International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism

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A Language Learning Journey: What’s Left? and

Where Next?

Inês Carvalho & Valerie Sheppard

To cite this article: Inês Carvalho & Valerie Sheppard (2021): A Language Learning Journey:
What’s Left? and Where Next?, International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, DOI:
10.1080/15256480.2021.1953424

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15256480.2021.1953424

Published online: 12 Jul 2021.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION
https://doi.org/10.1080/15256480.2021.1953424

A Language Learning Journey: What’s Left? and Where

Next?
Inês Carvalhoa,b and Valerie Sheppard a
*
a
Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality (Research Unit for Tourism and Hospitality), Universidade Europeia,
Lisbon, Portugal; bResearch Unit for Governance, Competitiveness and Public Policies (GOVCOPP),
University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The main aim of this study is to explore post-travel outcomes in Received 2 March 2021
language travel. It sought to address the following research Revised 1 June 2021
objectives: to understand the factors that influenced language Accepted 2 June 2021
travelers’ language and destination choice; to understand the KEYWORDS
main post-travel outcomes for language travelers, from a long- Language travel; language
term perspective; and to understand how language travel influ­ tourism; post-travel
ences subsequent travel behavior, in particular return intentions outcomes; return behavior;
and return behavior. Overall, the study findings suggest that destination choice
participants’ intrinsic interest in language and culture drove
their language choice, while destination choice was mostly
driven by their desire to enhance language skills. The main
language travel outcomes included: the improvement of lan­
guage abilities and subsequent professional and academic out­
comes; personal growth; further language travel, including
returning or migrating to previous travel destinations.

Introduction
Language tourism is an important component of the global tourism market
(UNWTO & WYSE, 2016), estimated at two million travelers annually.
Language tourism involves the activities of people traveling to a place beyond
their usual environment, where learning a language is a major aspect of their
trip (Iglesias, 2014). It may be a lucrative form of tourism for some tourism
destinations (Barra-Hernández, 2016). It usually involves extended lengths of
stay (Ortiz & Ruiz, 2011) and return vists (Barra-Hernández, 2016;
Drozdzewski, 2011; Kennett, 2002). Hence, previous studies suggested that
total travel spend is considerable, even when tourists have a limited daily
budget (Correia, 2011). Moreover, it is considered less seasonal than other
types of tourism (Ortiz et al., 2016). It also promotes greater consumption of
cultural and complementary tourism products (e.g., hotels, restaurants, trans­
portation etc.) (Campón-Cerro & Hernández-Mogollón, 2011; Iglesias, 2017).

CONTACT Inês Carvalho ines.carvalho@universidadeeuropeia.pt Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality

(Research Unit for Tourism and Hospitality), Universidade Europeia – Campus LISPOLIS, R. Laura Aires 4, Lisboa 1600-
604, Portugal
*Present address: Justice Institute of British Columbia, New Westminster, British Columbia, Canada
© 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 I. CARVALHO AND V. SHEPPARD

Although the English language is by far the market leader, the UNWTO &
WYSE (2016) observe that German, Spanish and Mandarin are increasing in
demand.
Despite its economic relevance, tourism academic studies in this area are
scarce. Existing studies almost exclusively focus on inbound language tourism
as it relates to a specific destination, mostly Spain (e.g., Ortiz & Ruiz, 2011),
and are focused on understanding stand-alone language tourism experiences.
Motivations are the most analyzed aspect of the language travel experience
(Gómez et al., 2018; Redondo-Carretero et al., 2017), while the post-travel
dimension is the most neglected one, including the likelihood of return visits.
Furthermore, most of these studies have exclusively focused on organized and
formal language tourism experiences (Boekstein, 2010; Redondo-Carretero
et al., 2017).
Consequently, the purpose of this research is to fill in these gaps by looking
at the broader perspective of the language travelers’ experience. Specifically,
this study answers the main research question: what are the post-travel out­
comes of language travel? We define post-travel outcomes as the enduring
effects of the travel experience in participants’ lives. These include not only
cognitive outcomes (knowledge acquired), affective outcomes (attitude
change) and behavioral outcomes (skills developed), as suggested by
Mcgladdery and Lubbe (2017), but also career development (Wang, 2017),
and revisit intentions (Caber et al., 2020).
Three sub-questions support the main research question:

(i) which factors influenced language travelers’ language and destination

choice?
(ii) what are the main post-travel outcomes for language travelers, from
a long-term perspective?
(iii) how does language travel influence subsequent travel behavior, in
particular return intentions and return behavior?

Literature Review
In the following sections we examine the most salient research in two key areas.
In the first, we examine literature related to learning through the travel experi­
ence, particularly as it relates to its perceived benefits. In the second section, we
focus more specifically on key literature related to language tourism, particu­
larly in the area of motivation and perceived outcomes of language travel.

