Energy for Sustainable Development 17 (2013) 357–362

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Energy for Sustainable Development

The energy impact of luminaire depreciation on urban lighting

I.O. Mockey Coureaux a,⁎, E. Manzano b, 1
a
Departamento de Electroenergética.Universidad de Oriente, Ave., Las Américas s/n. Santiago de Cuba, 90400, Cuba
b
Departamento de Luminotécnia Luz y Visión, Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, Av., Independencia 1800 - T4002BLR Tucumán, Argentina

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Road lighting facilities operate for over half of a year but they are permanently subjected to adverse weather
Received 12 June 2012 conditions and environmental pollution. The major cause of the loss of light is generally the accumulation of
Revised 21 March 2013 dirt on the luminaires (lamps and lighting fixtures).The severity of the loss (depreciation) depends on the
Accepted 21 March 2013
nature and density of environmental pollution and the degree of protection of the luminaires against dust
Available online 19 April 2013
and water. This depreciation is compensated, beginning from the design stage, by over-sizing facilities and,
Keywords:
throughout its lifetime, by maintenance programs. There are several ways of estimating depreciation. This
Energy efficiency paper is a review of the different sources of information and findings of major investigations conducted in
Urban and road lighting recent times. There is strong evidence which indicates that luminaire depreciation could be based on the
Maintenance level of sealing of the luminaires and on environment pollution categories. Luminaires with IP6X degree pro-
Depreciation tection are only slightly influenced by environment pollution. New generations of LED luminaires are built to
conform to IP6 and this will probably soon be the standard for road and urban lighting luminaires. Even if
these luminaires have a higher rate of lamp survival, an exterior cleaning operation is still necessary and
the luminaire depreciation behaviour model will still be useful. It is important to select a convenient mainte-
nance factor to compensate for depreciation and to reduce the number of installed fixtures or the amount of
over sizing of lamp power, which significantly transcends the energy and environmental impact.
© 2013 International Energy Initiative. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction Other research focuses on the possible saving of lighting energy

In Latin American cities, urban lighting in municipalities accounts
for around 3.5 to 4% of total electricity consumption. For urban lighting
the potential reduction in consumption is significant, and, possible by
the use of efficient lighting systems that can reach reduction values of
over 30%, as stated by Tapia et al. (2009). In addition to this, the deci-
sion to implement efficient policies usually depends on one person,
the mayor, but affects the consumption of street lighting throughout
the city.
At present, electric power saving and the environmental impact are
the topics that are treated with the most interest by illumination engi-
neers, according to Horng-Ching et al. (2009). Some of them have cen-
tered their attention on the saving possibilities using lamps, luminaires
and more efficient ballasts (Pujol, 2009). Research that combines these
possibilities with the employment of lamp flux output regulations and
time switching control of illumination are also reported by Tapia et al.
(2009).
through the implementation of appropriate maintenance policies.
Some results indicate that when using higher maintenance factors,
during the design stage, a significant saving of energy is guaranteed
(Malgozrata, 2007; Sveinsdottir, 2007). An improvement of 5% in
the maintenance factor can end up producing savings of 10% in the
energy consumption, according to Sanders and Scott (2008).
Currently there is a worldwide tendency to replace urban lighting
with energy efficient lighting systems (Kostic and Djokic, 2009). Con-
sidering these processes, using an adequate maintenance factor and
appropriate maintenance policies, could not only have energy saving
implications but would also result in the reduction in the emissions of
polluting gases through reduced electricity generation.
The implementation of realistic and appropriate maintenance pro-
grams requires the use of reliable data for estimating maintenance fac-
tors to be used during the design of road lighting installations. This
paper is a review of the available data and models which would help
determine the maintenance factor (or determine the opposite factor
i.e. depreciation) due to dirt pollution accumulated on the luminaires.
This pollution is generally considered to be the main cause of the prob-
lem of depreciation.

