An Instructional Technique Course

for

Type Rating Instructors (TRls)

In accordance with

JAR/AMC FCL 1.365

 Course objective

The Course is designed to give adequate ground training to the applicant in

theoretical knowledge instruction in order to instruct for any multi-engine
aeroplane type rating for which the applicant is qualified. Appropriate flying
training will be given elsewhere.

Course Syllabus

The Course lasts for 28 hours and is spread over 4 days full-time ground
instruction. It includes the educational aspects of theoretical instruction,
including Learning, Teaching, Lesson Planning, Public Speaking, Instructional
Technique. Briefing, Assessing and Record Keeping. The syllabus is
-
completely in accordance with JAR FCL 1.365 (Part 1 Ground Training) and
1
has been approved by DCAM, Qatar and DGCAM, Muscat.

Course Completion

Course Completion Certificates willbe issued to all candidates who have

attended the full course.

Captain John S Bell

Chief Ground Instructor
Qatar Aeronautical College
(I.. ,

G:
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 CONTENTS

Lesson No. Page No.

pp - -

1.1 The Learning Process

1.2 The Teaching Process

1.3 Training Philosophies

1.4 Instructional Techniques & Visual Aids

1.5 The Objective Lesson & Lesson Planning

1.6 Public Speaking

2.1 Student Talks (2-minute prepared talks)

2.2 Student Talks (2-minute prepared taiks)

2.3 Student Evaluation and Testing

2.4 Training Programmes and Syllabus Development

2.5 Human Factors in Flight Instruction

2.6 Instructional Techniques (Air) and Simulated Failures

2.7 Airborne Teaching Techniques

2.8 The Role of the Training Captain

2.9 Limitations of Airborne Training

2.10 Perceptions of Training and Trainers

3.1 Student M i n u t e Presentations (Prepared)

3.2 Student 5-minute Presentations (Prepared)

3.3 Long and Short Briefs

3.4 Demo Briefing (Stalling) and video

3.5 Flt Training Admin and Records

 -
LESSON 1.1 THE LEARNING PROCESS

Motivation

1. Human Beings - and indeed all animals - require motivation in order to learn. It
usually requires a forrn of 'reward" . Animals will learn tasks to obtain food; sexual
gratification is nature's reward for propagating the species. Humans must learn in order
to pass examinations to obtain a new job or get promotion. In this course, you need to
become TRls in order to become TREs. That is your motivation. There is also
motivation in the forrn of praise and self-satisfaction of a job wel! done. Some of you will
learn enough just to pass the exam; others will learn more to obtain high marks. The
amount of work you put in will generally depend on your motivation.

Perception and Understanding

2. Perception is a complex mental process which involves the conversion of sensory

information into meaningful structures. The upercept"(ie what you perceive) is not a
complete representation of the information in the sensory stores, but is your brain's
immediate interpretation of that information. To make that interpretation, the brain relies
on your past experience to build a mental 'model" and compares what it senses with that
model. It will then come to a conclusion as to what it is perceiving. For example, a blind
man who has an operation to restore his sight will look at an object like an apple, but will
1
be unable to tell you what it is since he has no mental model of what an apple looks like.
Let him touch it or feel it, however, then he compares what he senses with his mental
model, find that they are identical, and will state that it is clearly an apple. Perception is
therefore believing. If you perceive it, then you believe it, since you have nothing better to
go on. Magicians depend on this human mental process when performing illusions and
tricks.

3. The main danger in using mental models to compare with sensory inputs, however, is
that we can "jump the gun" and come to a conclusion by making the sensory picture frt our
model whether it really does or not. For example (Show 'Paris in the the Spring").
d Understanding, on the other hand, is rather different. We can learn a list of items by rote
-
without really understanding what they are or even what we are doing! Performing
seals learn tricks out of hunger or fear, but it is highly unlikely that they understand what
they are doing. Understanding could therefore be defined as a clear knowledge of the
rules and the steps which precede a conclusion. In other words, an understanding of the
logic applied to obtain the answer. NOT the student cry :Just give us the questions and
the answers.

