Chapter 2

CONSTRAINTS OF RAINFED AREAS:

With renewed interest in rainfed agriculture during 1970s, both the national
(AICRPDA and CRIDA) and international institutions (ICRISAT) have studied
several aspects of rainwater management. Recommendations have been made after
their through testing both at the research Stations and on farmer’s fields. Initially
these technologies were accepted by the farmers because of the pursuation by the
Scientists and the incentives, but many of them are forgotten once the support is
withdrawn. It is now time for us to examine whether the technologies themselves
were weak or certain components were missing malfunctioning of the software may
be due to a bug right from the beginning or it entered into the system at a later stage.
It is also possible that we neglected certain critical inputs which became major
constraints making the system defunct. Whatever the reason it should be identified
and set right if the technology has to continue as tool for tackling the challenges of
rainfed agriculture.

Main constraints of dry land agriculture to enhance the productivity are classified
as follows

I. Ecological constraints

II. Edaphic constraints

III. Socio-economic constraints

IV. Technological constraints

V. Transfer of technology constraints

I. Ecological constraints:

1. Rainfall:

i) Low and erratic rainfall distribution

In dryland area, deficiency and uncertainty in rainfall of high intensity causes
excessive soil erosion which leaves the soil unproductive. Owing to erratic behavior
and distribution of rainfall, agriculture is risky, farmers lack resources, tools become
inefficient ultimately productivity is low.

ii) Variable Rainfall

Annual rainfall varies greatly from year to year and its coefficient of variation.
Generally, higher the rainfall less is the coefficient of variation. In other words, crop
failures due to uncertain rains are more frequent in regions with lesser rainfall.
iii) Intensity and distribution

In general, more than 50 per cent of total rainfall is usually received in 3 to 5

rainy days. Such intensive rainfall results in substantial loss of water due to surface
runoff. This process also accelerated soil erosion. Distribution of rainfall during the
crop growing season is more important than total rainfall in dryland agriculture.

iv) Late onset and early cessation of rains:

Due to late onset of monsoon, sowing of crop is delayed resulting in poor yields.
Sometimes the rain may cease very early in the season exposing the crop to drought
during flowering and maturity stages which reduces the crop yields considerably.

v) Prolonged dry spells during crop period:

Long breaks in the rainy season are an important feature of Indian monsoon.
These intervening dry spells when prolonged during crop period reduces crop growth
and yield and when unduly prolonged crops fail.

II. Edaphic constraints:

1. Alfisols: These are commonly referred as red soils. Problems relating to crop
production are poor crop stand due to crusting and rapid drying of surface soil.
Compact subsoil layer (argillic horizon). Land degradation due to soil erosion and
crusting.

The constraints relating to crop production are

 Crusting on drying is a serious problem in seedling emergence and establishment

of a good crop stand. When heavy rains occur soon after sowing followed by a
dry spell, there can be complete failure of germination. Under uncultivated
conditions, this leads to high runoff in the order of about 25 per cent.

 Poor crop growth due to unreliable soil moisture supply, low moisture storage
capacity due to shallow depth and drought spells during crop season.

The water holding capacity of these soils varies between 10 and 15 cm per metre
depth and this is not sufficient to carry the crops for more than a month after the
cessation of rains. Therefore, only kharif crop is possible.

 Red soils are normally poor in NPK and very low in organic matter status. At
places, they are also deficient in Ca, S, Zn and B. One of the ways to make them
productive is to improve the organic matter status.

 The soils have low CEC (10-15 me/100 g) which results in low retention of
exchangeable nutrients. In fairly high rainfall areas, the nutrients can be easily
leached.
 The soils are highly erodible. As per the estimation available, the annual soil loss
in red soil is 4 to 10 t/ha. When such erosion is not controlled in the beginning, it
can lead to formation of gullies. It is estimated that about 15 per cent of the area
of red soils is under gullies

2. Vertisols: These soils commonly called as black soils are characterized by high
clay content (30-70%), important constraints for crop production are

 Physical constraints such as narrow range of soil water content for tillage,
tendency to become waterlogged and poor tractability.

 Low infiltration and highly susceptible to soil erosion due to predominance of silt
and clay

 Poor drainability and susceptible to water logging

 Land degradation due to soil erosion and salt accumulation, especially in low
lying area.

3. Inceptisols and Entisols: These are commonly termed as alluvial soils.

 They have low water holding capacity and low nutrient holding capacity.
 Management of these soils for crop production is relatively easy compared to
red and black soils.
 Soil erosion is however a problem leading to degradation.

4. Sub mountain soils: Sub mountain soils are medium in texture and depth is
medium to deep as well as more clay content. Moisture retention capacity is high (300
mm m-1 profile depth).

 These soils are poor in nitrogen.

 Phosphorus may be limiting in high production system.
 Due to high water holding capacity double cropping is possible in these soils.