The luminous depreciation of urban lighting

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +53 52718247.
E-mail addresses: iomc@fie.uo.edu.cu (I.O. Mockey Coureaux),
emanzano@herrera.unt.edu.ar (E. Manzano). Throughout the life span of any lighting installation, light emission
1
Tel.: +54 381 4361936, +54 381 4364093x7715/7855. decreases progressively and gradually. The rate of reduction depends

0973-0826/$ – see front matter © 2013 International Energy Initiative. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2013.03.006
358 I.O. Mockey Coureaux, E. Manzano / Energy for Sustainable Development 17 (2013) 357–362
on the type of lamp, luminaires, environment, operation conditions
and the length of time they are in use. In the case of outdoor lighting,
depreciation is important because of the exposure to environmental
pollution.
The main causes that affect the performance of road lighting facili-
ties, their operation and, in some cases, the value of maintained illumi-
nance and luminance on the road, according to the technical reports of
CIE (Commission Internationale de l´Eclairage), (CIE 33, 1996; CIE 154,
2003), are:
A) Progressive reduction in luminous flux emitted by the lamps.
B) Accumulation of dirt on the optical parts of the luminaires.
C) Aging of the components (reflectors, refractors, etc.).
D) Premature failure of lamps.
F) The vibrations of the pole-luminaire lamp set.
G) The corrosion of the structures of the luminous units.
H) Changes in the reflective properties of the road surface.
There are other causes which do not have a cumulative effect:
I) Use of ballasts.
J) Excessive increase or reduction of temperature inside the lumi-
naire.
K) Premature failure of auxiliary devices and/or regulation flux
system.
L) Incorrect voltage supply at the terminals of light sources.
Among these causes, the first three are the ones that most influ-
ence the depreciation of road illumination. At the same time, the effect
of these three causes can be minimized through maintenance of the
system.
At the lighting design stage, light reduction or depreciation should
be considered when using a maintenance factor (MF) that over-sizes
facilities to compensate the reduction in time until the moment
when it becomes necessary to apply maintenance operations. The ini-
tial lighting parameter values such as illuminance (Eo) or luminance
when the facility starts to run up will gradually be reduced to mainte-
nance values indicated in most standards (EM):
.
EM
E0 ¼
MF
There are three components of MF: the lamp lumen maintenance
factor (LLMF) which accounts for lamp luminous flux depreciation by
burning hours, the lamp survival factor (LSF) which accounts for ran-
dom lamp failures during use and the luminaire maintenance factor
(LMF) due to exterior and interior dirt accumulation:
MF ¼ LLMF⋅LSF⋅LMF
Random and premature failure of lamps, considered in the lamp sur-
vival factor, can affect the average illumination of indoor illumination
applications, (Sveinsdottir, 2007). However, in the case of road lighting,
the failure of a lamp produces much more than changes in average illu-
mination. As luminaires are located and separated in rows, a lamp fail-
ure produces an entire dark area which causes a drastic reduction in the
quality of the service. For such reason, if a spot lamp replacement main-
tenance policy is often applied, the effect of the premature lamp ran-
dom failure is minimized (Manzano and San Martin, 1999).
Based on the behavior of road lighting facilities due to depreciation,
for design calculations, only the luminaire depreciation by environmen-
tal pollution and lamp luminous flux reduction by exploitation will be
considered (CIE 154, 2003).
The use of low MF values seems to be a frequent practice used to
compensate the lack of or reduced maintenance for road lighting
that will produce an important energy impact. For that reason a re-
view and analysis of depreciation due to environment pollution on
lamp and luminaires will be carried out in this study.
Depreciation by dirt on luminaires
Road and urban lighting systems are constantly affected by wind,
rain and dirt because they are directly exposed to, them. The accumu-
lation of dirt in the exterior and interior optical parts of the luminaire
and in the lamp itself brings about a progressive loss of the luminous
emission. This source of depreciation can end up being the most signif-
icant and it is, at the same time, the one that allows major recovery
through maintenance actions, (CIE 154, 2003).
The amount of light loss depends on the nature and density of
airborne dirt, and luminaire design. Dirt accumulation on interior
reflecting and transmitting surfaces can be minimized by sealing the
lamp compartment against the entry of dust and moisture. In turn,
the level of contamination to which the luminaires will be exposed,
will mainly be a result of the level of pollution of the surrounding at-
mosphere, the height of the sources, the volume and nature of the ve-
hicular traffic, the climate, and wind pattern, according to Manzano
(2000). Dirt accumulating in the lamp depends strongly on the protec-
tion offered by the luminaire. In open luminaires, the accumulation of
dirt on lamps would be significant. Fortunately, open luminaires are
not used in most countries. For that reason dirt accumulation is usual-
ly approached from the point of view of the external surface of the lu-
minaire (CIE 154, 2003).
The degree of protection of luminaires will depend on their optical
sealing (lamp compartment) and the most effective way of character-
izing this quality, according to IEC 60529 (2004), is through its IP code.
State of art
Some of the first studies carried out regarding the depreciation by
dirt pollution for different categories of luminaires and types of envi-
ronment were by Van Dusen (1971). For technological differences
with the present, and in order to make an analogy with the current sit-
uation where luminaires are used with an adequate sealing of the lamp
compartment, curves corresponding to closed luminaires which were
provided with good mechanical gaskets, from all luminaire types that
had been analyzed, were selected.
The curves of the light output with a good mechanical closing in
ð1Þ
five environmental categories are represented in Fig. 1 (fine line)
and described in Table 1.
The lluminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) has
partially adopted the results of Van Dusen since 1993 but only con-
siders a 8-year period in which it carries out an extrapolation of the
data. Fig. 1 represents, (thick line) the information given by IESNA
DG-4 (1993).
When comparing the two references, a small difference is ob-
ð2Þ served, which is bigger for the initial period until the second year in
dirty and very dirty environments; and, from the first to the sixth
year for a clean environment. In the most adverse environment, the ef-
fect on the luminaire output shows a reduction of 50% compared to the