Learning through Travel

Knowledge is a means to control one’s fate (Falk & Dierking, 2000, p. 62).
Knowledge gained through learning, outside schooling, is believed to enable
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 3

individuals to better adapt to current and future changes, and to stimulate

innovation and economic growth within society (Ritchie, 2003). Learning is
also linked to leisure and travel, both offering opportunities for self-
development and learning (Falk et al., 2012), as individuals increasingly look
for new ways to identify themselves as human beings and fulfil their potential.
For Roberson (2018), learning through travel may contribute to an “individual
metamorphosis” and to a “personal shrinking of the globe” (p. 17).
Learning has since long been recognized as an important motive for travel
in academic literature. Iso-Ahola (1982) contends that leisure travelers, in
addition to escaping their daily routines, also seek opportunities for psycho­
logical rewards, e.g., through learning. Both Pearce (1988) and Pearce and Lee
(2005) included learning in their models of the travel career ladder and the
travel career pattern, respectively. Other studies also suggest that the desire to
learn influences destination choice and the activities pursued in the destina­
tion (Packer, 2006; Poria, Butler, & Airey, 2004; Van Winkle & Lagay, 2012).
According to Falk et al. (2012), travel for learning may be the archetype of the
emerging new model of tourism, characterized by a quest for something more
personally fulfilling.
The nexus between tourism and learning is perhaps most visible in educa­
tional tourism. However, there is no consensus around the definition of
“educational tourism.” While some scholars define it as “informal journey[s]
of self-discovery” (Mcgladdery & Lubbe, 2017, p. 8) or backpacking rites of
passage (Pitman et al., 2010), others have adopted narrower definitions,
thereby reserving the term for organized trips led by skilled guides (Sie et al.,
2015), and more formally organized travel (Stone & Petrick, 2013).
Ritchie (2003), adopting a market segment approach, divided educational
tourism into “education first” or “tourism first.” Mcgladdery and Lubbe (2017)
criticized this motivational dichotomy because it excludes sectors where learn­
ing may be a significant activity. To overcome these limitations, they proposed
a process-driven, outcomes-based model of educational tourism as
a transformative experience defined by the process of learning, rather than
as an industry sector or a subject matter. They identified three categories of
learning outcomes: cognitive (knowledge acquired); affective (change in atti­
tudes or ways of thinking); and behavioral (skills developed). In contrast, Falk
et al. (2012) conceptualized travel’s contribution to learning based upon
Aristotle’s division of wisdom into three kinds of competencies: episteme
(theoretical knowledge); techne (practical skill); and phronesis (practical wis­
dom, including reflexivity, good judgment). According to Falk et al. (2012),
learning experiences within tourism activities can be an enjoyable part of the
total travel experience, since they are personal, memorable, and
transformative.
Interestingly, learning through travel can impact a traveler’s quality of life.
The literature has identified several beneficial outcomes of travel for
4 I. CARVALHO AND V. SHEPPARD

learning. Studies have suggested that traveling can lead to an increase in

knowledge and skills (Alexander et al., 2010), namely cross-cultural and
communication skills (Inkson & Myers, 2003; Roberson,2018), as well as
problem-solving, thinking skills among other generic skills (Pearce & Foster,
2007; Roberson, 2018). Therefore, it may have an impact on academic
attainment and career choices (Dwyer, 2004). Other benefits of learning
through travel have also been frequently highlighted: increased indepen­
dence and autonomy (Bachner & Zeutschel, 2009; Fu et al., 2018; Inkson &
Myers, 2003; Liang et al., 2015; Roberson, 2018); adaptability (Pearce &
Foster, 2007); and confidence, self-confidence and self-esteem (Bachner &
Zeutschel, 2009; Gmelch, 1997; Inkson & Myers, 2003; Liang et al., 2015;
Roberson, 2018). Some studies suggest that learning in the context of travel
stimulates environmental and global citizenship (Bell et al., 2016; Landon
et al., 2019; Stoner et al., 2014; Tarrant et al., 2011), as well as increased
cultural awareness, cultural understanding and intercultural competence
(Dwyer, 2004; Laubscher, 1994; Pearce & Foster, 2007; Richards & Wilson,
2003; Starr-Glass, 2016), which are reflexive traits that epitomize the notion
of phronesis (Falk et al., 2012). A change of world view, increased self-
awareness and personal growth are other outcomes of travel for learning
identified in tourism research (Dwyer, 2004; Liang et al., 2015; Roberson,
2018). Although longer study-abroad experiences may bring more significant
benefits, shorter periods may also bring significant benefits (Dwyer, 2004;
Ingraham & Peterson, 2004).
According to Falk et al. (2012), benefits derived from learning through
travel may “long outlive the temporal boundaries of the experience itself”
(p. 922), and extend beyond the individual, to society and the planet. Dwyer
(2004) demonstrated that this impact can be sustained over a period as long as
50 years. According to Mcgladdery and Lubbe (2017), educational tourism has
the potential to address the “compassion gap” (i.e. “what people say they know
and feel about global issues compared with what they are prepared to do about
them,” p. 12). It can also assist in overcoming stereotypes and the commodi­
fication of cultures, and thus encourage the development of tolerance and
peace at a global level.
Out-of-class experiences, instead of in-class academic experiences, may
be the most impactful part of study abroad journeys (Gmelch, 1997;
Laubscher, 1994; Stone & Petrick, 2013). According to Stone and Petrick
(2013), it is not exclusively through formal study abroad programs that
travel for learning occurs. Independent international travel may yield simi­
lar learning benefits. Learning and behavior change can occur even in the
absence of planned and formal learning activities (Inkson & Myers, 2003;
Minnaert, 2012; Pearce & Foster, 2007). Hence, the present study addresses
the outcomes of formal and informal travel for learning in the specific
context of language tourism.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 5

