Oficinas Generales

Deacero S.A. de C.V.

Avenida Lázaro Cárdenas 2333,
Col. Valle Oriente,
San Pedro Garza García, N.L.
C.P. 66269

www.deacero.com
mail:cables@deacero.com
01800 223 5333

Plantas en México:
Monterrey / Ramos Arizpe / Saltillo / Puebla / Celaya
México / Morelia / Guadalupe / Mexicali / León / Querétaro

Plantas en EUA:
New Braunfelds, Tx / Houston, Tx / Longuiew, WA
 INDEX
2 How to measure wire rope diameter
Wire rope lays
3 Preforming
4 Safety factor
Pulley diameter
5 Pulley groove
6 Installation of clams
8 Lubrication of wire rope
9 Handling of wire rope
Storage
01 Structure of wire rope stands
31 Wire rope structure and classifications
61 Compacted wire rope
71 Triangular strand
81 Swaged wire rope
02 Wire rope cores
12 Elongaton and elasticity
Nominal breaking stength
22 Fleet angle in pulleys and drums
Caacity in smooth drums and reels
42 Wire rope installation
52 Wire rope winding on drums and
anchoring ositions
Unwinding wire ropes
62 Mechanical damage to wire ropes
82 Lengthening of a wire rope lay
92 Wire rope inspection
03 Wire rope fastening and cutting
API 13 Attaching terminals to wire ropes
23 Most common causes of wire rope damage
CSA
53 International terminology
AISI
NOM Handbook 63 Certification

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A High-Technology Product with

Internationally renown Quality and Service
 HOW TO MEASURE WIRE ROPE DIAMETER CRUSHING
Thediameterofawireropeismesuredasthecirclecircumscribingthewiresmostdistantfrom Awireropes´deformationbycrushinghappens
thecenter.Itisthelargestmeasurermentthatcanbetakenwithacaliper.Thecorrectdiameter whentheyaremountedonpulleythroatsand
ofawireropeatthesectionmeasuredisthedistancebetweenthetangentsformedbytaking drumgrooves,aswellaswhenaropeoverlaps
the core and two opposite strands. anotheroneinsuccessivelayersonadrum.Itis
crucialthatpulleysand/ordrumsbecorrecly
sizedasregardsropediameter.Thepressure
exertedonthesteelropeisdeterminedbygroove
and pulley diameter.

Wireropeswiththickwireshavemoreresistance
tocrushingthanthinwires,and6-strandropes
aremoreapttoresistcrushingthanthe8-strand
group.UseSEALEconstructionforbetterrresults.

Correct Incorrect

2 Da
i meter 35

INTERNATIONAL TERMINOLOGY
WIRE ROPE LAYS English Spanish
TS AT (Traction steel) These are some of
RIGHT REGULAR LAY PS A (Plow steel) the abbrerviations
The strands go form left to right and the wires IPS AM (Improved plow steel)
run parallel to the wire rope axis. used on the
EIPS AEXM ( Exta improved plow steel) international and
BRIGHT WIRE NEGRO (Non- galvanized steel) domestic market.
FC AF (Fiber core)
RIGHT LANG LAY
The strand go from left to right and the wires IWRC AIA (Independent wire rope core)
are diagonal to the wire rope axis, going in the RRL TRD (Right regular lay)
same direction as the strands. LRL TRI (Left regular lay)
RLL TLD (Right lang lay)
LLL TLI (Left lang lay)
LEFT REGULAR LAY S S (Seale)
The strands go from right to left and the wires
run parallel to the wire rope axis. W W (Warrington)
FW F (Filler )
WS WS (Warrington Seale)
LEFT LANG LAY FS FS (Filler Seale)
The strands go from right to left and the wires PREF PREF (Preformed)
ares diagonal to the wire rope axis, going in the NON-PREF NO PREF (Non-preformed)
same direction as the strands.

An International example would be:

600 ft 3/4 ” 6 x 25 FW IPS IWRC RLL PREF.
That is :
A High-Technology Product with A High-Technology Product with
Internationally renown Quality and Service 600 pies 3/4 ” 6 x 25 F AM AIA TLD PREF. Internationally renown Quality and Service

Corrosion
Corrosion and rusting caused by some gases,
salts, vapors, acids, continuous operation in the
open and, especially sea water call for regular
cleaning and greasing to prevent rus-ting. In
cases where corrosion is particularly active, wire
ropes are coated with zinc. In some extreme
cases, stainless steel wires are used to prevent
corrosion.
Wire galvanization affords highter resistance to
corrosion, but it decreases the material’s
mechanical properties, losing on average 10%
of the breaking strength.
PREFORM
Thewiresandstrandsindergothesamehelicoidal
orshapingprocessthatthefinishedwirerope
wilhave.Consequently,whenawireropeis
cutmthewiresandstrandswilremaininplace.
Thisoperationgivesthewireropealonger
usefullifesincethisremovesthestressbetween
thewiresandstrandscausingthemtoretaina
forced position inside.
Performing is considered to be the most
Inafewcases,thewiresandstrandsarerequired important breakthrough in the manufacture of
tokeeptheoriginalform.Nonperfomeddeliveries wire ropes since the industry began.
may be made on request. The advantages of preforming have been clearly
Whenthebrak.Inpreformedwireropesteystay shown in practice.
in place.
Core breakage due
to excess stress.

Generally, the best solution to corrosion problems

is to protect the wire ropes through careful,
regular greasing. Resorting to stainless steel or
brass is not advisable because of its high cost Deformation due to tugs or blows.
and the low stress resistence of these alloys.
34 3

Some of the advantages of a

preformed wire rope are
Tendency to turn
Wire ropes under load tend to unravel as the
wires in the strands try recover their original
position. A right lay wire rope tends to turn left,
whereas a left lay rope tends to turn right.

Whenever a wire rope loses its turns, its

construction is altered. It no longer works right
and its useful life is shortened. However, in long
lengths, depending on rope diameter, the fact
Mechanicaldamagedueto that the rope turns with the determined load and
cablemovementwithstress that it loses some turns is an indication
on a square edge. of normal settling.
This means that it loses some of its natural rigidity
common to newly made wire ropes.
1.Greaterresistancetobendingfatiguesince
internalforcesdonothacetobeovercome.
Therefore less effort is needed to obtain
adaptationtoagivendiameter.Thismeansa
grater number of pulley winding than a
non-prerformedwireropeofthesamediameter,
quality,andconstructionworkingonthesame
pulleysandunderthesameloadandwork
conditions.