Memory

4. There are several classifications of memory in the brain, each having a different
function:

a. Iconic Memorv. This memory stores information in the visual sensory store (ie "icons")
and lasts only for between 0.5 and 1.0 seconds. (Blink quickly and watch the picture
fade). The cinematograph relies on iconic memory to generate a smooth mental picture.
 b.VMemonl This stores audio information in the sensory stor& ("echoes"). It lasts
much longer - between 2 - 8 seconds. (Try repeating a series 'of numbers).

c. Working (Short-term) Memory. This memory enables information to be retained for a

relatively short period, often so that it can be rehearsed before transferring it to the long-
term memory. (eg, remembering dates, telephone numbers, a route). It is also used to
s!ore informationfor a short period while the decision-making process decides what to do
-- -

with it.

d. Long-Term Memow. Just as it sounds, this memory stores information for long periods
of time. It is not, however, infallible, and has to be periodically refreshed. It is usually split
into 3 different types: Semantic, Episodic and Motor Memcry. -
e. Semantic Memory. This is a stored knowledge of how things really are: the colour red,
understanding a word, in other words, a memory of meaning (hence: "semanticsn). Once
information has been successfully placed in semantic memory, it is almost never lost. If
we are stuck for a word during conversation, it is not that we have lost the word, simply
that we cannot find it. Someone suffering from amnesia will still remember how to walk,
talk or ride a bicycle since his semantic memory remains undisturbed.

f. Episodic Memory. This part of long-term memory concerns sequences of events, like
the parts of a long story. It is fallible in that the information stored can be modified by our
-
expectations ie, what we think OUGHT to have happened.

g. Motor Memory. This is really a behavioural sub-routine usually associated with leaming
a skill, such as riding a b i ~ or
e executing a steep turn. After the requisite amount of
practice, the motor memory can perform the action without conscious thought. Of course,
since the action need not be monitored, errors can creep in undetected.

h. Habits and transfer: Habits, which can be both good and bad, are a form of leamed
procedure, usually stored in motor memory as a sub-routine. Like all motor-rnemov
activities, they should be periodically monitored to check there validity. "Transfer" can be
either Positive of Negative. Positive transfer relates to the situation where the leaming of
one fact or procedure actually assists the student in learning the next step in the leaming
process. This is obviously a 'goodn thing and lessons should be planned accordingly.
Negative transfer, on the other hand, is the situation where the learning of one procedure
actually makes the leaming of a subsequent procedure more difficult. This cannot be
avoided in some situations. For example, learning how to perform a UH steep turn often
makes the learning of a right-hand turn less easy than if the R/H turn were learned first.

Obstacles to Learning

5. Apart from mental illness, obstacle to learning are mostly psychological

a. Don't like the instructor (bad attitude/bully/aggressive)

b. Personal problems, ill, stress, pressed man
c. Conditions of temperature, humidity, light, noise, comfort, distractions
 Incentives to Learning
C'
6. The incentives to learning are usually those of reward:

a. Promotion, increase in salary or ; interest in the subject

c. Instructor encouragement
-- - -

Learning Methods

7. Learning can be defined as:

'A relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of experience. '

Learning can o+ur by:

a. Rote
b. ProSlern solving-
c. Trial and error
d. Modelling
e. Insight

Learning may involve

a. Theory (cognitive skills) eg Principles of flight in the classroom,

b Manipulative skills (practical skills) eg flying a steep turn
c. Attitudinal adoption (eg CRM course)

Note that

a. it is easier to recall facts than to understand concepts, and

b, procedural tasks are easier to pick up than intricate manual skills

Learning is best achieved in a logical manner:

Facts/rules/procedures -> Understanding -> Application

Easy information should be presented before difficult information. ihe%nciples of
earning state that the student shouldbe lead from:
a. Known - Unknown
b. Simple - complex
c. Concrete - Abstract
d. Part -the Whole
 he Laws of Learning:
8. The 'Laws of Learning' have been summarized as follows:

a. Readiness (ie preparedness) *

b. Practice (immediate practice most effective; improves performance and retention)

c. ' R - e i ~ f a ~ m m t 4 s k i n
questions;
g exercises; assignments; revision)
--d. PrimacylRecency (First impressions lasting; latest info remembered best)
e? Visual intensity (a picture worth a thousand words)
f. Learning difficulties (better communicationlchange of ,tactics)
g. Relevance (keep on the subject)

However, instructors should note that some subjects are absorbed quicker than others,
and indeed some students learn faster than others. Correctly-prepared LPs should take
note of these facts and be adjusted accordingly.
 THE ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING

1. Teaching is effectively a communication process which involves sending and

receiving the same message from the instructor tothe students. It occurs for the
particular reason of imparting both information & understanding and depends
upon both the sender and the receivesbeing bothmotivated and wqling to
participate. The process is complete when the sender confirms that the receiver
has both received and understoohhe correct message.

a . Methods of Communication: We communicate by:

1. Speaking
2. Writing
3. Eye Contact
4. Body Language (gestures, stance and expression)

Note: these are often grouped as either VERBAL or NON-VERBAL

communication. In either group the student must be actively invoh/ed. Interaction
is essential and feedback must be both planned for and demanded.

b. Barriers to Effective Commurtication:

I.inappropriate language (jargon, slang, poor use-of-words)

2. Inadequate linking of information
3. Student perception problems (student can't understand)
4. Absence of 2-way communication and interaction
5. Lack of checking or testing leading to poor progression
6. Poor classroom environment (temperature, noise, distractions)
7. Emotion (student or instructor: anger, ridicule, embarrassment etc)
8. Ambiguity in language (student can't understand)

THE PLANNING OF INSTRUCTIONAL A C T I V I N

b
2. The 4 Ps" - Preparation Prevents Poor Performance:

a. A good instructor will thoroughly prepare by:

< 1. Considering the lesson content

2. Preparing a comprehensive Lesson Plan (LP - more later)
3. Ensuring his own subject knowledge (thorough revision)
4. Checking all Visual Aids (VA) & equipment before the lesson
5. Confirms students' background to ensure lesson is at appropriate level
6. Prepares handouts and lesson notes
TEACHING METHODS

3. Each topic being taught must contain the following sections:

a. Introduction (Tell them what your going to tell them)

b. Development (Tell them), and
c. Conclusion (Tell them what you've told them)

However, even within this format, the .method of knowledge imparting can vary
depending on the teaching circumstances. We will now consider the merits and
demerits of both The Lecture and The Lesson.

The Formal Lecture

a. The Lecture Structure:

1. A straight, formal talk or exposition by the instructor

2. No questions normally until the end
3. No student participation
4. Heavy reliance on frequent progressive summaries
5. Heavy reliance on training aids to support the teaching

b: When to use the Lecture:

I . Large Audience
2. Time is limited
3.' Large amounts of factual information (rules, policies, general over-view)

c. Advantages of the Lecture Method:

I . Large amount of data can be passed on

2. No limit to class size (some lectures televise into adjacent halls)
3. Instructor is in total control of both sequence and content

d. Disadvantases of the Lecture Method:

1. Communication is one-way only

2. Inappropriate method for the teaching of skills
3. Impact is mainly aural
4; Learner is encouraged to be passive

e. Implications for the Instructor:

1. Continual checks required for non-verbal feedback (yawns, talking, sleep)

2. High-quality Training Aids required
3. Use rhetorical questions to positively challenge the audience ("so, what can we
tell from this? ...)
4. Vary voice in both pitch and volume
5 . More than normal attention to audience motivation required
 The Lesson

Lesson Method Characteristics.

a. The Lesson ~ ' s ~ r n a r i%Question

ly and Answer technique in order to achieve the
\

following:

1. Obtain feedback
2. Encourage interaction
3. Check understanding
4. Build-up major teaching points

b. Lesson Teachins Method: Use the Principles of Learning.

B 1. Known to Unknown
2. Simple to Complex
3. Concrete to Abstract
4. Questions (more later)

c. 'Advantaqes of the Lesson:

1. Promotes active student participatidn

2. , Thoroughly teaches and reinforces concepts
3. Progresses in logical steps
4. Instant feedback (rapport)
5. Makes the learning process much easier

d. Disadvantaqes of the Lesson:

P
1. Time consuming
2. High level of instructional skill required
3. Limited class size (maximum 16 - 20)

TEACHING FROM THEKNOWN TO THE UNKNOWN

4. What this means is using facts already learned, applying processes to these facts (eg
relating them to another topic) then explaining the new topic. It is like building a wall,
layer by layer.
At'the start of a new lesson this method dictates the necessity of revision of the last
lesson.

"Yesterday we learned how to ........ Today we will apply this technique in a new
environment . . . .. . . . . . . ."
0
USE OF LESSON PLANS

Lesson Plans (LPs) form a vital ingredient of the Lesson Method of instruction. The
LP can be considered to be a guide or organized outline that is prepared for an
instructional session and is presented in written form for each instructional period. It
is really at the heart of a trainer's job. There are various formats in general use, and
indeed you can readily make-up your own format. Essentially, the LP will tell the
instructor what tasks he and the students will undertake, the order in which they are
going to do them, how they will be done, and finally how they success will be
assessed. Note that a mental outline alone is not enough. Other instructors have
to be able to follow it.