Language Tourism

Almost all studies on language tourism have focused on analyzing formal

language tourism experiences, mostly in private schools and universities. The
results of these studies suggest that the typical language tourist is female,
highly educated, likely enrolled at a university (Boekstein, 2010; Leiton et al.,
2016; Ullauri et al., 2017), and in the age range of 18 to 25 years (see Castillo-
Arredondo et al., 2017; Ortiz et al., 2016; Redondo-Carretero et al., 2017;
Ullauri et al., 2017; Urgilés & Pauta, 2018). Previous studies also suggest that
language tourists stay for extended periods of time in a destination. Some
studies suggest an average stay of four weeks (Boekstein, 2010; Campón-Cerro
& Hernández-Mogollón, 2011; Ortiz et al., 2016; Urgilés & Pauta, 2018), while
others reported that it was common for language tourists to stay up to
6.5 weeks (Ortiz et al., 2016), two to three months (Ullauri et al., 2017), and
in some case as long as six months (Leiton et al., 2016).
Three motivational dimensions have been observed: the motivation to learn
a certain language; the motivation to engage in language travel; and, the
motivation to choose a specific destination. Some studies, such as that of
Redondo-Carretero et al. (2017), explain language tourists’ motivations
through a push-pull theoretical framework. Push factors are associated with
the reasons for language choice, while pull factors are associated with the
reasons for country choice. The authors divided push factors into two main
types, which coincide with Coleman’s (1997) distinction between an integra­
tive and an instrumental orientation to language learning. The authors suggest
that the push factors have either an integrative or instrumental orientation to
language learning. An integrated orientation is associated with a sincere inter­
est in the language of a people and or culture, while an instrumental orienta­
tion is associated with the recognition of the benefits of learning a new
language.
Other researchers have sought to identify and categorize the motivations
of those who travel to learn a language. For example, Gómez et al. (2018)
organized the motivations into three key areas: educational (the most impor­
tant), cultural (i.e. understanding the culture, community contact) and
ancestral (i.e. learning the language of an ancestral home land. Other
researchers have identified other motivations that include professional rea­
sons (e.g., Campón-Cerro & Hernández-Mogollón, 2011; Castillo-
Arredondo et al., 2017), combining education with a vacation (e.g., Leiton
et al., 2016), as well as other interests such as learning about a culture,
gastronomy, and even a destination’s natural environment (Castillo-
Arredondo et al., 2017).
Many studies have sought to understand the main motivations for choosing
a specific destination for language travel. These destination choice motiva­
tional factors are displayed in Table 1.
6 I. CARVALHO AND V. SHEPPARD

Table 1. Motivations for destination choice in language travel. Developed by the authors.
Culture in the destination
Climate
Kind of language spoken in the region or
country, i.e. its “clarity” and “pureness”
Nature in the destination
Better value for money or lower price
Proximity
Quality of education provided
Existence of a university agreement
Security and diversity of attractions and
opportunities for recreation
Recommendations
(Castillo-Arredondo et al., 2017; Leiton et al., 2016; Ortiz & Ruiz,
2011; Redondo-Carretero et al., 2017; Urgilés & Pauta, 2018)
(Boekstein, 2010; Castillo-Arredondo et al., 2017; Urgilés & Pauta,
2018)
(Campón-Cerro & Hernández-Mogollón, 2011; Redondo-Carretero
et al., 2017; Ullauri et al., 2017)
(Leiton et al., 2016; Urgilés & Pauta, 2018)
(Boekstein, 2010; Leiton et al., 2016)
(Campón-Cerro & Hernández-Mogollón, 2011)
(Campón-Cerro & Hernández-Mogollón, 2011; Leiton et al., 2016)
(Castillo-Arredondo et al., 2014)
(Leiton et al., 2016)
(Redondo-Carretero et al., 2017)

As it relates to research undertaken with language travelers participating in

a formal learning setting, such as a language school or center, the destination
appears to play both a motivational and a non-motivational role. For example,
Ortiz and Ruiz (2011) observed that students chose their destination based
upon the city itself, rather than based upon the quality of the study center. In
contrast, Redondo-Carretero et al. (2017) discovered that several participants
chose the language learning school as a primary factor, rather than the
destination.
Interestingly, the literature reveals that the language learning motivation
may vary according to the language being learned. For example, Castillo-
Arredondo (2014) compared language tourism in Spain to Germany and
concluded that adults prefer learning Spanish due to cultural aspects, tradi­
tions or climate, while younger people tend to prefer German because they
seek a better future and the opportunity to leave their home country. However,
Redondo-Carretero (2017) also highlights the increased importance of work-
related motivations for learning Spanish. In other studies, participants high­
lighted the global importance of Spanish (Castillo-Arredondo et al., 2017;
Ortiz & Ruiz, 2011). As to Galician, the interest for the local culture was the
main reason for learning Galician, coupled with the desire to continue future
visits, or maintain personal and family ties within the region. Hence, the goal
was more symbolic than pragmatic, since many tourists did not have the goal
to become conversational (O’Rourke & DePalma, 2017).
Few studies within the tourism field have analyzed the outcomes of lan­
guage travel; however, recently research on this topic has begun to appear in
the literature. For example, Iglesias and Feng (2017) case study on a language
tourism provider in Spain suggest that participants’ expectations concerning
their language tourism experience were mostly related with learning the
language and knowing the local culture, and that the main effect of their
stay was their improvement in language skills. Other effects with a lower
degree of importance were: becoming familiar with the local culture; liking
the experience; and meeting new people. In follow-up research, Iglesias et al.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 7

