has n sub-objectives, namely n
damage areas to be identified. The algorithm consists of m
individuals, and the optimisation is only implemented
within the interior of each decision set, so the optimisation
is a relative quantity.
Then the evaluation target matrix for n areas with
respect to m individuals is shown in equation (3):
 e11 e12  e1n 
e e22  e2 n 
 21 = [ e1 e2  en ] (3)
     
 
em1 em 2  emn 
98 A. Yu et al.

3.3 Improved genetic algorithm based on fuzzy actual problem and then these subpopulations are executed
optimisation theory synchronously, the computational efficiency of improved
algorithm is greatly improved.
The optimal solution should be contained in a fuzzy set
whose membership function can be expressed in
equation (4):
4 Damage identification based on displacement
and frequency mode shape
∑
n
r (α ) = ϖ i ri (α ) (4)
i =1
4.1 Displacement parameter in genetic algorithm
where ri(α) is the relative membership degree for each
sub-goal and ϖi is the weight coefficient for each sub-goal, A beam structure model with three nodes is shown in
respectively. Figure 2. The curvature of node i can be obtained by
The minimum solution of the membership function is difference method.
the optimal solution of multi-objective system, that is, to wi −1 + wi +1 − 2 × wi
find the minimum value of relative membership degree ρi = (6)
li −1 × li +1
relative to n subsystems in m individuals, as shown in
equation (5): where ρi and wi represent the curvature and the displacement
of node i, respectively.
r (α *) = min(r (α )) (5)
According to the equation (6), the curvatures of point i
In Figure 1, it is clear that the main difference between and point j are determined. Then the strain of unit k can be
traditional genetic algorithm and improved genetic obtained from equation (7):
algorithm is the selection operator. Traditional selection h ( ρi + ρ j )
operator determines the probability of individual’s εk = (7)
inheritance to next generation according to the fitness value. 4
Instead, improved algorithm divides the selection operator where h represents the height of the beam.
into n populations and these populations are executed in The static equilibrium equation of an undamaged
parallel. The number of populations is determined by structure under static loading can be expressed as
practical problems. In this paper, the value of n is equation (8):
determined by the number of damage identification units.
Ku = F (8)
Meanwhile, the possibility of each subpopulation selection
that can transfer to next generation is determined by the where K represents the overall stiffness matrix of the
relative membership degree of fitness value. Because the structure. F and u represent the load and the displacement of
population is divided into n subpopulations according to node, respectively.