6. Details of how to complete a Lesson Plan will be covered later. In the meantime,
here is a typical example.
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 LESSON 1.3 - TRAINING PHILOSOPHIES

VALUE OF A STRUCTURED APPROVED COURSE OF TRAINING

1. A structured Course of Training will follow the principles of Learning. Itwillalso-foliow the
- guidelines set by the appropriate authority. The course must also be approved by that
authority who must check that the-contentof the syllabus, the teaching methods and the
classroom facilities are up to the particular required standard, in this case, the checking is
done by DCAM. Obviously, if a course'of training is NOT approved by the respective
authority, it will not necessarily be recognized by them.

2. The Course Objectives should be clearly stated. For this course - Ground Instruction for
the Type Rating Instructor for multi-pilot aeroplanes is as follows:.

"The course should be designed to give adequate training to the applicant in theoretical
knowledge instruction, flight instruction and synthetic flight instruction, for any multi-pilot
aeroplane type rating for which the pilot is qualified" (JAR-FCL 1.365) Our course
objective here is slightly modified in that we are only teaching Part 1, the Ground
Instructional part of the syllabus.

IMPORTANCE OF A PLANNED SYLLABUS

3. At this point in the course, this statement regarding the importance of a planned syllabus
will almost go without saying. As we have already seen, the published syilabus must be
adequately covered, but in order to accomplish adequate learning, the planning of lessons
to cover that particular syllabus must be awornplished by the use of Lesson Plans.
Once all the LPs have been written, they should be tested against the authorized
published syllabus to ensure that all the teaching points have been adequately covered.
This may involve partial re-writing before the first course, or, following internal validation
(from student course debriefs and questionnaires), or external validation (reports from the
9 end-user or the authority) subsequent amendment to suit the users particular purpose.
Instructors should remember that the vaiue of well-constructed Lesson Plans cannot be
over-emphasised. Good Lesson Plans will ensure that information is not placed willy-nilly
in front of students but is planned and organized in a regular and logical manner which is
easier for both instructor and student to teach and understand respectively.

INTEGRATION OF THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE AND FLIGHT INSTRUCTION

4. In Part 2 of this course, the Flight lnstructors will reinforce the theoretical knowledge
applied from Part 1, this ground training phase. This will be accomplished once again by
reference to the authority requirements (AMC-FCL 1.365), a detailed breakdown of the
course from JARS.
 LESSON 1.4 - INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES

THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE CLASSROOM INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES

1. The actual Instructional Technique (IT), or teaching method, to be used (ie lesson,
lecture, discussion group etc) depends on several factors: -~------

a. The Learning Obiective. The Learning Objective used will have a major-effect
on the choice of teaching method. What is the student required to do? What
is the depth of understanding required? What are the performance conditions?

b. The Subject Matter. Is the Subject Matter verbal or manipulative? Is it

symbolic? Is it difficult to assimilate? These factors must all be considered
when choosing a particulat instructional method.

c. Tarqet Population. The class size, aptitudes, experience and educational

levels will all combine to dictate the type of IT to be used.

d. Instructional Staff. The numbers, abilities, language expertise and general

competence will all influence the method selected.

e. Facilities. Time & Cost. Each teaching method makes its own demand on
facilities, equipment, Training Aids, InstructionalMaterials (notes, handouts,
equipment, etc), and even accommodation. Student-centered methods such
as the Lesson, Discussion Groups, Role-playing etc will all take more time than
the instructor-centered method such as the Lecture. As'for costs, the expense
of the manpower and equipment required should be offset by genuine
advantages in other areas such as a reduction in net training time, total
number of instructors, etc.

2. A good mnemonic for practicing good Instructional Technique is the word 'KISS".

- It Short & Simple"

"Keep

a. Don't use big words when short words will do

b. Don't show-off by using words that the learner will not understand
c. Use short sentences which deal with one point at a time
d. Explain things in a logical order
e. Mske sure the learner fully understands one concept before moving on
f. Speak in the "active" rather than the 'passive" voice
g. Use technical terms only when absolutely necessary
h. If you must use jargon (eg acronyms), make sure you explain the meaning
before they become a crucial part of your explanation
 NOW,how did you feel about the expression: "speak in the active voice". Here I used a
technical expression without explaining it first. It would have been better if I had said:

"Involve the learner in what you are doing. Tell him things such as 'then you undo the
fastener' rather than 'then this fastener is undone'."