(2019) suggested that language tourism has the potential to change an indivi­
dual’s identity and values. Language tourists reported an improvement in their
language skills, becoming more open-minded and tolerant, more independent
and responsible, and more appreciative of their background after living in
another country. Outside the tourism literature, in the field of language
acquisition, more studies have analyzed the post-travel outcomes of language
trips. For example, Yang and Ke (2021) concluded that Chinese learners
improved both their pragmatic production and proficiency after a 15-week
study abroad program in China. Issa et al. (2020) concluded that both inter­
mediate and advanced Spanish learners evidenced significant language gains
during short-term study abroad summer programs in Spain.
However, what is missing from the literature is analysis of the long-term
outcomes or effects in language tourists’ lives. It appears that the only study
within the tourism field which considered the long-term impact of language
travel was Kennett’s (2002) exploratory study. Using the framework of serious
leisure, she explored the language travel career of “Amy,” who traveled
numerous times to Japan to improve her Japanese. The author observed how
Amy maintained her Japanese and her personal contacts in Japan, how she
maintained the friendships made in Japan, how she developed a personal
affinity in the country, and how “Japaneseness” became part of her externally
assigned identity. This exploratory study concluded that language travel is
a cultural journey that has the potential to become an “encompassing and
evolving life pursuit” (p. 559).
Hence, this study delves more deeply into the post-travel outcomes of
language travel. It analyzes language travel outcomes in a sample of travelers
with formal and informal language travel experiences and builds upon the
work of Kennett’s (2002) exploratory single case study by exploring broader
and longer-term aspects of language travel. As previous studies suggest that
language travelers have a greater likelihood to return to the destination (see
Barra-Hernández, 2016; Drozdzewski, 2011; Kennett, 2002), we also included
return intentions and return behavior in the analysis of travel outcomes.

Materials and Methods

A qualitative methodological approach was chosen in order to “capture and
elucidate [. . .] human phenomena that appear and are felt in people’s experi­
ence” (Polkinghorne 2006, p. 68). Participants (22) were recruited from
language and travel-related interest groups found on social media platforms
(e.g., communities of travelers, polyglots, language exchange etc.) and repre­
sented a purposeful sample (Patton 1990) (See Table 2). Overall, the partici­
pants represented a total of 80 language travel experiences (17 experiences of
exchange semester/year abroad, 28 of formal language tourism programs, and
35 of independent language travel). To be included in the study participants
8 I. CARVALHO AND V. SHEPPARD

Table 2. Sample characterization.

Developed by the authors.
Gender
Men 6
Women 14
Non-binary 1
Age
0–18 0
19–24 5
25–30 8
31–35 5
36–40 1
>40 2
Languages spoken
Two 1
Three 5
Four 7
Five 4
Six 2
Eight 1
>Twenty 1
Country of residence
Portugal 4
Italy 3
UK 2
Sweden 2
US 2
Austria 1
Russia 1
China 1
Japan 1
Egypt 1
Canada 1
Dominican Republic 1
Australia 1
Country of origin
US 4
Italy 3
Portugal 2
UK 2
Germany 1
Sweden 1
Bosnia and Herzegovina 1
Ukraine 1
Russia 1
Egypt 1
India 1
Canada 1
Australia 1
Colombia 1
Venezuela 1
Number of language travel experiences
One 5
Two 3
Three 3
Four 2
Five 3
Six 1
Seven 1
Eight 1
Ten> 2
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 9

had to have traveled as a tourist, outside their country of residence, for the
purpose of learning a language. Some had participated in formal language
study at the destination, while others had not. Interestingly, some participants
subsequently migrated to the county where they had learned a language and
these individuals were included in the study. Other participants were involved
in paid work at the destination and these individuals were also included in the
study, provided that the work was informal and/or temporary in nature, and
that the main purpose for working was to finance their stay for language
learning purposes. Language traveling often involves prolonged stays in the
same destination, and thus higher expenses. As such, this is often the only way
some travelers can afford their experiences. Adding the unique perspectives of
these participants enriched the findings of this study and provided a fuller
understanding of the phenomenon of language traveling.
In-depth, semi-structured interviews were undertaken through electronic
methods or face-to-face. Kvale and Brinkmann (2009) contend that interviews
enable the researcher to understand the participants’ attitudes, opinions, and
values, as well as how they make sense of their experiences. The interview
guide contained 15 questions; however, more questions were added or mod­
ified as the interviews unfolded. The interviews were subsequently transcribed
and analyzed by the study’s researchers. Thematic analysis involved both
deductive and inductive approaches. Braun and Clarke (2006) define thematic
analysis as a method for identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns (themes)
in qualitative data. NVivo was used for data analysis.