2.Thesafetyfactorisextendedalongerperiod
of time.

3. Less tendency to turn on itself.

4.Theexternalwiresdonotstickoutwhenthey
breakwhichavoidsulleyand/orwirerope
da-mage.

5. Less likely to vibrate.

6.Theendsdonotopenupwhentheend-clamps
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 SAFETY FACTOR
Wireropeflexibilityisconsiderablyinfluenced
by the type and quantity of fiber cores or
A) When a wire rope is operated close to its synthetic,thelaytypeofthewiresandthe
minimum safety factor, special care must be strands.Preformedwireropesaremoreflexible.
taken to ensure that the wire rope and related
equipment are is good working order. Wireropesbuiltwithahigher-specific-tensile
steelaremorerigidthanthosewithlower-tensile-
B) A wire rope´s life varies with the safety factor. steel. Forapplicationswhereflexibiltyis
Consequently, the life can be extended by using requriedw
, eadvsi ethaptue
l ysand
highter safet margins. The safety factor is drumsbeofadiameterdirectly
determined by using the following formula: Therefore, flexibility depends on: proportionaltothediameterand
1. Nature of steel used. construction of the rope.
2. Preformed or not preformed.
Safety factor = R 3. Type of lay.
The personal at all times P 4. Type of core.
should avoid blows, imact 5.Quantityanddiameterofwiresintherope.
and sudden acceleration or
deceleration of the load. R = Wire rope breaking load in kg.
P = Static load calculated in kg.

In statisfactory field operations, it has been shown

that the following safety factors may be
considered as the minimum. Localizedwearduetodeformationknownas
“kink”. Abrasioncausedbyacable
passingthroughapulleywithan
Slings................................................... 5:1 oversizedgrooveorrunningon
General use of mobile equiment, such pulleyswithareducedsupport
as dredges, cranes, diggers, freight Passenger elevators........................... 12:1 diameter.
elevators, etc....................................... 6:1 (depending operation
Traveling cranes in smelters speed up to)....................................... 20:1
4 33
and steel works................................... 8:1

Temperature
Incertainindustriesorjobs,wireropesmust
PULLEY DIAMETER work attemperatureshigherthannormal,
because of pro-ximity to a furnace, etc..
It is important to bear in mind the dimensions of
the pulleys to be installed when designing Upto135ºCtemperaturehasnomajorbearing
equipment where wire rope is used. If the load onsteelcharacteristics,butbeyondthatpoint
to be lifted and the diameters and type of wire its effect on material fragility increases
rope construction are known, a decision can be considerably.
made on the ulley diameter to be used. The life
Diameter
of the wire rope deends on many factors that Wireropeswithnaturalfibercores(henequen
affect operation: orhemp)orsyntheticshouldnotbeusedin
locationswherethetemperatureexceeds82ºC,
asitisatthispointthatnaturalfibersbeginto
deformorburn,resultinginareducedcore
Conditions diameter.Consequently,thereisexcessiveinter-
strandfriction,whichdirectlyaffectropelife.
A)Wireropebendingonthepulley,flattening
andbendingonwinches,theweightand Therefore,weadviseusingsteelcorewireropes
conditionsoftheload,operationspeed,wearor Thefollowingrecommendationsare ifworkingconditionsareattemperatures
abrasion, corrosion etc. offeredasaguidetowireropeusersand exceeding135ºC.Thesafetyratiomustbe
equimentdesignsforthecorrectselecton increasedtoatleast8:1inordertocompensate
B)Whenthepulleybendingconditionsdetermine ofulleysizeortochoosethecorrectwire forthealterationlosseswhichsteelmaysuffer
thelifeofawirerope,thepulleymustbeaslarge ropeconstructionfortheequipment. due to high temperatures.
as possible, after considering factors like
the economy of handing, design, etc...

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 MOST COMMON CAUSES OF WIRE ROPE DAMAGE Factors for pulley diameter

Abrasion FACTOR DRUM GROOVE GEOMETRY

Wire rope construction Condition Condition
Wearisgivenasafunctionofthewirerope´s
supportsurfaceandthespecificpressurethereon.
Therefore,toresistcableabrasion,maximum A B
surfacecontactandidenticaldiametersas 6x7 72 42
regardstoconstructionwhilerunningoverpulleys 6 x 17 Seale 56 37
anddrumsandothersupportandguiding
elementsisdeterminedbymanyfactors;cable 6 x 19 Seale 51 34
diametersvs.pulleydiameter;propergroove 6 x 21 Filler 45 30
diameter,etc..Inlanglays,itisadvisablethat 6 x5 Filler 43 27
thecablealwaysbeguidedasthisgivesalarger Abrasion at cross points in drum
supportsurfaceandismoreflexiblethanregular 6 x 26 Warrington-Seale 41 26
loops, with several rope “beds”
lays;however,ithasadrawbackinthatifboth (layers). 6 x 31 Warrington-Seale 38 25 DA= Seating dimeter
cableendsarenotfixed;thecablewiltendto DR= Ste or distance between grooves.
unravel. 6 x 36 Warrington-Seale 35 23
6 x 37 (Operaciones) 38 25
6 x 41 Warrington-Seale 32 21
6 x 41 Filler-Seale 32 21 The bottom of the grooce must have
Thewireropecontactsurfacewiththesupports 6 x 43 Filler-Seale 35 23 a support arc of 15º and the sides of
the groove must be tangent to the
can be estimated as folows: 6 x 49 Filler-Seale 28 18 support arc terminals. The total
depth of the groove must be at least
1.Full-lockedcoil,100%oftheapparentsurface. 8 x 19 Seale 41 27 1-3/4 times the nominal diameter of
8 x 25 Filler 32 21 the wire rope and 3 times the diameter
2.Triangularstrands,75%oftheapparent in the case of a swabbing lines.
surface. 18 x 7 57 36

3.Roundstrands,35%oftheapparentsurface.
32 5
Bearinmindthatalthoughtheidealwouldbe PULLEY GROOVE
thick-wiredstrands,thiswouldbelimitedbythe
flexibilityconditionsimposedbythedimensions
General: The groove of the bottom arc
ofpulleysanddrums.Flexibilitywilcallformore of all pulleys must be smooth and
smaller-diameter outer wires. concentric with the wire rope diameter.
The central line of the groove must be
on a erendicular plane to the axis of
the pulley shaft or axle.

d = Nominal wire rope diameter

PR= Grovve depth or throat.
R = Groove radius.