initial one, after 4 years. Currently, the IESNA continues to use these
behaviors (Rea, 2000). It should be noted that these references do
not take into account all the diverse degrees of sealing of the lamp op-
tical compartment in the available luminaires at present. This is a very
influential characteristic that differentiates luminaires from each
other.
In 1977, the Association of Public Lighting Engineers (APLE) of the
United Kingdom, in its Technical Report TR8, carried out a series of tri-
als with the objective of determining the effects of depreciation in
public illumination facilities. These trials studied the effect of the accu-
mulation of dirt on the exterior and interior sides of the luminaire, the
depreciation of the optical components, the benefits of hermetic clos-
ing and the changes in the photometrical characteristics. In his work,
Manzano (2000), starting from the original data published in APLE
Technical Report TR8, extracted the results obtained in the town of
Leicester. According to his criterion, those results are the most
 I.O. Mockey Coureaux, E. Manzano / Energy for Sustainable Development 17 (2013) 357–362
Fig. 1. Depreciation of luminaire of public ilumination, with hermetic closing and five
types of environments published by Van Dusen (1971), in fine line and the IESNA DG-4
(1993) in thick line.
appropriate to discriminate three environment categories according
to the density of automotive traffic (vehicles per day, vpd). At the
same time, they are closely related to the local atmospheric contami-
nation and to the presence of dust which characterizes the environ-
ment, as the existence of other sources is not indicated. Table 2
describes the characteristics of the environments.
When comparing the results obtained by Van Dusen (1971) and
those of APLE TR8 (1977) we find that, although it is not possible to
make a direct analogy, the similarities observed in the depreciation
curves for the extreme categories of environments are appreciable.
The environments, characterized as clean and very dirty by Van Dusen
are comparable with those of low pollution (10,000 vpd) and high pol-
lution (30,000 vpd) of APLE respectively, as shown in Fig. 2.
However, the luminaires used by Van Dusen and APLE did not have
a precise description of the degree of sealing of the lamp compartment
as the one used at present through the international protection code
(IP), according to IEC 60529 (2004). Therefore, the luminaire depreci-
ation behavior can be better characterized and the use of this informa-
tion extended.
Institution of Lighting Engineers (ILE) carried out tests using two
types of luminaires: IP23 and IP54, (ILE TR19, 1989). A significant reduc-
tion of depreciation when increasing the degree of sealing from IP23 to
IP54 was verified. In addition to this, an effect of non-recoverable depre-
ciation with the action of luminaire cleaning of 9.5% (90.5%) for IP23 and
of 2.5% (97.5%) for IP54 was found. This is attributable to depreciation
by deterioration and aging of the transmitter or reflecting surfaces
due to oxidation, temperature and ultraviolet radiation effects, chemical
effects, etc. This effect is not recoverable by cleaning processes.
The British Standard established the depreciation factors for lumi-
naires according to IP rating and three categories of environmental
contamination: high, medium and low, (BS5489, 1987). These are
characterized in Table 3.
Table 1
Categories of the environments according to Van Dusen (1971).
Environment Environment
category
Very clean Absence of nearby activities that generate smoke
or dust and low environmental contamination
Clean Absence of nearby activities that generate smoke
or dust and low environmental contamination
Moderate Presence of some activities that generate smoke or dust
Dirty Presence of smoke or dust generated by nearby activities
that can occasionally surround the luminaires
Very dirty Presence of smoke or dust generated by nearby activities
that can frequently surround the luminaires
359
Table 2
Characterization of atmospheric pollution degree in environment of lighting facilities,
in connection with traffic density, (APLE TR8, 1977).
Pollution Traffic Vehicles per day (vpd)
High Heavy 30,000
Medium Mixed: private and commercial 20,000
Low Mixed: private, services and heavy 10,000
When comparing this environment classification for environmen-
tal pollution with the one carried out by Van Dusen (1971) the fol-
lowing correspondence is observed:
BS5489, 1987 Van Dusen, 1971
(Pollution) (Environment)
Low Very clean
Medium Clean and Moderate
High Dirty
The successive versions of BS5489 standard continued recommending
the same values of luminaire maintenance factor due to dirt (BS5489,
1992; BS5489, 2003). Table 4 shows the strong influence that optical
sealing has on depreciation. For better sealing, both the environmental
conditions and the frequency of cleaning have a smaller influence on lu-
minaire depreciation.
According to the BS, only the first digit of the IP rating is specified.
It refers to protection against the dust entrance. Instead of specifying
the second digit, an X is placed, which could signify that the entrance
of water to the luminaires does not affect its depreciation significant-
ly. Nevertheless, values greater than 4 are recommended.
On the other hand, CIE from 1998, proposed the use of the curves of
the BS5489 in order to calculate the lighting depreciation (CIE TC 5.14,
1998). In the year 2000, it recognized that this depreciation could be
determined by two main ways, (CIE 136, 2000):
• For typical American closed type luminaires, according to IESNA,
DG-4 (1993) from the curve corresponding to the type of environ-
ment and considering the frequency of successive cleanings.
• For IP rated luminaires, as per (BS5489, 2003), according to the en-
vironmental pollution and the frequency of cleaning.
However, in the technical report (CIE 154, 2003), which consti-
tutes a very explicit and detailed reference for this issue, a lot of im-
portance is given to the sealing of lamp compartments and, at the
very least, a protection level IP5X is recommended, and the same lu-
minaire maintenance factors as those of (BS5489, 2003) are proposed.
Other recent standards such as BS EN, 13201 (2003); EN 12464-2
(2007), although they specify the importance of this depreciation
type and indicate that the designer should prepare a maintenance
schedule which includes the frequency of lamp replacement, intervals
of luminaire cleaning and cleaning methods, do not offer recommen-
dations about the determination of a depreciation factor due to accu-
mulated dirt.
Traffic Particles in
suspension
Reduced, generally limited to residential areas 0–150 μg/m3
or rural areas
Moderate to intense 150–300 μg/m3
– 300–600 μg/m3
– 600–1200 μg/m3
– 1200–2400 μg/m3
360 I.O. Mockey Coureaux, E. Manzano / Energy for Sustainable Development 17 (2013) 357–362