Results
Factors Influencing Language Choice and Destination Choice

Factors Influencing Language Choice

Many participants described the factors that influenced their language choice.
Some described this in terms of a sincere interest for the language or culture,
rather than a recognition of the practical benefits of language learning.
“Liking” or “loving” the language, especially the way the language sounds, or
the culture(s) associated with the language were the main motivations for
learning a specific language for many participants (see Figure 1). Participant 5
recollected that “I heard the language, and I liked the sound of it.” Similarly,
participant 8 stated, “I always thought that things like tea culture and calli­
graphy and Chinese thought and Chinese history were really interesting.”
Participant 4 stated, “I love like Spanish music, like Latin music and I always
wish to speak the language,” while participant 12 stated, “I decided to study
[Spanish] because I was really attracted by Hispano-Iberian culture.”
These quotes demonstrate an integrative orientation prevailed over an
instrumental orientation, as observed by Coleman (1997). This is an
10 I. CARVALHO AND V. SHEPPARD

“Like/love” languages in
general

“Like/love” a specific
Language-related
language

Interest in the language Easiness/ proximity of the

Language choice

and/or culture language

Early exposure to country/

Travel purposes Culture-related
culture

Academic/ professional
goals/ global importance of
language
Professional and financial
reasons
Parental influence

Ancestral reasons

Scholarship opportunity

Figure 1. Factors influencing language choice. Developed by the authors.

interesting finding, given the young age of most study participants. Despite the
importance of language learning for advancing career opportunities, for many
participants, advancing one’s career opportunities was not considered
a primary motivator.
In some cases, that interest was influenced by an early exposure to that
country or culture. Participant 8 described growing “up in Southern California
where there’s a lot of Chinese people.” Some participants stated that a general
interest for learning languages was their main motivation for language learn­
ing, instead of an interest for a specific language. For others, the “easiness” of
the language or its proximity to another language they already spoke was what
drove them to learn a certain language.
Another main theme, as described by participants, was wanting to learn the
language for travel purposes. In these cases, participants were more likely to
invest in language learning prior to the travel, and their main goals were to
communicate with locals, become more independent while traveling, and not
to be treated as tourists. While learning a language for travel purposes reflects
an interest for the culture, and thus an integrative orientation, it also reflects
an instrumental orientation, since participants highlighted the practical ben­
efits from knowing a language when traveling abroad. Participant 17 stated “I
speak the language and I don’t worry about getting lost or anything.”
Other themes reflect an instrumental orientation more clearly, such as
language learning for academic or professional reasons, or due to the
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 11

perception of the global importance of certain languages. For example,

participant 15 spoke of the global importance of English, stating it “is the
most important language in the world.” However, in a few cases both the
integrative and the instrumental dimensions are hard to distinguish. Many
informants chose careers for which language skills mattered because they
had an interest in languages in the first place. Kennett (2002) identified
a similar situation. A professional element crept into her participants’ travels
to Japan, due to both their desire to bring more personal significance to their
working lives, and their need to justify the vast input of resources required
by their time in Japan.
Participants’ discourses on motivations also revealed the influence of par­
ental influence on language choice, for professional, financial reasons, or
ancestral reasons. Participant 8, for example, stated that “my parents encour­
aged me to learn [Chinese], so that I could make money.” Participant 16 linked
her decision to start learning German based upon the fact that “my parents
were planning to return to Germany.” Germany was her parents’ ancestral
homeland.
Finally, a few participants started studying a language because they were
awarded a scholarship to learn a language in a specific country where the
language is spoken. In such cases, the opportunity of the scholarship influ­
enced their language choices.

Factors Influencing Destination Choice

Figure 2 summarizes the factors influencing destination choice according to
participants. In many cases, there were several factors that overlapped:
For some participants it was not clear whether the main driver of destina­
tion choice was the language or the travel aspect: For example, participant 17
stated, “I wanted to learn the language, so I was traveling to that region, but
I was also traveling because I like to travel.” In a few cases it was the attraction
to a certain destination that dictated destination choice and, consequently
language choice. For example, participant 5 stated that “[traveling to learn
a language] has never been like my number one reason [. . .] when I pick
a place to travel, I do tend to take up the language and I use my time in that
country to improve my speaking skills.”
However, for the majority of participants, the main factor influencing
destination choice was the desire to improve language skills. For example,
participant 3 described going back to Vietnam “to do some more study,”
because her “language skills were still not that great.” Similarly, participant
15 stated “The first intention was to learn the language, to learn English.”
Others described the added benefit of being able to participate in tourist
activities, while improving their language skills. Participant 7, for example,
described choosing Peru because it “was a Spanish-speaking country that had
Machu Pichu and had some different touristy things.”
12 I. CARVALHO AND V. SHEPPARD

Figure 2. Factors influencing destination choice. Developed by the authors.