USE OF TRAINING AIDS

3. Training Aids (TAs)are becoming more sophisticated daily. Microsoft PowerPoint

(PPt), for example, which you have seen used here is very popular for lectures. The
problem with using PPt for a lesson is that the lights must be dimmed and the
instructor often has to stand beside the projector and not in front of the class. There
is therefore no chance of any eye-contact. Computer Based Training (CBT) is very
valuable in aviation training, but then the instructor is rarefy present atiall. Video is
a good Visual Aid (VA), as are computer-generated graphics. However, don't forget
the value of the White-Board and there is always good old "chalk-and-talk". Other
1 good TAs will include sectioned instruments and professionally-manufactured
models. However, very often the simplest of Vas wills make the most impact. For
example, blowing on a sheet of paper to illustrate the Bernoulli Effect.

4. Whatever TAs you plan to use, it is vital that they are in-place and operationally
checked just before the lesson. Have some sort of back-up in place. For example, if
your PowerPoint projector fails, have hard copies of all your slides and an Overhead
Projector (OHP) handy. If your principal VA is the OHP, then keep a spare
machine, or at least a replacement bulb, handy. And make sure you know how to
'open the machine and change the bulb taking care not to touch the bulb glass with
your fingers. White-Board diagrams can be drawn carefully in advance and rolled
into view when necessary. If you are stuck with a fixed board, you can use the "join-
up-thedots" method to construct your diagram. Practice drawing items which you
will illustrate frequently (like an aerofoil section) well in advance. If using an OHP, a
pencil makes a good pointer, and it is normally best to point out things on the
transparency than on the projector screen. Leave the pencil still rather than wave it
about. Laser pointers are quite cheap and are useful for identifying components of a
lesson on the screen, particularly when giving a lecture. Paper flip charts can also
be prepared in advance and are very effective. Be prepared to use your ingenuity.

EFFECTIVE USE OF TRAINING RESOURCES

The Overhead Projector

Adopt a uniform style or format for your slides

Use colour whenever possible
Use landscape rather than portrait
Check the set-up before the class arrives
Use permanent markers or, better still, print from a word-processor
Use a maximum of 6 words per line17 lines per screenlletters at least 8mrn high
Stcre transparencies in c:ear plastic wallets and keep the wallets in a folder
Don't copy pages from a book unless you enlarge them first
Don't write too near the edge; leave a 2cm margin
 Don't point and avoid looking at the screen too much. Keep eye-contact going
Leave a pencil or small pointer on the OHP at the point you are emphasising
Turn off the OHP is there is a break in the flow of your slides

The Whiteboard -

--

Plan the board in advance; (you can make this partadhe Lesson Plan)
Write in large rounded letters and use colours which are easy to see (eg not orange)
Don't cram too much onto the board
Write in short chunks; don't spend too long with your back to the group
Use the correct type of pen. Permanent markers are very difficult to remove
Always clean the board at the end of your session for the next instructor
If students have to copy from the board, leave plenty of time

The Flipchart

Use large print and bold colour

Sketch diagrams in advance lightly in pencil
Write in bullet points '

Use ,Bluetack to stick completed pages around the room

Don't talk to the easel - talk to the learners
Consider using prepared pages as for OHP slides
Keep completed charts for future use

Using Videos and Film

If the video is not linked to your key learning points, don't use it
Use videos sparingly, and not just after lunch
Watch the video first yourse!f and cue it in advance
Know where the spare machine - or the technician is - in advance
Make sure that everyone can see and hear (check window blinds)
Prepare a handout to go with the video so the learners know what to watch for
Provide follow-up activities related to the video

GROUP LECTURES (MASS BRIEFINGS) -.

5. These briefings (sometimes also known as "Long Briefs") are where the Instructor (in
this case a Flying or Type Rating Instructor) would revise some part of the flying
syllabus in great detail. He would try to integrate the purely academic facets of the
subject previously learned in the Groundschool with the more practical aspects of
actually flying the particular exercise in question. For example, when discussing the
Recovery form the Stall. whereas in the Groundschool the ground instructor might
refer to" reducing the aerofoil's angle of attack to below the critical acgle", during the
Mass Brief the flight instructor might well refer to "lowering the noseto unstall the
wings".
 The Mass Brief is usually given to several trainees at the same time in a classroom
or lecture room environment. Indeed, there is often a "Mass Briefing Room" specially
set aside for this purpose. The Mass Brief should be well-prepared using VAs as
required and will probably last for about one hour for each of the basic exercises.