DE=Pulley external diameter.

DA=Seat diameter.
Localized wear due to abrasion with a support AG= Groove angle.
structure.

Condition A. Where the bending on the pulley

Bending
When passing through drums and pulleys, wire
ropes suffer bending fati-gue, which increases
with the ropes´rigidity. Rigidity and flexibility are
apposite qualities. Flexibility is the wire rope´s
ability to facilitate bending which increases on
Wire breakage due to bending fatigue identical metal sections with wire diameter, the
thinner the strand wires, the grater rope flexibility
will be; rigidity increases with wire thickness,
which in turn increases resistance to wear.
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By applying the formula: S = d X F
S= Pulley diameter taken at the base of the
groove in millimeters.
d= Nominal wire rope diameter in millimeters.
F= Factor by which the wire rope diameter must
be multilied (depending on the tye of construction
to be used) to determine the pulley diameter to
be chosen, in accordance with the factor tables
for the diameter.
is of maximum importance, pulley of at least the
size determined by the factors in condition A are
recomended.
Condition B. Where the bending on the pulley
is of importance but a certain degree of wire
rope life sacrifice is acceptable to obtain ease
of handling, reduced weight, design economy
etc...., pulley of at least the size determined by
the condition B factors are recommended.
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 INSTALLATION OF DOG CLAMPS OR CLIPS WIRE ROPE FASTENING TERMINALS
1. Type and Strength
The method to install clamps on wire rope is 1. From the wire rope end, measure a distance 2. Open up the strands at the rope end and cut
wideley known. “U” type or double jaw clamps identical to the terminal cone. Tie the rope with the fiber core. If the core is steel, separate as
are recommen-ded. annealed galvanized wire or braided strands at follows:
When correctly installed, the system can obtain the point and, place two more seizing on the
80% of the wire rope strength. rope, at a distance of six diameters. You can
place steel bands instead of wire or braided
strands.
2. Bending
Fig. 1 CORRECTO The lenght of wire roe to be bent when fixing
clamps to form an eye depends on the size of
the rope and the load to be handled.
The recommended lenghts and measurements
from the base of the rubbing plate are given in
table 1.
Fig. 2 INCORRECTO
3. Rubbing Thimble 3. Separate and straighten the wires and shape
The rubbing thimble must first be fixed to the them into a hook at the point where the bent part
wire rope at the oint required and then bent is approximately 6 to 8 times the wire diameter,
around the thimble and temporarily fixed by and clean them with a volatile solvent. Submerge
tieing the rope with soft wire. the wires in commercial muriatic acid long enough
Fig. 3 INCORRECTO so that they are spotlessly clean, and then soak
them in boiled water. Be extremely careful so
that the acid does not touch any wire under the 4. Place the wires together at the rope end to
fastenings. DANGER! DO NOT USE ACID OR install the terminal. The terminal will be heated
FLUX WHEN THERMAL RESINS ARE USED. to 200ºC as zinc will cool more slowly. Note: It
You can also use xylen-based grease removers is not necessary to heat the terminal when epoxy
or ultrasonic vibration. thermal resin is used.
6 31

Table 1

Space Length of rope

Wire rope Number between bent around
diameter of clamps clamps thimble
mm. inches
5. Slide the terminal over the rope end, remove 6. If zinc is used, heat up the terminal to
9.5 3/8 2 57 165.1 the teerminal clamp and carefully introduce the approximately 200º to prevent the metal from
12.7 1/2 3 76 292.1 terminal into the rope until the ends are against suddenly coolingoff. Cast the molten zinc or
the terminal opening. Make sure that the terminal thermal resine until the terminal cone is flush to
15,9 5/8 3 95 304.8 is in line and centered with the cable axis. Place the top, and let it cool off slowly. Remove all
19.0 3/4 4 114 457.0 a Babbit-Rite ball or a wet cloth on the terminal clamps and apply lubricant to the rope nearest
22.2 7/8 4 133 533.0 base so that the zinc or resin does not drip to the terminal fastening.
outside.
25.4 1 5 152 660.4
28.6 1 1/8 6 177 889.0
31.7 1 1/4 7 203 1117.6
34.9 1 3/8 7 228 1371.0
38.1 1 1/2 8 254 1524

4. Installation of first clamp

The first clamp must be laced and tightened
approximately 1 cm. from the short end of the
wire rope.
The clamp jaw must lie on the long end or the
mainrope and the “ U “ part on the short end.
All the clamps must be installed in the same
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 WIRE ROPE INSTALLATION
Although most wire ropes are preformed, the
natural tendency toward unraveling or separation
of rope wires and strands upon cutting, must be
eliminated. We advise placing clamps on each
side used to make the clamps, but make sure
these are tight and taut enough to avoid any
strand displacement.
Although two clamps are sufficient for cables of
up 12.7 mm. (1/2”) in diameter, it its better to
use three or more in ropes of greater fiameter.
The steps in placing the rope clamps are as
follows:

5. Position of the short end of wire rope

The short end must lie exactly along the long
end.

6. Number and Installation of subsequent

clamps
The second clamp must be placed as close as
possible to the thimble. The clamp nuts should
bot be fully tightend when the clamp is initially
installed.
The number of clamps and the space between
them is given in Table 1. The additional clamps
are installed in equidistant intervals. Tension
should be alied to the wire rope to stretch it and
30 to equal the tension between the two ends of 7
the wire rope before the second and additional
clamps are tightened.

7. Correct and incorrect placement

Table 1 When the clamps are correctly installed, the clam
jaw must be in contact with the long part or the
wire rope and the “ U “ part with the short end,
as shown in Fig. 1. Incorrect installation is shown
in figs. 2 and 3.