Many of these participants chose their travel destination based upon their
judgment of what “the best place to learn the language” was. For these
participants, the “best place” was either the country where the language
originated, or the place where the language spoken is considered the standard
variant. For example, participant 2 described “the accent in Madrid” as being
“sort of the standard Spanish accent.” In Campón-Cerro and Hernández-
Mogollón (2011) study, language tourists also chose Spain in part because
they valued “knowing the culture in its cradle” (“el conocimento de la cultura
en su cuna,” p. 6).
In contrast, other participants preferred having a varied repertoire of
countries or destinations visited, and this influenced their destination choice.
For example, participant 9 chose to further her Spanish skills in Colombia
instead of Guatemala or Spain, because she had already traveled to those
destinations.
In several cases, destination choice was either partially or completely dic­
tated by external factors. Existing exchange agreements at one’s teaching
institution (high school or university) was an aspect that limited destination
choice. Participant 1 stated “we had a choice of going to Germany or going to
Austria. For some reason, I just didn’t want to go to Germany [. . .] so I chose
Austria.” In other cases, it was being awarded a scholarship for language
learning abroad that dictated the destination traveled to.
Financial and time constraints also influenced destination choice; hence,
some participants chose their destinations in a way that allowed them to
negotiate these constraints: distance from their country of residence;
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 13

opportunities to raise money in the destination in order to be able to afford

travel expenses (e.g., Workaway, AuPair etc.); friends or acquaintances living
in the destination, and whose accommodation they could benefit from. The
last two reasons were mostly mentioned by informal independent language
travelers. Participant 9 summarized these various considerations by stating,
“So it really comes down to opportunity . . . either a job opportunity,
a volunteer opportunity, friends that live there, or a language course that is
cheap.”

Post-travel Outcomes of Language Travel

The improvement of their language abilities was the most highlighted outcome
of language travel for participants, particularly in what pertains to the achieve­
ment of professional and academic goals. Personal growth was also mentioned
by the majority of participants. The question of how language travel experi­
ences influenced their subsequent travel decisions was also addressed, parti­
cularly in terms of return intentions and return behavior.

Improvement of Language Abilities & Professional and Academic Goals

Not surprisingly, language travel resulted in improved language abilities,
according to all participants. Having the possibility to interact with native
speakers of their target language in a real-life setting was a crucial factor for
improving their language skills. As described by participant 7, “French class
became ridiculously easy after the trip.” Likewise, participant 3 believed that
time spent “studying in the country Vietnam itself just gives you a good
opportunity to cement everything you know and to improve, and add lots of
new vocab I think, everyday vocab.”
Learning and speaking the language was described as fun and fulfilling by
many participants. However, this evolution entailed significant challenges and
frustrations for a third of participants, as communication with locals did not
always occur smoothly. Still, they reported their joy and satisfaction from
overcoming such challenges (“it’s nice when they speak back to you in
Chinese!” participant 3). Gong et al. (2020) concluded that frequent language
barriers in daily communication led to an improvement in their study parti­
cipants’ language skills. They also highlighted how cultural adaptation and
language learning went hand in hand.
Some of the participants involved in formal learning programs reported
how language programs contributed to enhance their language learning abil­
ity. Participant 12 spoke positively of some of his experiences both in Russia,
explaining “I’m coming from a Slavic background and they know how to
correct those irregularities.” He added that in Spain “they had really profes­
sionals [. . .] they had a really nice and a really good approach, it was really
academic.” Participant 20 stated that “Obviously in one month you can’t do
14 I. CARVALHO AND V. SHEPPARD

that much but still you can feel more confident.” Some participants also
mentioned how their homestays, as part of the tourism program, further
contributed to the improvement of their language skills, as also observed in
previous studies (Alcázar et al., 2019; Iglesias et al., 2019).
Similarly, those who traveled informally also reported language gains. For
example, participant 11 recalled people asking her “how did you learn so fast?
How did you learn like that?” She felt it was it was from “just listening and
speaking all the time.” Participant 15 recollected a similar situation, stating
that her friends in the UK “spent time . . . teaching me something in English.”
She added, “I think that when you are there, everything is really easy and
natural.”
However, participant 16, who had experience in both formal and informal
language travel experiences perceived formal training as providing “more
learning opportunities, because when you’re in a school you more focused,
you’re more dedicated, you have locals to talk to.” She compared this to
informal travel, where “you have conversations with people but maybe just
like ordering food or buying a ticket,” adding “you don’t really have an in-
depth experience that you would have if you spent a longer time and you’re at
a school and with a family.”
The positive consequences of such improvement at the professional and
academic levels were highlighted by many participants. Some participants
described how improving their language skills was important for their careers,
and also for daily tasks at work. Participant 18 explained that she now works
“with a lot of Spanish people” and because of her previous language trips these
interactions are “quite easy.” Similarly, participant 4 described how “traveling
abroad” helped her reach a higher language level than she previously had when
she was studying languages in her home country, which eventually benefited
her career.
Participants also described the impact of language travel on academic out­
comes, such as influencing their decision to pursue language-related degrees at
university. Participant 3 explained that “had [she) never gone to Vietnam” in
her gap year, she would not have studied Asian studies. Some participants
explained that traveling to learn languages helped them enter the university
degree program they wanted to pursue and opened up study opportunities in
other countries. For example, participant 13 believed that it would be much
easier to be accepted at a Korean university because she had “an advantage” of
already speaking Korean.”