Figure 1 Improved multi-objective genetic algorithm flowchart (see online version for colours)
 An improved multi-objective genetic algorithm and data fusion in structural damage identification
Figure 2 Beam structure model (see online version for colours)
If the structure is damaged, the overall stiffness matrix of
the structure would change, and then the balance equation
can be expressed as equation (9):
( K − ΔK )ud =
F (9)
ΔK = α K
where α is the unit stiffness damage coefficient that reflects
the damage degree of the unit. Meanwhile, it is the target
value solved by genetic algorithm. If α = 1, the structure is
completely damaged. If α = 0, the structure is undamaged.
Next, the unit strain εui before damage and the unit strain
εdi after damage are used to construct the optimised
objective function of genetic algorithm, as shown in
equation (11).
∑
n
( εui + εdi )
2
f1 ( β ) min
= = J (α ) min
i =1
4.2 Frequency mode shape in genetic algorithm
Adams proposed that the stiffness change of structure would
cause changes in the natural frequency and mode shapes of
structural vibration system (Adams et al., 1978). The
frequency parameters of structure can be obtained easily
and accurately, but the mode shapes are difficult to get
accurately. Later, Wolff and Richardson (1989) proved that
damages could be located and quantified based on
frequency changes and undamaged mode shapes if there are
no major changes in mode shapes. The sensitivity equation
is given by equation (12):
{φ i + Δφ i } [ΔK ]{φ i + Δφ i } + 2 {φ i } [ K ]{φ i }
T T
+ {Δφ i } [ K ]{Δφ i } =
T
Δωi2
where φi is the i-order mode and ωi is the i-order frequency.
When mode shapes change little, the equation can be
approximately simplified, as shown in equation (13):
{φ i } [ΔK ]{φ i } = Δωi2
T
Therefore, the stiffness matrix change caused by damage
can be obtained through equation (14).
∑ ({φ } [ΔK ]{φ i } − Δωi2
T
f2 (β ) min i (14)
i
Figure 3 Data fusion process (see online version for colours)
99
5 Fuzzy logic data fusion
5.1 Basic theory
For systems that need to collect, process, and integrate
multi-data, a method is necessary in order to achieve
autonomy and effectiveness, which can integrate incomplete
or inaccurate data gathered by single-class sensors with the
data collected by other types of sensors to obtain more
useful information. Data fusion mainly includes signal
acquisition, data pre-processing, fusion centre and result
output, as shown in Figure 3.
(10) It is necessary to convert various data such as
displacement, acceleration and strain collected by various
sensors, into electrical signals, and then into digital
quantities through the A/D conversion module. However,
due to the influence of objective factors such as
environmental noise, it is necessary to pre-process the
collected information in order to reduce the interference and
ensure the accuracy of the data to be processed. After
pre-processing, feature extraction is performed on the data,
and then the processed data are fused to obtain the final
result.
(11)
5.1.1 Signal acquisition
Various sensors are adopted according to the actual
situation of research object, and signals acquired by sensors
are transformed into computer system after A/D
transformation.
5.1.2 Data pre-processing
On the one hand, signals to be processed are inevitably
mixed with ambient noise. On the other hand, the
quantisation error is unavoidable in the A/D transformation
process. Data pre-processing can reduce the impact of
interference to the greatest extent and increase the
signal-tonoise ratio. Common pre-processing methods
(12) include demean, filtering, outlier elimination.
5.1.3 Feature extraction
The extracted feature can be a physical quantity with a clear
physical meaning, or a statistic and its deformation without
any physical meaning.
(13)
5.1.4 Fusion processing
The methods of fusion processing mainly include data
related technologies, estimation theories and identification
)
technologies, computer intelligence.
100 A. Yu et al.

Data fusion changes the evaluation indexes of various the traditional genetic algorithm has poor search
sensors or knowledge sources provided in the form of performance.
probability density function or fuzzy relation function to a
single value evaluation index, which can reflect the Figure 4 Actual beam structure (see online version for colours)
information provided by each sensor and the information
that cannot be obtained from a single data source.
Fuzzy inference is based on fuzzy judgement, which is
similar to the method of thinking decision.

5.2 Fusion of fuzzy relational functions

Multiple relational functions can be fused, and the fusion
result is a function of input. Take the fusion of two fuzzy
relational functions μ(x, y) and η(x, y) as an example. μ(x, y)
and η(x, y) represent the damage identification fuzzy
relational functions based on displacements and frequency
mode shapes, respectively.
f [ μ( x, y ), η( x, y )] = Φ( x, y ) (15)

Let f be expressed in the Taylor series and ignore the

high-order term and constant term:
Φ = α μ + β η, α +β = 1 (16)