8. Tightening nuts during installation

The second and additional clamp nuts must be
tightened uniformly; tightening the nut on one
side a few turns and then the nut on the other
side. It is easier to tighten the nuts if some oil is
applied to the threads.
1. Place the annealed wire or strand in the inter- 9. Tightening the nuts after using the wire
strand groove following the rope lay. Tie the other rope
end, well taut in the direction opposite to where After the wire rope has been in use for a short
the other wire end goes, winding it at least ten period, all the clamp nuts must be re-tightend
turn around minumum. because tension tends to strech the wire rope
with a consequent reduction of wire rope
2. When both ends of the wire are 5 cm. long, diameter.
inteertwine them with pliers counter-clockwise 4 The clamp attachment systems must be
times until they are very tight, using the pliers for inspected regularly and a check must be made
leverage. Then cut the excess wire without to ensure that the nuts have been proerly
twisting; strike whatever is twisted until it is tightend.
embedded between two strands and no longer
protuberances. 10. Marking knots by bending the cable
Making knots with or without clams is not
After all clamps have been fastened, the wire recomended since this weakens and deforms
rope must be cut with shear - type steel rope the wire rope.
pliers or a round saw with an abrasive steel-
cutting disk. If these tools are unavailable, a
standard chisel and maul can be used. Be sure
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 LUBRICATION OF WIRE ROPE WIRE ROPE INSPECTION

It is of vital importance in order to maximize the A wire rope should be discarded if it meets one
life of the wire rope to pay particular attention to or more of the following criteria:. These rejection
lubrication in both the manufacturing process criteria were developed through tests on solid
and during use. steel pulleys. When non- steel pulleys are used,
the manufacturer should be consulted.
Lubrication accomplishes the following functions:

1. It reduces internal rubbing of the wires

and strands, as well as external wear
over pulley and drums.
2. It prevents corrosion.
When a wire rope surface is covered with water,
a certain amount of the water will be trapped
under the grease.
This can cause corrosion which is not easily
detected. Galvanizing is the best solution in these
cases.
When wire rope is used regularly, the problem is
not so much external corrosion, but internal
corrosion which can not be seen, but decreases
the strength of the rope.
The grease used must have fluidity since it has
to penetrate.
It must be adhesive to prevent run-off and free
of acid substances to prevent corrosion. Before
dressing a used wire rope´s surface, clean it well
and dry it. The dressing should not be applied
to a wet rope.
It is recommended that hoy grease be used
whenever po-ssible in order to penetrate to the
core of the cable to eliminate all possibility of
internal moisture.
1. a) More than six wires are croken throughout
a wire rope lay.
b) Three wires are broken in a single strand
of rope. Severe external wear and severe internal corrosion
c) Two or more wires are broken in the strand
valley.
The rejection criterion for a 18 x 7, 19 x
7, 8 x 19, 34 x 7, etc. NON-ROTATING
rope must include special consideration
based on the fatigue data of the South
Western Research Institute.
d) More than four wires broken throughout
a single rope lay.
e) Two wires broken in a single strand of
rope lay.
2. Abrasion, scrubbing or blows which cause
a loss of over 1/8 of the original diameter
of the individual external wires.

8 3. Evidence of wire rope deterioration by 29

corrosion because the inner part of the wire
rope cannot be assessed.
4. Twisting, crushing or other damages which
could cause the rwire rope´s structural
Table 1 distortion.
5. Any evidence of damage by heat, including
Dressing on pulleys electric clips or possible electrical grounds
with hot grease to or arch to the rope.
penetrate in the core
of the wire rope. 6. Any significant decrease in diameter, whether
throughout the wire rope or in a given section.
7. Any opening at a kink joint.
Lubrication for
immersion 8. Core exposure along the main section.
Not lubricating a rope may cut 9. Fastening of terminals which are either
its useful life by 70%. broken, deformed, worn or fractured.
This demonstrates the
importance of main-tenance. 10. Any indication of strand or wire rope
There are no set rules to determine when to re- sliding at terminal fastenings.
grease a wire rope. Each cable need to be looked
at on an individual basis. The general 11. More than one wire broken in the vicinity of Anti-rotating wire rope with “ Bird Cage ” due
recommendation is to clean and grease the a zinc casting on resin or a swaged terminal to torque-unbalance. This accumulation can be
Lubricating with a brush cables once a week, although under certain work adjustment. found at rope anchoring ends.
with a solvent grease con-ditions more frequent greasing and cleaning
is advisable.

The wire rope’s history will determine the

advisable clea-ning and greasing frecuency.

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 Lengthening of wire rope lay HANDLING OF WIRE ROPES
When a reel of wire rope is handled by sling or
Any lengthening of the wire rope lay warrants chain, a block of wood must be inserted between
immediate inspection. If the wire rope has a fiber the sling and the rope to avoid damaging the
core, the core could have suffered deterioration wires and strands. Place a bar through the reel
due to heating or lubrication loss. If the wire rope center and lift it with a crane or hoist. The reel
has a steel core, the core, could have snapped must not be allowed to drop.
due to overload. In either case, the wire rope
must be replaced.

ONE WIRE ROPE LAY

STRAND 1 2 3 4 5 6 STORAGE
No. 6 Wire rope must be kept away from humidity,
regardless of haw it has been packed. Special
care must be taken to ensure that wire rope is
stored in covered, dry areas. The wire rope should
be stacked on wooden or steel trestles to avoid
touching the floor. Contact with rain, humidity
and corrosive gases must be avoided.
Low temperatures are recomended if possible.
Good ventilation is also preferable to prevent
condensation. If the wire rope has to be stored
Corrosion for a length of time., it is recommended that the
wire rope be wrapped in burlap ( hemp or jute
Corrosion in the outher wires results in a reduced cloth ) and impregnated with lubricating grease
wire rope life because rusted wires break with or oil.
bending. Internal corrosion calls for immediate
wire rope replacement as it is no longer safe. It is not advisable to stack the reels one on to of
28 the other with the bottom reel lying on the floor 9
because this will let water penetrate the lower
side of that reel and lead to the rusting of the
wire roe that is in contact with it.
This leads to the formation of an air shaft inside
the column of reels and the subsequent
penetration of humidity resulting in the possible
rusting of the upper reels.
Wire rope deformed by corrosion

Accidental damage

Any wire rope accident (i.e., if it jumps a pulley

or is hit by a rock or other falling object, or run
over, etc.) requires inspection. Contant checking
is required because it is impossible to determine
a wire rope´s current resistance. If potential
personal hazard exists, we replacing the wire
rope immediately.

Steel core exposed due to tugs or blows.