INDIVIDUAL BRIEFINGS (Short Briefs or Pre-Flight Briefs)

6. As the name suggests, this should only last around 10-15 minutes at the most and
summarises only the main points of the exercise to be flown. Ideally the flight should
take place immediately after the Pre-Flight Briefing, but there should be no more than
around one hour delay between the brief and the sortie. b here is a tried-and-tested
format for this type of briefing (which is really a short lesson) and this will be covered
later.

STUDENT PARTICIPATION AND DISCUSSION

7. In a lecture, it is normal for questions to be put at the very end. However, the
instructors can, if they so wish, advise at the start of the session that they will
welcome questions at any time. In general terms, however, this is not normally
encouraged since it can disturb the flow of information. Full discussion and
question-time must, however, follow-on from the lecture.

8, During a lesson, however, questions should be encouraged since questions form an

integral part of the communication process. Nevertheless, ground rules should be
set out from the very start since it is important that the learners should know what is
expected of them. It should therefore be agreed when questions can be posed by the
learners. (eg 'I'll take questions at the end of each topicn.)

MANAGING THE LESSON .

9. During training sessions the instructor will need to use many personal skills. Some
people think that you are stuck with the personal skills you are born with, but this is
simply not true. Personal skills, like any other skill, can be developed and improved.
Some of the Personal skills required of an effective trainer are listed below, but this is
certainly not exhaustive:

a. Putting the learner at ease

b. Listening to what he says
c. Asking questions to check understanding
d. Observing the learner and noting where help is required
e. Judging lesson pace to suit the learner
f. Givinggood feedback
g Creating a positive image by use of good body language
 10. How do you put a learner "at ease"? This can be achieved by the following:

a. Adopting an open and helpful attitude

b. Explaining clearly what you are trying to do
c. Allowing plenty of time - don't rush
d. Encouraging learners to ask questions and feeding back to you his feelings
-- ~-

11. What about "listening to what he says? Listening is much more than just "hearing".
A good listener will focus closely on the speaker and what he is saying. He will also
notice the learner's actions (his body language) as well as his words. In fact, a
good mnemonic for 'how to listen correctlynis to be found in the word "LISTEN"
itself.

L - Look interested. Body language is important. Arms crossed, head down,

frowning, looking away are all calculated to put the speaker off.

I- Inquire with questions, but only after the speaker has made his point

S - Suspend your judgement. Don't leap to conclusions or hear what you want to
hear rather than M a t is being said.

T -'Test your own understanding. Ask questions to check that you fully understand
what the learner is really saying

E - Exclude your own emotions. Acknowledging prejudices in advance can help to

keep you calm

N - Note what is being said. Taking down notes can indicate full attention. It can
also cool down a heated discussion by slowing down the action and reaction.

QUESTION TECHNIQUE

12. Purpose of Questions: Trainers need to interact with learners regularly throughout
the presentation making sure that they remain interested, motivated and that the
lesson pace is proceeding at an appropriate pace.

13. T v ~ e s
of Question: Open questions are used to gather information. Typically they
begin with words like 'How ...? To-whatextent.. .? Why. ..? Whatif,. .?" Reflective
questions are used to summarise and clarify. Examples include "Am I right in
thinking that you ...? So what you are saying is ...? Probingquestions are
designed to check deeper understanding. They can be quite complicated and might
include: "So how would you deal with the situation ...?" Closed questions expect
a very limited 'reply. Usually they are to be avoided but can sometimes be helpful
when you want to make a rambling answer more focused. Examples include:
:"How many.. . ? When ...? Who ... ?
Leading questions give the learner clues about the answer you expect. They may
be used from time-to-time when the learner needs to .be encouraged to talk. For
example: 'So we agree that . ..?" finall;, Multiple/Cornplex questions are usually
confusing and should only be used to test high levels of skill.
 14. When to Question:

a. Introduction. Questions during the introduction will stimulate_intecest~evise-or

link to previous knowledge, and establish the learners' "need-fCknow"7 -

b. Development. Questions during the Lesson Development Phase will maintain

student interest, establish teaching points, check the application of those
I
points and generally check student progrsss

c. Conclusion. Questions asked here will reinforce the Learning Objectives,

clarify the main structure of the teaching and finally check student overall
"1
_subjectco prehension and thus learner feedback.