Personal Growth
Many participants reflected on how language travel and the experience of
knowing new cultures had changed them. Although some experienced cultural
shocks, they eventually overcame them, gained cultural awareness, and recog­
nized the stereotypes they previously held. This type of personal growth is
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 15

demonstrated in the words of participant 6 who recalled originally thinking

that “if someone doesn’t show up for a coffee date [. . .] you think ‘Ok they
don’t like me.’” Overtime, she came to realize that “it’s not the case.” Some
described how the process of getting to know other cultures led to reflections
of their own culture, and consequently to a distancing from certain aspects of
their own culture. Participant 6 spoke of this as an analogy to eating cake,
stating you “take some of their pieces of the cake and you take the best part
from different cultures, and you keep them. And you take away a part of your
own culture that you don’t like, when you can.” Similarly, participant 12
believed that “Knowing that culture . . . and the way they live, that really
changed me, you know, because I realized that there’s something different
and I really can say something better.”
A few participants spoke of the influence language travel had on their own
self-perception as being more global, open, and interested in other world
views. Participant 13 spoke of this perspective, stating, “Now I’ll always try
to know about other people’s opinions, about other people’s countries too.”
Similarly, participant 15 described her personal growth in terms of becoming
less materialistic. She realized that she had to get rid of “all of my clothes, all
my stupid things,” in order to make space for the few things that she really
needed, like her tent.
Some participants spoke of their personal growth in terms of a sense of
enhanced independence, freedom, and confidence, such as participant 21. She
stated “when you see that you really can survive abroad, using your language, it
helps you to believe in yourself. You know that you can speak to people and
you will not, you know, starve in the street.” Likewise, participant 16 described
the impact of traveling to learn a language at an “impressionable” age, stating it
“really change[d] [her] path for life.” She compared this to doing “exchanges as
an adult,” which she felt were “a great experience,” but added “it just doesn’t
mark you in the same way.”

Language Travel and Subsequent Travel Behavior

Many participants discussed their desire to return to the destination they
previously visited. Interestingly, the literature reveals few studies that explore
this aspect of language traveler behavior (see Drozdzewski, 2011; Kennett,
2002). In this study, participants described how language travel sparked their
desire to travel more, often involving family members. For example, partici­
pant 3 described involving her whole family in language traveling. She con­
vinced her husband to start learning Vietnamese, so he could travel with her to
Vietnam. Participant 16 became so enthralled with language travel that she
gave up her job so she could more fully immerse herself in traveling to learn
languages. Almost all informants spoke of having returned, planning, or
wanting to return to the countries they had visited in their language travel
16 I. CARVALHO AND V. SHEPPARD

experiences. Participants spoke of “returning to visit friends” in countries they

had previously visited in their language travels. Most returned to visit friends
they had made in the country. This was particularly so for the participants who
spent long periods of time abroad in their teenage years (by attending school
in the country), and then later returned several times to visit friends and their
former host families. This was the case of participant 6, who described Alaska
as her “second home” and her former host family as her “second family.”
Other participants spoke of “returning for improving language skills.”
These participants tended to choose other cities. Participants were more likely
to return to the same location when they wanted to visit friends but chose
a variety of places when their travel was more language oriented. This was
evidenced by participant 9 who stated that she “revisited specific places to visit
friends,” but that when she wanted to learn the language she tended “to go to
different places” because she wanted to “see somewhere different.”
Almost one third of participants described how their language trips influ­
enced their decisions to migrate (or to eventually migrate) to the country
where they had studied. Participant 17, for example, traveled to Japan in 1981,
found a job there and remained. Participant 8 shared a similar experience in
China. She believed that her study abroad program at the university in Beijing
when she was 19 “was a really good way to kind of try being in China for
a relatively long period of time, before committing to a job.” A year later she
took a job in China. Participant 9, speaking about her passion for languages
described looking “for jobs and places to live, based on the language that’s
spoken there” while Participant 12 hoped to retire in Spain.

Discussion
This study aimed to explore post-travel outcomes for language travelers. In
order to achieve this, three specific research goals were set. The first was to
understand the factors that influenced language travelers’ language and desti­
nation choice. Our findings reveal a prevalence toward an integrative orienta­
tion to language learning, as opposed to an instrumental one (Coleman, 1997).
The participant selection process might have contributed to this, since many
participants were recruited from polyglot groups on social media. However,
comparing participants’ responses according to recruitment method does not
reveal clear differences between both groups. Our findings also suggest that
integrative and instrumental motives are not clearly separated. This was also
mentioned by Kennett (2002), who identified a mix of personal and profes­
sional motives in her participants’ travel careers. These findings point to the
importance of analyzing the connection between these two types of motives.
Although the desire to enhance language skills was the main factor determin­
ing destination choice, a few participants were primarily led by their attraction
to the destination. Constraint negotiation also emerged as an important topic
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 17