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 STRUCTURE OF WIRE ROPE STRANDS
RAW MATERIALS

The basic raw materials used by Cablesa consist Cablesa starts with a High Carbon, first fusion
of rolls of first fusione extruded wire. This is steel. The qualiyy is superior to what is obtained
essential to obtain a top quality rope after a series from using scrap steel where control of non- Cross-Fracture
of processes. There are many manufacturers of metallic inclusion is impossible.
steel wire rope in the domestic and international Cablesa’s quality raw materials result in high
markets. The basic difference lies in the raw quality steel for manufacturing of wire rope. Also,
materials used. various grades of steel are used in its chemical
composition. Wire breakage
1. Traction steel 125. / 142 Kgs. / mm2 Fatigue flexion breakage can occur in a wire rope Make sure to check for wires broken by fatigue
with little use. Externally, a wire rope displays close to joints and to the pulley points in a fixed
2. Plow steel 137.1 / 180.7 Kgs. / mm2 transversally-cut wire ending. crane.
3. Improved low steel 157.5 / 208.1 Kgs. / mm2
Fatigue flexion breakage frequently occurs close Any rapid increase in the number of broken wires
4. Extra improved plow steel 172.9 / 239.7 Kgs. / mm2 is an indication that the wire rope should be
to the fixation points, but also in any rope section
subject to severe vibration or continuous bending replaced even if it has only been used for a short
on the pulleys. This is particulary true in the case period of time.
1029 1060 1074 of inverted bending on the ends.
1040 1065 1080
1050 1070 1085

Cablesa’s wire rope contains a perfect balance

of carob, manganese, silicon, sulfur and
phosphorus.

10
STRAND STRUCTURE
Wemustbeginwiththetransveralstructureof
thestrandswhichrelatestothelongitudinallay
ofthewiresandcorrespondstothestrands
madeofthesamesizewiresandthetwistsystem
The relationship between the design of wire-size
composition and the longitudinal lay system leads to a
classification of strands with the following grouping:
GROUP I
27
Cone and Cup fracture
of like angles known as cross lau, or strands of
wires with different dimensions and form known
as.
Overloads
Another type of wire rope breakage is due to
overloads. If a wire rope is stretched beyond the
breakage resistance of the wires, the wire rope’s
diameter will reduce in size or snap. The wire
ends will often have a cone-and-cup fracture.
Such breakages will not occur if the wire rope is
operating within the appropiate safety
specifications.

Strands constituted of wires of the same Diameter reduction

diameter
A very significant reduction in diameter at any
These are known as normal strands or cross lay, point during a wire rope’s life can be indicative
with the characteristic of all wires being circular, of core failure, particularly if the wire rope has
of the same diameter and each layer having six not been used for a while. That may point to
wires more than the preceding one. The most internal corrosion. It is advisable to replace this
frecuent constructions are: wire rope.

6/1 7 wires
12 / 6 / 1 19 Wires
18 / 12 / 6 / 1 37 wires

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 MECHANICAL DAMAGE TO WIRE ROPES
GROUP II

Strands consisting of wires of different

diameters

Any evidence of mechanical abuse or accidental There are three kinds of well defined structures
damage to a wire rope must be treated as a “red in the grou which are commonly known as
flag” and corrected inmediately, because “SEALE”, “WARRINGTON” and “FILLER”. The
malfunctioning can cause mishaps that could SEALE construction is characterized by having
seriously alter the normal service pattern and the same number of wires, in all, or at least tow
trigger fatal accidents. Wach inspection must layers. Consequently, the wires are of different
include careful scrutiny of the following: diamenter.
The most usual are:
1. Fire ( electric, flame or heat ).
2. Cuts, wear or abrasion. SEALE
3. Hammered ropes which have been beaten
out of their original shape and construction.
4. Bent or twisted ( dog leg or hockle ). Where the excess of localized use, abrasion and 5/5/1 11 wires
5. Crushed or distorted sections. wear cannot be prevent, a procedure for accurate, 6/6/1 13 wires
measured cutting of the rope must be instituted. 9/9/1 19 wires
Careful attention must be given when inspecting This alows the areas presenting most wear to 9/9/6/1 25 wires
wire rope ends or fixation points for terminal be removed prior to a serious reduction in the 12 / 12 / 6 / 1 31 wires
accesories. Corrosion, wear or distortion can resistance or life of the wire rope. This, will prolong
frequently occur in these sections an early stage. its usefulness.

The WARRINGTON construction has by

having the last or one of the layers formed
by wires of different dimensions in an
26 alteranate layout within the wire rope. This 11
leads to a well-rounded strand permeter.
The most usual are:

6+6 / 6 / 1 19 wires
7+7 / 7 / 1 22 wires
9+9 / 9 / 6 / 1 34 wires
Chisel Fracture

The main wires of the FILLER construction

Abrasion wear
A rire rope´s use is a major factor to be
considered. Ropes with considerable use are
still usable unless a wire breaks. When a wire
breaks in a worn rope, the rope should be
replaced. Chisel fractures are typical of extremely
worn wire ropes. The wirres wear out and the
cable ends its useful life it should be replaced.
are of the same diameter in different layers,
Damage from blows with thinner wires between the layers to
fill in the gaps. This kind strand is
When considering wire rope use, one must be manufactured when a wire rope with a
sure to differentiate between abrasion, wear, grater metal section and higher crush
deformation and displacement of wires due to resistance is required. The most usual are:
blows. Deformation and displacement of wires
are caused by a blow from a mobile or fixed
objet ( i.e. rod or rope skipping the pulley due to
sudden operator movement, etc..) 10 / 5 / 5 / 1 21 wires
12 / 6 / 6 / 1 25 wires
When this happens, the metal remains in the 14 / 7 / 7 / 1 29 wires These three can be combined
wire rope. Its resistance is maintained and it can 18 / 9 / 9 / 1 37 wires to produce WARRINGTON
still be used. When this activity persists, wires SEALE type combinations, for
tighten together and reduce rope flexibility and example:
14 / 7 + 7 / 7 / 1
soon give way to bending fatigue. In this case, 36 wires
try to locate the cause of the potential failure or FILLER SEALE
and remove it. 16 / 16 / 8 / 8 / 1
49 wires

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 WIRE ROPE COILING IN DRUMS
GROUP III
AND ANCHORING POSITIONS
Strands made of special-shape wire

This group is made up of strands of wire specially-
shaped outer layers.
The structure in Figure 1 is known as HALF-
FLOCKED COIL and is comosed of one core
group of round wires covered by an outher layer
which alternates special-X-shape wire with
circular wire.
These recommendations are indispensable for
smooth drums and advisable for grooved drums.
In the rope coils around the frum more than one
layer deep, the rope coiling direction and the lay
of the strands in the rope must meet certain
rules. If the lay of the strands is not correct, the
Fig. 1 rope tends to straighyen and will - on coiling
itself around the drum-lead the successive coils Coiled uderneath Coiled underneath
from left to right. from right to left.
to separate and make coiling uneven. Left Lay Right Lay.