Fig. 2. Comparison of Van Dusen and APLE's results.

On the other hand, the London Transport Department in the Design
Manual for Roads and Bridges, (updated in 2007) incorporates changes
issued by the European Standard (EN13201, 2003) and BS5489 (2003).
Previously TD34 (1991) prescribed a single value of maintenance factor
for all types of roads and equal to 0.81. The updating of TD34 (TD34,
2007) guides designers to calculate the maintenance factor according
to BS5489 (2003), previously described. That is why, according to
Sanders and Scott (2008), TD34 is now in correspondence with BS5489
(2003). This has the advantage of working with luminaires with the
highest IP ratings and, because of this, bigger maintenance factors can
be used and, potentially, it is possible to achieve an increase of the spac-
ing between points of light.
The report of Sanders and Scott (2008), considers change under
the current conditions related to two aspects:
• In recent years the luminaire IP rating has been increased, in general,
and most road luminaires are of rating IP6X.
• Environmental concerns and regulations have resulted in a reduc-
tion in environmental pollution.
Their work has been evaluated in several communities of the Unit-
for mounting heights smaller than or equal to 6 m and for those of
mounting heights greater than 7 m.
These results indicate the low influence of environment on depre-
ciation due to dirt on luminaires with a high sealing of optical com-
partment like those used with IP65. At the same time, (Sanders and
Scott, 2008) emphasize that the element with greater influence is
height. For lower mounting heights and, mainly, for those lower
than 6m the depreciation is more significant. For that reason, this anal-
ysis would have smaller significance in applications of road lighting,
taking into account that these systems are generally placed at a height
of more than 6m.
When comparing the above results with those proposed by
BS5489 (2003), (see Fig. 3), it can be appreciated that the resulting
depreciation is significantly lower, probably because of lower envi-
ronmental pollution. Although these results are not necessarily valid
Table 4
Luminaires depreciation factors due to dirt, according to BS5489 (2003).