during the analysis of the factors influencing destination choice. Although, in

some cases, informal language tourism was the result of a preference, it is
worth analyzing in future studies to what extent informal language travel may
be a result of a negotiation of time and financial constraints.
The second objective was to understand the main post-travel outcomes for
language travelers, from a long-term perspective. The main outcome high­
lighted by all participants was the improvement of language abilities. Although
when asked about motivations for language choice, most participants revealed
an integrative orientation instead of an instrumental one, the instrumental
side became more visible when participants were asked about outcomes of
their language travel. Several participants described the professional and aca­
demic goals they achieved because of their language skills. Another important
outcome was personal growth, in terms of enhanced independence and con­
fidence, which was mostly a result of the improved cultural awareness. Some
participants also described how these travel experiences changed them and
increased their distancing from their own culture. This corroborates Löfgren’s
(1999) statement that “vacation can be viewed as a ‘cultural laboratory’” (p. 6),
where people experiment new aspects of identities. The life-changing effect of
language travel appears more intense for teenagers traveling for extended
periods.
In line with previous studies (Alcázar et al, 2019; Iglesias et al., 2019), this
study revealed that homestays contributed to language acquisition, broad-
mindedness and cultural awareness. However, they were not the only setting
where extended interaction with locals occurred. Our findings also support the
relevance of including the neglected informal language traveler in future
studies.
The third objective was to understand how language travel influences
subsequent travel behavior, in particular return intentions and return beha­
vior. Language travel resulted in further language traveling. However, partici­
pant’s stage in the life cycle seems to influence the pattern of such travels. In
some cases, involving spouses and children in their language travels was a way
of negotiating life cycle-related constraints. In one case, an early retirement
enabled the participant’s pursuit of language travel for extended periods of
time. This is an interesting topic for future work.
Interestingly, most study participants expressed their desire to return to the
language learning destination. The majority of participants had already
returned to previous destinations where they had traveled to improve
a language. These findings reflect previous studies (e.g., Drozdzewski, 2011).
However, while our study suggests that participants seeking to improve their
language skills are likely to return to the same country, they might be more
likely to choose different destinations within the same country. On the other
hand, those who return to visit friends are, not surprisingly, more likely to
return to the same destination in the same country. Similarly, Liang et al.
18 I. CARVALHO AND V. SHEPPARD

(2015) concluded that participants established long-term relationships with

people from the host country. In any case, both purposes for returning suggest
that language travel is a type of tourism with a higher likelihood of return
visits. This finding adds to the growing body of research on language travelers
and may be of interest to tourism destinations who seek to attract this type of
traveler. Indeed, more studies are needed which analyze the returning beha­
vior of language travelers.
This study also established a link between tourism and migration from
a perspective not previously explored in tourism literature. For example,
previous research has explored how migration generates tourism flows, but
the phenomenon of how tourism generates migration flows is less explored.
Previous studies that analyzed how tourism leads to migration have instead
focused on workforce migration to serve tourism, migration by entrepreneurs,
and second-homes (Feng & Page, 2000; Williams & Hall, 2000). This study
extends past studies establishing the link between language travel and migra­
tion, demonstrating that language travelers have a desire to and often do
migrate to the countries where their language learning occurred. This is an
interesting and important finding for countries seeking well qualified, employ­
able migrants and it bears further research.
Despite these unique findings, we acknowledge the study’s limitation. First,
the study contained a small sample, which means that the findings cannot be
generalized; however, as noted by Cronbach’s (1975), social scientist have an
inability to generalize and therefore it is of greater importance to place
emphasis on interpreting the findings at the micro level. Second, the study
participants were asked about their experiences after they had occurred, in
some cases several decades after they took place. Actual experiences are
distinct from their memories, because memory can be involved in the inter­
pretation and transformation of experience through narration (Quinlan-
Cutler & Carmichael, 2010; Selstad, 2007). Moreover, as contended by Cary
(2004), there is a gap between the tourist experience and the representation of
that experience. Nevertheless, studying participants’ memories of their lan­
guage trips is relevant, since those memories may impact their future travel
behavior (Kim & Chen, 2018).
Despite these limitations, the study highlights valuable findings, as well as
important implications for several stakeholders. For example, the participants
in this study sought out flexibility and a lack of formality in the learning
environment, as well as opportunities to study for shorter periods of time.
Participants were also looking for opportunities to immerse themselves within
the local culture, visit the hidden gems that only the locals know about, and
share accommodations with locals and or fellow language travelers. Some
participants also spoke about their interest in attending accredited schools
and receiving certification for their work. These findings may be of interest to
language-focused businesses, as well as destination marketing organizations
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 19

(DMOs). Many DMO’s have consumer websites that promote various travel
experiences and the businesses that provide those experiences. Adding
a section for both language travelers and hosts on their consumer websites
may be a valuable addition.
This study also has implications as it relates to the role national governments
play in facilitating the ability of language travelers to visit countries. This is
particularly so as it relates to permitting extended visitor visas. As many parti­
cipants either subsequently emigrated or expressed a desire to do so, govern­
ments might want to also consider developing incentives to entice language
travelers to settle in their country. As noted in the findings of this study, language
travelers were often at the start of their working careers, highly educated, and had
the ability to speak numerous languages. Consequently, their ability to positively
contribute to a country’s economy makes them highly desired immigrants.
Furthermore, governments have a role to play in ensuring that tourism language
schools are fully accredited in order to entice more language travelers.
Finally, we conclude by suggesting some opportunities for future areas of
research. Our findings suggest that life cycle-related constraints and constraint
negotiation are gaps ripe for future studies in the field of language travel.
Another emerging area of research is related to understanding the role the
virtual classroom and digital learning will play in language tourism in the
future. This line of research is relevant and important, particularly given the
fact that the 2020 global COVID-19 pandemic forced most of the worlds’
formal and informal learning into the virtual classroom. While some learning
may never return to the in-person classroom, it may be less likely that
language travelers will be content with virtual language learning experiences.
However, it would be valuable to study those who have experienced both types
of travel learning: virtual and in-person to understand their lived experiences
in both types of learning situations. In a context where future learning is
expected to increasingly occur outside of a typical classroom, informal lan­
guage travel might prove an important area for future research.

ORCID
Valerie Sheppard http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0029-4339

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