Figure 2 shows a core group of round wires
covered by Z shaped wires; in Figure 3 the core
is covered by two layers; the first with trapezoid-
shaped wire and the second with Z-shaped wires.
In turn, this causes wire rope strands to loosen
close to the drum anchoring and the rope will The pictures show the correct lay direction of the ropes, according
to their drum coiling procedure and anchoring position.
open up in said sector; the wires are then able
to move, which leads to faster-than-normal
deformation, wear and crushing.

Front-end coiling Front-end coiling

Fig. 2
12
These last two structures are known
as FULL-LOCKED COIL. This group
of strands are not used to make more
complex structures; rather, they
constitute the final roe by themselves.
GROUP IV
Non-circular strands
from left to right. from right to left.
Right Lay Left Lay
Fig. 3
25
UNWINDING CABLES
Kinking is always a risk if wire ropes
are uncoiled incorrectly. Reels must
be mounted on jacks or turntables,
so that they may turn as wire ropes
are exctracted. Wnough pre-ssure
must be applied to the rope by
means of a board that will act as
brake on the reel flange, thereby
preventing the rope from slackening
once on the reel.

These are strands with a triangular and ellitical
permeter, as shown in Figures 4 and 5.
The first strand is made up of a core, which by
itself is a strand with six main wires and three
filler wires covered by two wire layers; the first
with 12 wires and the second with 14.
The second strand is composed of a special-
shape wire and a layer of round wires.
The spools or coils mus be uncoiled
by rolling on the ground on a straight
line away from the person holding
Fig. 4
the loose end of the wire rope.
A coil may also be placed on the
turntable as in the case of reels.

Fig. 5
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 WIRE ROPE INSTALLATION WIREROPESTRUCTUREANDCLASSIFICATIONS
When transferring a rope from one reel to another Wire structures can be classified, based on their
or to the drum of a certain machine or equipment degree of complexity, in three large groups.
unit, the rope must go from the upper part of When the aim is for a high-abrasion-
one reel to the upper part of the other reel, or resisant structure, wire ropes ares build
from the lower part of one reel to the lower part GROUP I so that the wires in outer layers have a
large diameter than the inner ones.
of another. Opposite bending should be avoided, Single-strand wire ropes
because it would introduce aditional stress in Comosed of a general type 100% metal strand,
the rope and makes handling difficult. The reels generally with a high number of wires. The most
must be on parrallel hubs and some tension must common structures are:
always be applied on the wire rope to ensure
correct coiling. Tension is even more important
in the case of smooth drums. 1X7 6/1
1 X 19 12/6/1
1 X 37 18/12/6/1
1 X 61 24/18/12/6/1

1 X 19
GROUP II

Multi-strand wire ropes are those most used in

practice; they may have a structure made up of
three or more strands enveloping a core made
of natural or synthetic fiber steel core.

These structures are much more flexible than

those of single strand wire ropes. The number
Reel of strands vary from 3 to 34, but the structure
most mcommonly used is a6-strand wire roe.
24 13
Drum This number leads to a very round wire rope with
Reel a bearing surface broad enough to support
pressures for which they are designed.
Drum
When the number of strands decreases, the wire
rope will have edges which will concentrate wear,
thereby considerably reducing their useful life.
If the wire rope has more than six strands, the
wire rope will be rounder and more flexible, but
the center space where the fiber core is placed
will be out of proportion and the wire rope will
tend to bend by crushing. The structures under
Correct this classification can be ranked according to
the following groups or series:
Incorrect
Reel
Reel
Drum 3 X 19 SERIES
Drum
This wire rope tye has a SEALE 9/9/1 structure,
commercially known as ESCREPA or SLUSHER,
and is used for mining applications due to its
high resistance to abrasion; however, it is rigid.

Correct Incorrect

9/9/1
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 6X7
6 X 7 SERIES As an example, to determine kow many meters
of 3/4” diameter wire rope go into a drum with
This wire rope has a 61 strucure and is for very the following characteristics:
specialized aplications; when it is galvanized, it
is used for shrimping vessels, known B= 24”, C= 18”, K= 0.428, D= 30”
commercially as SHRIM wire rope. They usuallyy
have a synthetic fiber core, i. e. polypropylene. Apply the above formula: F=30” - 18”
2
F=6”
6 X 19 SERIES
Therefore:
In this series, strands may have from 16 to 26
wires each, with the maximum number of wires
in the last layer being 12 per strand. The most Capacity = (6 + 18) 6 x 24 x .3048 x 0.428
coomon strucures in this group are: Capacity = 24 x 6 x 24 x .3048 x 0.428
Capacity = 450.85 mts.

6 X 19 12 / 6 /1 Two Operations
6 X 19 9 / 9 /1 Seale
6 X 21 10 / 5 / 5 /1 Filler
6 X 24 12 / 12 / Poli Seale/Polypropylene
6 x 25 12 / 6 / 6 / 1 Filler 6 X 37 SERIES
6 x 26 10 / 5+5 / 5 / 1 Warrington Seale
In this series, strands have from 27 to 49 wires
each, with the maximum number of wires in the
last layer being 18 per strand. The most common
structures in this grou are: 2. When a space must be left in the flange (E)
when coiling a wire rope around a drum or reel,
6 X 31 12 / 6+6 / 6 / 1 Warrington Seale the formula is as follows:
14 6 X 36 14 / 7+7 / 7 / 1 Warrington Seale 23
6 X 37 18 / 12 / 6 / 1 Three Operations Capacity = ( A+C ) X A X B X 0.3048 x K Where A= ( D - C ) - E
6 X 41 16 / 8+8 / 8 / 1 Warrington Seale 2
6 X 43 14 / 14 / 7 / 7 / 1 Filler - Seale
6 X 49 16 / 16 / 8 / 8 / 1 Filler - Seale
6 X 19 Seale By relacing the above values for any case, the
theoretical capacity can be calculated.

“K” FACTOR USED IN CALCULATING

CAPACITY IN SMOOTH DRUMS AND REELS.