5. Sierozems:

 Sierozems are extremely light soils, effective depth being influenced by the
CaCO3 concentration in soil profile.
 Its moisture holding capacity is low (150 mm m-1 soil depth).
 Sierozemic soils are low in nitrogen and sometimes inadequate in
phosphorous.
 Subsoil salinity is common.
 These soils are mostly monsoon cropped, except in deep sandy loams where
double cropping is also possible. Crusting is very frequent.
III. Socio-economic constraints:
The socio-economic status of dryland farmers, generally, will not permit them in
adopting recommended dryland technology. Major socio-economic constraints are:

1. Lack of capital and credit at proper time make the farmers hesitate to adopt the
recommended technology.

2. Most of the dryland farmers are resource poor. The farmers engage their family
labour force for most of the farm activities.

3. The organizational structure for input supply is very poor in dryland areas.

4. The socio-economic survey conducted in several places have indicated that more
than 50 per cent of the farmers do not have their own bullock pairs and there is a
great constraint in timely land preparation and sowing.

5. The land holdings are very small. About 75 per cent of the holdings in the state
are small and marginal, having a size of 1.6 ha. Such small holdings are not
economical under dryland situations and pose problems in implementing land
development programme.

6. Due to poor economic status of the farmers, they do not have investment capacity
and risk bearing status, essential in dryland conditions.

7. Lack of support price for dryland crops and marketing problems and predominant
role of middle man.

8. Inadequate availability of agriculture inputs during the season and for contingent
measures due to weather aberrations.

IV. Technological constraints:

The technologies developed by Universities through Research stations for

different dry farming areas are highly effective. Adoption at farmers field is very less,
because of the following reasons
1. Lack of high yielding varieties for adverse climatic conditions as compared to local
varieties

2. Technologies to utilize the improved machineries/ implements under dry lands by

small and marginal farmers leading to untimeliness of field operations and crop
failures /reduce yields

3. Adoption of poor pest and disease management, due to non availability of water in
dry land areas

4. Adoption of alternate land use systems viz., agro forestry, alley cropping, dry land
horticulture in dry lands is very less
5. Extension activities is inadequate leading to poor spread of technologies viz.,

 Soil and moisture conservation

 Crops and crop varieties

 Climate resilience in agriculture technology

 Use of inputs such as herbicides, fertilizers, pesticides etc.

6. The main difficulty in estimating the extent of runoff is the non-availability of the
data on daily rainfall and rainfall intensity for each watershed/ catchment. In this
direction, the efforts of the KSNDMC in Karnataka and similar organizations
elsewhere to install telemetric rain gauges at panchayat land needs to be
recommended. Such data could be used for estimation of runoff in each watershed
and storage structures planned accordingly.

7. Non availability of low cost and efficient water lifting devices:

 It is a common observation in watersheds that stored water in ponds is often

not used for irrigation.
It is not that farmers do not know the benefits of protective irrigation, but
the reason is non availability of low cost and efficient water lifting devices.
This single limitation has made the farm ponds defunct in several
watersheds.
 Though some executive argue that the ponds are constructed solely for
recharge of groundwater and least importance to be given to protective
irrigation, this cannot satisfy small farmers as they have to lose a portion of
their fertile land for pond digging and some more on its annual maintenance.
 If farm ponds have to be attractive to farmers, suitable lifting devices has to be
identified and made available at affordable prices. Krishi Bhagya flagship
programme of the government of Karnataka in dry land areas is addressing all
these issues as a comprehensive programme for enhancing the overall
productivity.

V. Transfer of technology constraints :

1. Though in-situ water conservation practices are simple to follow they are the ones
least appreciated by several executives in watershed development department.
The main argument is that there is not much for the departments staff to do and
once the principles are explained, the farmers should adopt it by themselves.
Several practices like ‘fall ploughing’ and contour farming, though appreciated
by the farmers are not easily adopted as they lack the required power to take up
cultivation on time.

2. Survey conducted by the team of operational Research Scientists in Bangalore

showed that more than 50% of the farmers do not own even a bullock pair.
 Custom hire services or societies owning required machinery can solve this
problem.

Further, what is required is,

 affordable power equipment, which small farmers can buy and maintain
individually.
 Another important finding, which is extremely useful is organic mulching.
Yet the technology is not a practice by the farmers. The reason is
‘sufficient mulching material is not available’.
But is it a statement made after making honest efforts to collect the
weeds removed from cropped fields.
Green manure plants like gliricidia crop residues and leaf litter from
trees on the farm bunds and roadsides?

This may not be a case for developing a new technology but an example
to plead for greater interaction with farmers. Large number of
demonstration and Farmer Field School (FFS) approach will be essential
to convince the farmers and follow it as a routine.

3. Inter terrace management practices are not necessarily for conservation of

rainwater, at times they can be for smooth disposal of surplus water. When the
time and intensity of rainfall are uncertain, a dry land farmer has to be ready with
both the contingencies of surplus and deficiency.

4. Ridge and furrow method of cultivation on a gradient conserves water when

intensity of rainfall is small but the same furrow can act as a disposal system
when intensities are higher.

A paired row of Redgram with deep furrow in between recommended in

red soil areas of Karnataka in Ragi and Groundnut acts as a dual purpose
treatment and meets this requirement.

5. In spite of the availability of viable technologies for rainfed areas, most of them
have not been adopted. The reason appears to be lack of convincing
demonstrations. Such demonstration should focus on an integration of several
aspects of water conservation and its use and should be laid out at the research
stations, KVKs and on farmers fields.