15. Question Posinq: When asking questions, use the '3 Ps Principle". These are:

"Pose, Pause & Pounce"

What this requires is to put the question generally to the class, then pause while
they think about it, and finally, select your victim by name. Other points to
remember regarding questions are:

a. Reinforcement: the correct handling of responses ensures continued effort.

b. Amplification: a reply to a question enables amplification of the teaching points
c. Re-phrasinq: can be used if the student gives the wrong answer
d. Distribution: spread your questions around the class
e. Time: give the learner time to think and respond before moving on

16. Lack of Learner Response: If you don't get an answer immediately, don' t rush in to
fill the silence. Use body language in an encouraging way to convey the idea that
you are still waiting for an answer. This 'Golden Silence' is the thinking time the
learner needs in order to prepare their answer. If you still do not get an answer and
the silence becomes embarrassing, then try to identify the problem. You can do this
by first checking that the learner has fully understood the question. You can also
re-phrase and simplify the question, avoiding the use of jargon in case that is the
problem.

17. Respondins to Learner Questions: Always listen carefully and give yourself time to
think. If you are unsure, confirm the meaning of the question with the learner.
. Once you have answered, always check with the learner to ensure they are
satisfied. You can often use the question as a teaching point or as a link to the
next topic. However, do not distort the structure of the lesson because a question
has been asked early. Rather inform the questioner that you will answer it later in
the lesson, but make sure that you do. If you don't know the answer, be honest
a
and say so, but offer to find out and report later.
18. Difficult Questions: Be prepared for the following types of difficult question, difficult
in the sense that the questioner is being difficult:

a. Loaded Questions: The questioner is inviting confrontation and may be using

emotive language. Let the questioner know that you disagree with his views and
movean to-the next-question.

\b. Hvpothetical Questions: This can lead down all sorts of blind alleys. Avoid the
temptation to speculate. Make it clear that the question is hypothetical and outside
the remit of the present training session. Once again, move on to the next question.

c. Forced Choice Question: This type is rather like a Leading Question ('Have you
stopped beating your wife yet?'). Be aware that all the options the questioner
proposes may be wrong. Don't be limited by the choices offered: offer your own
solution.

d. The Multi-Question: Get the questioner to identify exactly which question he

wants you to answer, then proceed as before.

Be 'streetwise" in the classroom:

Be aware of what is happening in the classroom

hook out for signs of disagreement or confusion and deal with these
Keep the session purposefui and 'on trackn
Don't start talking until everyone is quiet
Ahvays confront inappropriate behaviour without being rude yourself
Ahvays be courteous and respectful
Be clear, fair and consistent
 LESSON 1.5 - LESSON PLANS

PURPOSE OF THE LESSON PLAN

1. As we saw briefly in lesson 2, (The ~eaching Process), the purpose of the Lesson
Plan (LP) is to provide a guide or brganized outline that is prepared for an
instructional session and is presented in written format for each period or lesson.
There are various formats in general use, and indeed you can easily construct your
own. Lesson Planning is really at the heart of a traineps job. It should clearly set
out the following items:

a. The formal Learning Objectives

b. The preparation required by the instructor
c. The equipment and location of the lesson (eg, classroom with OHP, laboratory
etc)
d. The knowledge or skills to be taught together with a tirne scale
e. The anticipated sequence of student behaviour
f. How the lesson will be evaluated or assessed (eg, written test)
g. The location and conditions (eg, in the classroom, without reference to notes,
etc)
: h. Key words to be used in the lesson t3 prompt the instructor (not mandatory)

Aims and Objecti'ves

2. Aims are broad statements of what the trainer intends to do, usually over a longer
term. Objectives, however, are the means, or building blocks, used in attaining the
aim. Training Objectives should focus on the observable outcomes for the learner.
In other words, a good Training Objective should describe something that the
learners can do after a training session; something that they could not do before it.
These objectives are therefore generally known as Behavioural Objectives in that.
once attained, they have changed the behaviour of the learner in some way, usually
by increasing or modifying his knowledge or by his acquiring a skill not previously
acquired. A Behavioural Objective should therefore start with the words:

'By the end of the session the learner will be able to ......'