Wire rope Diameters Factor Wire rope Diameters Factor

in inches “K” in inches “K”
6 X 49 Filler-Seale
1/8” 13.6 1-1/8” .191
3/16” 6.14 1-1/4” .152
1/4” 3.29 1-3/8” .127
5/16” 2.21 1-1/2” .107
3/8” 1.58 1-5/8” .0886
8 X 19 SERIES 7/16” 1.19 1-3/4” .0770
1/2” .925 1-7/8” .0675
In this series, strands may have from 9/16” .741 2” .0597
16 to 26 wires each, with the maximum
number of wires in the last layer being 5/8” .607 2-1/8” .0532
12 per strand. The most common 3/4” .428 2-1/4” .0476
structures in this group are: 7/8” .308 2-3/8” .0419
1” .239 2-1/2” .0380

8 X 19 9/9/1 Seale
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 FLEET ANGLE IN PULLEYS
AND DRUMS
For a smooth drum, there is a distance of 11.58
m. (38ft.) between the horizontal hubs of the
pulleys and drum for every .3048m. (1ft.) going
from the central hub of the pulley to the drum
flange. For a grooved drum, the distance between
the hori-zontal hubs is 8.84 m. (29ft.) for every
.3048m. (1ft.)
The creation of a deflection angle in the wire
rope cannot always be avoided. This occurs in
structures composed of a drum and fixed pulley,
as shown in Figure 9, where the angle is created.
If the wire rope is excessively skewed, it will tend
to skip off of the pulley. This results in uneven
coiling, overlapping and rapid wire rope wear
due to friction between the rope and its own
coils in the drum, and against the pulley groove
wall.
22
18 X 7 SERIES
This group includes wire ropes with 7 wires per
strand (6/1). Their lay is very particular, as they
have 12 right-lay outer strands and a layer of six
left-layinner strands, eliminating inner stress and
making them NON-ROTATING. They are used in
single-line cranes known as seed-balls.There are
other structures not mentioned here as they not
commonly used. The steel wire rope core is used
as strand support and is made of various
materials, depending on the work for which the 18 X 7
wire rope will be used. Most common are
indeèndent steel cores made of steel wires
generally arranged into a 7 X 7 structure; Fiber
cores may by made of plant fibers (hemp) or
synthetic fibers (polypropylene).
The steel core is used in applications where the
wire rope is subject to severe crushing or when
11.58 m. 8.84 m. used at very high temperatures that would
damage fiber cores.
Steel cores afford additional breakage resistance
by approximately 10%. Wire roes with this type
of core are slightly more rigid but suport bending
2º properly. Fiber core wire ropes are easier to
.3048 m. dandle and more elastic.
.3048 m.
1º 30’
Fleet Fleet
angle angle 15

GROUP III
Fig. 9
Multiple composition wire ropes
Experince shows that operation is best when the
fleet angle does not exceed 1.5 degrees in The structures for these types of wire rope are
smooth drums and 2 degrees in grooved drums. made by grouping six wire ropes. In this case
they are known as ropes enveloping a main core
which can be made of either fiber or a seventh
CAPACITY OF SMOOTH DRUMS AND REELS wire rope with a composition similar to the other
six.
A straightforward method has been devised to
determine the length of rope which can be coiled
around a drum or reel. Two facators must be
taken into account:
1. When the cable must fill the entire drum
or reel:

Capacity = (F+C) F X B X .3048 X K Where F = D - C

2

The following example is for illustrative purposes:

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 COMPACTED WIRE ROPE WIRE ROPE CORES

All steel ropes suffer some elongation when

subjected to a given stress and that elongation
can be classified as one of two types:

1. Constructuonal elongation

This results from the way the wires, cores and

strands are set or arranged when the wire rope
is in service. This elongation is permanent and
can be estimated at 1% to 3% of total wire rope
length. The setting period varies with rope use;
if use is constant and loads are normal, it will
take 50 hours. However, in applications where
6 X 26 Warrington Seale the wire rope does not work constantly or with
(10 / 5+5 / 5 / 1) little load, elongation could take up to six months
IWRC (7 X 7) or more.

“Added value” has different meaning deending
on the application. Compacted wire rope is used
for best results in increasing stress resistance,
stability and abrasion resistance.
Its versatility and added value makes the
difference in applications ranging from minin to
16 logging and oil field ropes. Compacted cables
increase service life and are ideal in cases where
drum crusging, abrasion and bending are critical
factors, where the highest stress resistance is
required in the smallest possible diameter.
Strands and cores are comacted prior to laying,
through a revolutionary process which reduces
internal stress and allows wire to share the load
more evenly.
Used in mining, construction,
logging and oil industries.
2. Elastic elongation
This is temporary and disappears when the load
action causing it ceases. This type of elongation
follows Hooke’s Law and depends on the load
applied to the wire rope if the elasticity limits of
the steel or specified load are not exceeded.
This can also be calculated if the wire rope
elasticity module is known. Steel rope can also
be elongated by temperature changes, which
affect original lenghts. The wire rope returns to
its original length when the temperature returns
to normal.
Generally speaking, cable will elongate and
8 X 37 Filler- Seale contract elastically. In cases where a cable is
(12 / 12 / 6 / 6 / 1 ) used under severe conditions, it is advisable to
IWRC (8 X 7+9 X 7) use low-elasticity module cable. Conversely, in
fixed facilities (bridges, chutes, etc.), high-
elasticity module cable is recommended in order
to obtain maximum stability under load.
BREAKING STRENGTH
In steel wirre rope theory, breaking strength has
different definitions according to how it is
calculated. We mention the following:
1. Actual breaking strength
The load longitudinally applied to a wire rope
which is needed to break same.
2. Theoretical breaking resistance 21
This results from multiplying the wire rope´s metal
section by the specified resistance of the steel
range used.
3. Calculated breaking strength
The sum of the breaking strength of each wire
making up the rope.
It is noteworthy, that calculated breaking strength
is approximately 15% higher than actual breaking
strength due to the loss admitted by the torsion
of the wires over the rope and the uneven
distribution of loads in the croos section.

Stability, resistance to strees,

bending fatigue and abrasion.