ed Kingdom and Scotland for 4 years through laboratory depreciation Optical compartment Pollution Exposure time (months)
measurements of luminaires with IP65 rating in different facilities, as IP rating category
12 18 24 30 36 42 48
well as for environmental pollution and location height.
IP2X Low 0.82 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.77
For the consideration of environmental pollution, they classified
Medium 0.62 0.58 0.56 0.54 0.53 0.52 0.51
the studied areas into four areas of environmental protection: E1, E2, High 0.53 0.48 0.45 0.43 0.42 0.41 0.40
E3 and E4. Table 5 shows the results that are obtained when the IP5X Low 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.87
cases analyzed by areas E1/E2 and E3/E4 are grouped together and Medium 0.90 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.80 0.79
High 0.89 0.87 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.72 0.69
IP6X Low 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.89 0.89
Medium 0.92 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.86
High 0.91 0.90 0.88 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.80
Table 3
Degree of atmospheric contamination in the environment of the illumination installation
to characterize the depreciation, according to BS5489 (1987).

Pollution Features Particles in

suspensiona Table 5
Depreciation of lighting with IP65 for different heights and environmental characteristics.
High Smoke or dust generated by nearby activities are –
commonly surrounding the luminaires. E zone Mounting height (m) Exposure time (months)
Medium Moderate smoke or dust generated by activities nearby. b600 μg/m3
12 24 36 48
Moderate to heavy traffic.
Low No nearby smoke or dust generated by activities and a b150 μg/m3 E1/E2 ≤6 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.94
low ambient contaminant level. Light traffic. Generally E1/E2 >7 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.94
limited to residential or rural areas. E3/E4 ≤6 0.94 0.92 0.90 0.89
a E3/E4 >7 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94
Added by CIE TC 5.14 (1998).
 I.O. Mockey Coureaux, E. Manzano / Energy for Sustainable Development 17 (2013) 357–362
Fig. 3. Comparison between the depreciation obtained by Sanders; Scott, (2008) regarding the values recomended by BS5489 (2003) for IP 65 luminaires.
in other parts of the world, this corroborates the recommendation of
BS5489 (2003); CIE 154 (2003) regarding the necessity to obtain de-
preciation by local measurements for the adoption of maintenance
programs.
Another work in this field was carried out by Sveinsdottir (2007),
where the impact of different maintenance policies on the illumina-
tion of several public roads of Reykjavik in Iceland was studied. In
his study he used the values of luminaire's depreciation indicated by
CIE 154 (2003).
Discussion
As has been described, luminaire depreciation due to accumulated
dirt is characterized by the recommendations from IESNA and CIE. Tak-
ing into account the optical sealing characterization of luminaires by IP
ratings adopted by numerous countries and proposed by CIE, together
with the categorization of the environmental dirt based on the average
traffic density, the CIE 154 (2003) luminaire depreciation model is
recommended for adoption. However, it is possible to find a difference
with regard to the level of pollution in different areas. Therefore, in
order to evaluate existing facilities, some measurements in situ may
be necessary to adjust the curves to local values.
Conclusions
1. The strong impact of luminaire protection against the entrance of
dust is evidenced in the reduction in resulting depreciation. The
IP rating characterizes this luminaire capacity.
2. The studies demonstrate that for luminaires with rating IP 6X, the
depreciation is low and almost independent of environmental pol-
lution level.
3. The most reliable source that reports the luminaire depreciation
due to dirt is CIE 154 (2003) and has been the basis of reference
for other standards and support of recent researches in this field.
However, the improvements in construction of the luminaires, es-
pecially in their sealing, and the improvement of the environmen-
tal conditions in some countries could suggest a need for updating
of this standard. It is also assumed that IP sealing luminaire charac-
teristics remain unchanged after maintenance cleaning or when a
lamp spot replacement operation is applied.
361
4. New generations of LED luminaires are built as per IP6 and this will
probably soon be the default standard for road and urban lighting
luminaires. Even if these luminaires have a high lamp survival, an
exterior cleaning operation will be necessary and the luminaire de-
preciation behaviour model will still be useful.
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