6 Experiment and discussion

In Figure 4, a double-span beam structure is shown. The
length and height of the beam are 20 m and 0.7 m,
respectively. The beam is divided into twenty units and
21 nodes. According to the method of wireless sensor
networks (Yang and Yu, 2013; Yu et al., 2018; Xiao et al., Figure 5 The traditional genetic algorithm (see online version
2010; Abu-Mahfouz and Hancke, 2018; Wu et al., 2016), for colours)
the undamaged data are collected by displacement sensors,
stress sensors and acceleration sensors after applying fixed
loads on it. Then the crack damages of structure are
simulated by applying overload through jacks and the
damage data of each node are collected under fixed load
condition. Finally, the data collected from each node are
analysed by traditional genetic algorithm and improved
multi-objective genetic algorithm respectively.
Compared Figure 5 and Figure 6, the following
conclusions can be drawn: Figure 6 The improved genetic algorithm (see online version
for colours)
1 In Figure 5, the optimal fitness value of traditional
genetic algorithm is 24 after iterating 100 times. In
Figure 6, the improved genetic algorithm finds the
optimal fitness value after iterating about 50 times, and
the optimal fitness value is 9.6. Therefore the improved
genetic algorithm has higher computational efficiency,
higher accuracy and faster convergence speed.
2 The fitness value of traditional genetic algorithm has
little or no change in the early stage. Contrary to
traditional genetic algorithm, the improved genetic Next, we use the improved genetic algorithm to perform
algorithm converges rapidly in the early stage and the damage identification on the objective function f1(β) and
fitness value changes significantly. In addition, the f2(β) respectively, and fuse their results with fuzzy logic.
mean fitness value of traditional genetic algorithm rises In Figure 7 and Figure 8, it can be seen that the damage
for a long time in the early stage, which indicates that identification results of displacements or frequency mode
shapes are hard to distinguish, and almost all units suffered
 An improved multi-objective genetic algorithm and data fusion in structural damage identification
different degrees of damage. However, data fusion
implements various parameters as a foundation for damage
identification, and the result is shown in Figure 9. In
addition to damage results obtained in unit 5, 6, 9, 10, 11,
15 and 16, other units have small changes in stiffness
influence coefficient. It can be seen that results obtained
through fusion of different parameters are more reliable,
which provide more intuitive bridge damage situation for
technician and technical support for later maintenance.
Figure 7 Static displacement as identification parameter
(see online version for colours)
Figure 8 Frequency mode shape as identification parameter
(see online version for colours)
Figure 9 Data fusion method (see online version for colours)
7 Conclusions
This paper combines fuzzy optimisation theory and genetic
algorithm to improve the efficiency of traditional genetic
algorithm, and the results show that the improved genetic
algorithm can be used to damage identification for
large-scale structures. Furthermore, combined with fuzzy
logic relationship, the data fusion of multi-parameter
damage result is carried out to improve the reliability of
results.
1 In terms of operational efficiency, the optimal fitness
value of traditional genetic algorithm is 24 after
iterating 100 times. However, the improved genetic
algorithm finds the optimal solution after iterating
50 times, and the optimal fitness value is 9.6.
101
Therefore the improved genetic algorithm has higher
computational efficiency and accuracy than traditional
genetic algorithm.
2 In the initial stage, both the mean fitness value and the
best fitness value of the improved genetic algorithm
decline rapidly, while the best fitness value of
traditional genetic algorithm drops slowly and its
average fitness value has an increase, which indicates
that traditional algorithm has a poor search capability.
Therefore, the improved genetic algorithm can be used
to identify damages for large-scale structures such as
long-span bridges and ultrahigh-rise buildings.
3 Data fusion can overcome the shortcoming of unclear
identification results when damage identification is
performed through displacement parameters or
frequency mode shape parameters separately.
Therefore, data fusion can effectively improve the
reliability of damage identification results.
Acknowledgements
The research work was supported by Scientific Research
Significant Projects of Universities and Colleges in Jiangsu
Province (No. 16KJA460003).
References
Abu-Mahfouz, A.M. and Hancke, G.P. (2018) ‘Localised