All diameter available

Longer life

8 X 26 Warrington Seale
(10 /5+5 /5 / 1)
IWRC (4 X 17 + 5 X 7)

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 WIRE ROPE CORES
Breaking strength increases remarkably, as well
Natural fiber cores as wear resistance, becouse these wire ropes Better wire rope strength /
have greater, smoother contact points. The outer diameter ratio.
They can be made from hemp, henequen or surface minimizes deterioration in pulleys and
manila, which are long, hard fibeers. They ccan drums. Improved resistance to
also be made from jute, sisal or cotton, but these abrasion and crushing.
are not recommended as they are soft and tend Better bending characteristics.
to descompose rapidly. However, the latter may
be used as filler in some applications and Increased resistance to fatigue.
The core is the central hub in the
constructions. Natural fiber cores are used in
some cases in engineering and mining cables,
wire rope, which is surrounded
as they buffer loads and discharges due to 6 X 43 Filler- Seale
by strands. It is used to support sudden acceleration or stoppage, in addition to (14/14 / 7 / 7 / 1)
the strands, preserving their providing internal lubrication for the strands. We IWRC (7 X 7)
round-ness, resisting strand recommend not using them in humid
pressure and keeping the direct environments or at high temperatures ( OVER
distrances or spaces between 80ºC ).
them. There are two types of
cores. FIBER (natural and Synthetic fiber cores
synthetic) and STEEL
(with strands or independent). Several synthetic fibers have been tested, with
polypropylene recording the best results. This
material has physical characteristics very similar
to those of manila and hemp, with greater
resistance to decomposition caused by salinity.
Its only drawback is its mutual abrasiveness,
and therefore tends to lose consistency if subject
to several operation cycles on high-stress pulleys.
We do not recommend using wire ropes with
polypropylene cores in elevvators or mine shafts.
20 They are generally used in galvvanized cables 17
for fishing and sea operations with excellent
results. They should not be used in gigh-
temperrature environments.
10 X 26 Warrington - Seale
Fiber Core
FLATTENED STRAND (10 / 5 + 5 / 5 / 1)
IWRC (6 X 17 + 1 X 19)
Strand steel core a) For heavy-duty work: Flattened strands are
special-construction rope composed of triangle-
Central wire shaped strand. This design makes for an outer
Strand core cire rope are those in which the core
Stand is composed of a single strand, the structure of rope surface similar to a smooth, continuous 6 X 30 SEALE
which is generally idential to that of the wire steel cylinder, compared to rounded-strand wire (12/ 12/ 6)
Wire ropes. These are excellent for heavy - duty work.
rope´´s outher strands. This configuration Fiber core
generally corresponds to ropes with diameters
smaller than 9.5 mm. ( 3 / 8 ” ).
Nominal Approx. weight Nominal Breaking Strength
Independent wire rope core (IWRC) diameter Improved Plow Steel Extra Improved Plow Steel
Core This is actually another steel rope in the center in. mm. pnds./ft. Kg/m. pnds. Ton.Metr. pounds Ton. Metr.
Cable
of the cable and its structure is generally with 1/2 13 0.45 0.67 23,600 10.7 26,000 11.7
seven strands with seven wires each ( 7X7). A
steel rope with a strand or independent wire rope 9/16 14.5 0.57 0.85 29,800 13.5 32,800 14.8
core has grater tration- and crushing - resistance 5/8 16 0.70 1.04 36,600 16.6 40,300 18.2
than a fiber core cable, but with less elasticity. 3/4 19 1.01 1.50 52,400 23.7 57,600 26.1
7/8 22 1.39 2.07 70,800 32.1 78,000 35.3
We recommed using steel core ropes in high
temperature environments ( over 80ºC), as in 1 26 1.80 2.68 92,000 41.7 101,200 45.9
smelters or other loccations where great pressure 1 1/8 29 2.28 3.39 115,800 52.5 127,400 57.7
is applied on the rope, as in oil drilling equipment, 1 1/4 32 2.81 4.18 142,000 64.4 156,200 70.8
mechanical shovels or dredges, mobile cranes,
Steel Core etc... where several rope “beds” (layers) are 1 3/8 35 3.40 5.06 171,000 77.5 188,000 85.2
coiled in the winch drum. 1 1/2 38 4.05 6.03 202,000 91.6 221,300 100.3
1 5/8 42 4.75 7.07 236,000 107.0 260,400 118.1
Plastified steel core
It´s main feature is the elimination of friction 1 3/4 45 5.51 8.20 272,000 123.3 299,500 135.8
between core wires and rope strand wirres 1 7/8 48 6.33 9.42 310,000 140.6 342,000 155.1
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 b ) Larger Contact Surface: The wire rope has a This process results in a wire rope which is more
flat surface for increased load support and grater resistant to breakage and slightly less flexible.
contact area in pulley and drums; available in It slides smoothly when coiled on the drums and
three styles: through pulleys, it requruires a larger diameter
1) Six large triangular strands create a 6 X 18 than conventional cables. This type of rope is
Heavy Duty Grater style on a central 7 X 7 IWRC. more resistant to wear and reduces abrasion in
Contact Area More 2) Multile strands create a 6 x 25 B style on a 7 drum grooves.
Compact X 7 central wire rope.
3) The 6 X 30 G style has six smaller strands Breaking Strengths
which create the center with triangular wire. IPS IWRC
Diameter 6x19 6x26 6x26 Swaged
c) More compact: The compact design of 1/2” 11.8 TON. 15.8 TON.
triangular strands allows for using larger strands 5/8” 17.7 TON. 24.5 TON.
and a smaller core in comparison with those of
rounded strands. This special design improves 3/4” 25.5 TON. 35.0 TON.
resistance by 10% com-pared to the same size 7/8” 34.4 TON. 48.4 TON.
rounded strand affording greater safety and a 1” 44.8 TON. 60.0 TON.
longer useful life. 6 X 25 Seale
12 / 12 / 1 1/8” 56.9 TON. 75.0 TON.
1 14” 70.4 TON. 88.0 TON.
1 3/8” 87.0 TON. 107.5 TON.

18 19

6 X 41 -WS
(16 / 8 + 8 / 1)

Wire ropes comosed of triangular of

elliptical strands were invented for
better setting on ulley grooves, with a
higher pulley/drum wire rope contact
surface area for greater resistance to
crushing and abrassion.
Swaged cables are composed of 6 or more
SWAGED CABLE strands integrated into a bigger diameter wire
rope by means of a special forging degree or
Greater resistance, better drum capacity cold hammering procedure. This bigger rope
for long lengths in logging.
diameter is compacted to a smaller. preset
diameter, increasing its breaking strength limit
Improved resistance to crushing and and the metal cross-section.
abrasion, and higher resistance to pulley
rotation.

Larger metal cross-section and a flatter

surface which improves drum coiling with
less vibration.

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