INTRODUCTION: How to Minimize Error Propagation in Experiments When the zero line of the vernier scale coincides on any

scale coincides on any line on the fixed scale

1. HOW TO TAKE DATA – experimental data usually consists of recording divisions, then n divisions of the vernier scale will correspond to n-1 divisions
one or more measured quantities while some other controllable quantity of the fixed scale. If S is the length of the smallest fixed scale division and D
is changed systematically. is the length of the smallest vernier scale division, then:
2. HOW TO MINIMIZE AND ESTIMATE EXPERIMENTAL UNCERTAINTY – the 𝑛−1
𝑛𝐷 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝐷 = 𝑆
error or uncertainty in any measured quantity should be minimized. 𝑛
Errors that are repeated throughout an entire ser of measurements are The least count (LC) is the term applied to the smallest value that can be read
termed systematic errors that could be due to instrumental defects, directly from the vernier scale. It is equal to the difference between the fixed
constant bias in making a measurement, and misunderstanding of the scale and vernier scale division:
𝑛−1 𝑆
quantity to be measured. 𝐿𝐶 = 𝑆 − 𝐷 = 𝑆 − 𝑆=
𝑛 𝑛
AVERAGE or MEAN
𝑁
B. The Micrometer Caliper ______________________________________
1 A micrometer caliper is an instrument for determining the distance between
𝑋= ∑ 𝑋𝑖
𝑁 two surfaces and for indication the value of the distance using an accurate
𝑖=1
UNIVERSE STANDARD DEVIATION pitched screw. It
𝑁
1 measures the length by
2
1 translating the distance
𝜎 = [ ∑(𝑋𝑖 − 𝑋)2 ]
𝑁 into revolutions and
𝑖=1
% DIFFERENCE fractions of revolution
|𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒| of a known pitch.
% 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
× 100 C. The Ruler __________________________________________________
3. DATA ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION – the Method of Least Squares is an A ruler is an instrument consisting of a smooth straight edge strip of a
analytical method for obtaining the most reliable slope from a set of materials with marked off units. It is used to measure the distance between
linearized experimental data. According to this method, the most two points.
probably value of a quantity to be determined is obtained from a set of
measurement by choosing the value, which minimized the sum of the
squares of the deviations of these measurements. If two variables are ACTIVITY #2 – Vectors
known to be related by a linear equation of the form y=mx+b, then the All measurable quantities may be classified either as scalar or vector
most probable values of m and b can be obtained from, quantities. A line segment represents a vector whose length indicates its
𝑁(∑𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 ) − (∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 )(∑𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖 ) magnitude and an arrowhead at the tip of the segment indicates its direction.
𝑚= 𝑁 2 𝑁 2
𝑁(∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 ) − (∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 ) = ∆ When vectors do not have the same line of
(∑𝑁 𝑁 2 𝑁 𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖 )(∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 ) − (∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 )(∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 ) action, their vector sum is not their algebraic
𝑏= 𝑁 2 𝑁 2
𝑁(∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 ) − (∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 ) = ∆ sum but a geometric sum. Graphical Method
The standard deviations of the values of m and b are given by the square is of two kinds: Parallelogram Method and
roots of the variances, where: Polygon Method.
𝑁𝜎 2 𝜎 2 (∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 2) - Parallelogram Method. More suitable when more than two
𝜎𝑚2
= 𝜎𝑏2 = vectors are considered.
∆ ∆
2
𝑁 𝑁 - Polygon Method. More suitable when more than two vectors are
∆= 𝑁 (∑ 𝑥𝑖 2) − (∑ 𝑥𝑖 ) given.
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 When only two vector quantities were added, the sum is called the resultant
𝑁
1 in which it is readily obtained by applying the sine and cosine laws.
𝜎2 = (∑(𝑚𝑥𝑖 + 𝑏 − 𝑦𝑖 )2)
𝑁−2 - Analytical Method. Used to get more accurate results since using
𝑖=1
graphical methods for the solution of vector problems are
ACTIVITY #1 – Measurement of Length frequently not accurate.
MEASUREMENT is a process of comparing an unknown quantity with a known - Component Method. If more than two vectors are added, this
quantity. method is more suitable.
- Every measurement is an approximation because of human and The vectors considered in this activity are concurrent forces. An instrument
mechanical limitations. used to verify is called a force table. The force tables determines the
- Measurement has a limit of accuracy and precision. equilibrant, a force equal in
ACCURACY is a way of describing how close a measured or calculated quantity magnitude but opposite in direction.
is to that of the actual quantity it represents. The object on which the forces act is
PRECISION or which is also called as reproducibility or repeatability, describes a ring at the center of the table. A
to which further measurements or calculations show the same or similar pin within the ring prevents motion
results. of the ring before equilibrium is
established. Forces are applied on
A. The Vernier Caliper __________________________________________ strings that pass over pulleys and
The vernier scale of the vernier caliper is an auxiliary scale which enables one connected to weight hangers. The
to exactly determine some fractional part of a division on a fixed scale on direction of each force is read on the circular scale of the force table.
which it is attached. This auxiliary scale has divisions which are slightly smaller LAW OF COSINE: LAW OF SINE:
than the divisions on the stationary fixed scale along which it slides. 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= =
𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐶

ACTIVITY #3 – Free Fall and Projectile Motion

The most common example of motion with nearly constant acceleration is that
of a body falling freely toward the Earth. In the absence of air resistance, it has
been found that all bodies (regardless of their size), fall with the same
acceleration at the same point near the Earth’s surface. An object that is given
an initial velocity (and which subsequently follows a path determined by the
gravitational force acting on it and all frictional resistance of the atmosphere)
is called a projectile. The path followed by a projectile is called its trajectory.
We shall consider
trajectories which
have sufficiently short
ranges such that (a)
the gravitational force
can be considered
constant in magnitude and direction and (b) the effects of the air resistance
can be ignored.
Using Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion, it can be seen that a projectile’s motion is
a combination of horizontal motion with constant velocity and a vertical
motion with constant acceleration.
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃0 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 − 𝑔𝑡 = 𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 − 𝑔𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑣0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃0 𝑡 1
𝑦 = 𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
𝑣 Under this condition, the total mechanical energy is conserved.
𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ( 𝑦⁄𝑣𝑥 )
ACTIVITY #4 – Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion: Simple Atwood’s Machine
Whenever a resultant force acts on a body, the body accelerate. This
acceleration is
proportional to the
magnitude of the
resultant force and is
directed in the
direction of the
resultant force. This
law is symbolically
written as, 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎.
ACTIVITY #5 – Kinetic and Static Friction
Friction is a force that resists the motion of one surface relative to another
with which it is in contact. It is directed opposite to the direction of motion
and parallel to the surface in contact.
- A sliding object across a surface will eventually come to rest
because of friction. Although friction cannot be eliminated
completely, but it can be reduced to exceedingly small values.
There are two kind of friction forces namely, the static frictional force (0 ≤
𝑓𝑠 ≤ 𝜇𝑠 𝜂) and the kinetic frictional force (𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝜂).
COEFFICIENT OF STATIC FRICTION 𝜇𝑠
COEFFICIENT OF KINETIC FRICTION 𝜇𝑘
NORMAL FORCE that is directed 𝜂 equations from the rotational
perpendicular to the surface of
contact
If a body at elevation ℎ1 is move
to elevation ℎ2 along any path,
then the work of the
gravitational force, 𝑤𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 =
𝑚𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ).
The sum of the kinetic and
potential energy of a body is
called its total mechanical
energy (𝐸𝑚 ).
If a body moves from point 1 to point 2, then:
𝑊 ′ = 𝐸𝑚2 − 𝐸𝑚1 = ∆𝐸𝑚
Where 𝑊′ is the sum of the works done by external forces, except the
gravitational force, acting on the body.
If the only external force acting on the body is the gravitational force, then:
𝐸𝑚1 = 𝐸𝑚2
ACTIVITY #7 – Elasticity of Matter: Hooke’s Law
An external stress acts on a solid, its shape, size, or orientation may change.
At constant temperature, solids retain their definite shapes and sizes unless
acted on by an external stress. Once the solid returns to its original shape and
size, the solid is said to be elastic.
- Elasticity of a body is its ability to return to its original size and
shape after being subjected to some stresses.
- Elastic Limit of the body is the greatest stress for which a body can
still return to its original size and shape.
- When the stress applied to a body is greater than its elastic limit,
the body acquires a permanent deformation.
When no force acts on the spring or on the rubber tube, the tip or end of the
body rests at its equilibrium position.
- As the force that is pulling the body increases, the body stretches
and moves farther from its equilibrium.
- The displacement from equilibrium is directly proportional to the
applied force.
The proportionality between the magnitude of the applied force and the
displacement from equilibrium can be expressed in an equation called Hooke’s
Law: 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥, where 𝑘 is called the force constant of the body.
ACTIVITY #8 – Torque: Simple Demonstration Balance
Two unknown masses on a
demonstration balance in
static equilibrium are
determined using torque
analog of Newton’s second
law. Data for these equations are obtained by measuring the level arms and
using one known weight. The weight of the meter stick is determined by
supporting the meter stick at some point other than the center of gravity,
restoring equilibrium by the use of known weights, and writing the equation
for torques acting on the system.

ACTIVITY #9 – Simple Harmonic Motion

ACTIVITY #6 – Work and Energy A simple pendulum is composed of a small body suspended by an
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy. unstretchable cord of negligible mass.
If a body has a mass 𝑚 and a speed of 𝑣, then its translation kinetic energy, - An Oscillatory Motion can be observed when the object is
2
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣 ⁄2 displaced from its position and released.
An important result regarding work and kinetic energy is that the work of If the arc of displacement is small, 𝐿
the resultant externa force on a body is equal to the change in its kinetic the motion is approximately simple 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔
energy: harmonic with a period T, where:
𝐿
𝑊𝑟 = 𝐸𝑘2 − 𝐸𝑘1 = ∆𝐸𝑘 𝑳 is the length of pendulum 𝑇 2 = 4𝜋 2
𝑔
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position is called potential 𝒈 is the magnitude of the
energy. acceleration due to gravity
A body of mass 𝑚 at a height ℎ above a reference level has a gravitational The square of the period as a function of length traces a straight line whose
4𝜋2
potential energy, 𝑚𝑔ℎ with respect to that level. slope is equal to .
𝑔