information fusion techniques for location discovery in
wireless sensor networks’, Int. J. Sensor Networks, Vol. 26,
No. 1, pp.12–25.
Adams, R.D., Cawley, P. and Pye, C.J. (1978) ‘A vibration
technique for non-destructively assessing the integrity of
structures’, Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science,
Vol. 20, No. 2, pp.93–100.
Avendano, P.A., Souza, J.A. and Adamatti, D.F. (2018)
‘Construction of conductive pathways using genetic
algorithms and constructal theory’, International Journal of
Thermal Sciences, Vol. 134, No. 16, pp.200–207.
Cha, Y.J. (2015) ‘Structural damage detection using modal strain
energy and hybrid multiobjective optimization’,
Computer-Aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering,
Vol. 30, No. 5, pp.347–358.
Chen, R.C., Huang, S.W., Lin, Y.C. and Zhao, Q.F. (2015) ‘An
indoor location system based on neural network and genetic
algorithm’, Int. J. of Sensor Networks, Vol. 19, Nos. 3/4,
pp.204–216.
Das, S., Saha, P. and Patro, S.K. (2016) ‘Vibration-based damage
detection techniques used for health monitoring of structures:
a review’, Journal of Civil Structural Health Monitoring,
Vol. 6, No. 3, pp.477–507.
Greco, A., D’Urso, D., Cannizzaro, F. and Pluchino, A. (2018)
‘Damage identification on spatial Timoshenko arches by
means of genetic algorithms’, Mechanical Systems and Signal
Processing, Vol. 105, No. 4, pp.51–67.
Honda, M. (2018) ‘Application of genetic algorithm to modelings
of fusion plasma physics’, Computer Physical
Communications, Vol. 231, No. 7, pp.94–106.
102 A. Yu et al.
Hong, X., Xiao, Y., Ni, Q. and Li, T. (2006) ‘A connectionlevel
call admission control using genetic algorithm for multi-class
multimedia services in wireless networks’, Int. J. Mobile
Communications, Vol. 4, No. 5, pp.568–580.
Jiang, S.F., Fu, D.B., Hu, C.M. and Wu, Z.Q. (2011) ‘Damage
identification of concrete-filled steel tubular arch bridge using
data fusion based on information allocation theory’, Procedia
Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 101, pp.1705–1710.
Li, H.R. and Li, J.L. (2013) ‘The research on structural damage
identification using the fusion of static and dynamic
indicators based on D-S evidence theory’, Sichuan Building
Science, Vol. 39, No. 2, pp.111–115.
Li, Q.D. (2012) Research on Structural Damage Identification
based on Genetic Algorithm, pp.1–80, Chongqing Jiaotong
University.
Liu, T. and Li, A.Q. (2008) ‘Study of structural damage
identification methods based on data fusion’, Engineering
Mechanics, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp.16–21.
Marano, G.C., Quaranta, G. and Monti, G. (2011) ‘Modified
genetic algorithm for the dynamic identification of structural
systems using incomplete measurements’, Computer-Aided
Civil and Infrastructure Engineering, Vol. 26, No. 2,
pp.92–110.
Meruane, V. and Heylen, W. (2010) ‘An hybrid real genetic
algorithm to detect structural damage using modal properties’,
Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, Vol. 25, No. 5,
pp.1559–1573.
Nobahari, M. and Seyedpoor, S.M. (2010) ‘Structural damage
detection using an efficient correlation-based index and a
modified genetic algorithm’, Mathematical and Computer
Modelling, Vol. 53, No. 9, pp.1798–1809.
Nyathi, T. and Pillay, N. (2018) ‘Comparison of a genetic
algorithm to grammatical evolution for automated design of
genetic programming classification algorithms’, Expert
Systems with Application, Vol. 104, No. 15, pp.213–234.
White, F.E. (1998) ‘A model for data fusion’, Proceedings in
Proc. 1st National Symposium on Sensor Fusion.
Wolff, T. and Richardson, M. (1989) ‘Fault detection in structures
from changes in their modal parameters’, Proceedings of the
IMAC, pp.87–94.
Wu, P., Wu, X. and Chen, G. (2016) ‘Rest with eyes open:
stochastic target coverage in wireless sensor networks with
data fusion’, International Journal of Sensor Networks,
Vol. 20, No. 1, pp.16–25.
Xiao, Y., Chen, H., Wu, K., Sun, B., Zhang, Y., Sun, X. and
Liu, C. (2010) ‘Coverage and detection of a randomized
scheduling algorithm in wireless sensor networks’, IEEE
Transactions on Computers, Vol. 59, No. 4, pp.507–521.
Yang, W.W. and Yu, A.L. (2013) ‘Study on bridge structural
health monitoring based on WSNs and mobile agent’,
Transducer and Microsystem Technologies, Vol. 32, No. 12,
pp.78–81.
Yu, Z.H., Dai, H.L. and Zhang, Q. (2018) ‘High-resolution
distributed strain sensing system for landslide monitoring’,
Optic-International Journal for Light and Electron Optics,
Vol. 158, No. 4, pp.91–96.
Zhu, H.P. (2009) Smart Method of Structural Damage Detection,
p.180, China Communications Press, Beijing.
Zhu, J.S. and Gao, C.E. (2007) ‘Identification of damage in
structures using genetic algorithm and programming’, Journal
of Harbin Institute of Technology, Vol. 39, No. 12, pp.52–57.