Behavioural Objectives

3. There are 3 elements to a Behavioural Objective: Performance, Standard, and

Conditions.

Performance: A precisely-worded statement of the behaviour required of the student

at the end of the training session. The appropriate behaviour is indicated by the first
verb in the objective statement.
 Standard: The standard statement can indicate:

a. accaracy (how well)

b. tolerances (within what limits)
c. time (how fast),
d. supervision (how much - minimum, normal or maximum supervision)

Conditions: Under what conditions must the student perform the task:

a. Environment (classroom, in flight etc)

b. Aids, manuals, checklists - are they to be made available?
c. Tools or equipment (calculators, navigation computei, etc)

4. Behavioural objectives should contain action verbs such as:

'describe, list, identiv, explain, solve, write, compare, demonstrate, choose,

perform, show, or even, make.'

You must avoid objectives which contain words like:

'know, understand, appreciate.'

Always ask yourself how will you know if the objective has been achieved by your
learners. There should only be one performance word in each objective.

5. ~ehaviouralObjectives should also be:

Specific: Precise - not vague, wooly or too general

Observable: You should be able to detect the change in the student
Measurable: You should be able to measure the achievement in the student
Achievable: Don't be too optimistic. Identify what can be achieved in the time
available
Realistic: Have your feet on the ground. Don't ask for the impossible
Timed: Use your experience to set the correct pace. Don't overwhelm.

Behavioural Objectives can be applied to various learning processes: Theoretical (as

applied to learning knowledge), Practical (as applied to learning skills), or Attitudinal
(in, for example, CRM courses which aspire to change the attitude of the learner)

Remember, at the end of the day, the maia functions of the objectives are as follows:

a. To provide structure for the lesson and so help with the planning
b. To assist with evaluation and assessment
 Attainment Codes

6. Standards and general conditions are often not written into objective statements but
are often covered by what are known as 'Attainment Codes'. In terms of theoretical
studies these codes may be listed as "Essential, Desirable and Background', while
in Practical objectives they will be described as being ' Expert, Effective and
Trained.' -

Lesson Plan Format

7. A typical LP format was shown in Lesson 2. You will note that the various sections
include:

a. Topic
b. Learning Objectives
c. Instructor Preparation
d. Time Schedule
e. Instructor's actions
f. Student action$
g. Lesson evaluation

Topic: The topic is the main focus of the teaching period and shouid state the
knowledge, skills and behaviours to be learned.

Objectives: The must be clearly-stated behavioural objectives in terms of desired

student learning outcomes.

Instructor Preparation: List the major resources and aids to be used (maps, films,
videos, slides, models, computers, tools, etc)

Time Schedule: lndicate the amount of time to be spent on each section of the
lesson. Pla~ning the use of time assists the instructor in deciding what may, or may
not, be accomplished in the time available.

Instructor's Actions: List sequentially the procedures for conducting the lesson (Intro,
main body, demonstrations.
- conclusion). Include links between the various parts.

Student's Actions: Describe the required student responses. Eg "demonstrating,

practicing, observing, listening, etc)

Lesson Evaluation: Indicate how student achievements will be evaluated in

.relationship to the objectives: eg, through questioning, use of the checklist,
observation, or a written test. Note that is important for the instructor to give
constructive and detailed feedback as soon as possible.
 Abbreviated Lesson Plans

8. With experience it is often possible to use a summarised version of the LP format.

The summary LP generally includes the lesson topic, a list of the instructional
objectives and a brief overview of what both the instructor and the students will be
doing. This is often very close to the "expanded syllabus". Nevertheless, the
instructor should be familiar with each step of the LP before the start of a teaching
session. In addition, do not hesitate, in the light of experience, to modify or adapt the
LP if the situation demands. Always take note of student feedback and be prepared to
revise LPs before a specific lesson. This will have the added benefit of assisting future
instructors for that particular lesson.
 LESSON 1.6 - PUBLIC SPEAKING

General Structure

When speaking in public ( a n u a t includes the lecture hall or classroom) your

primary intent is to pass information. This is most easily done if your lesson, or
speech, is done in a structured way with a clear and appetising introduction, a solid
middle section (or development), and a noteworthy conclusion. You will remember
that the "Law of Primacy" stated that first impressions are lasting, whereas the "Law
of Recency" stated that things that were taught last will be remembered first. For
these reasons alone it can be said that the introduction and conclusion are equally as
important as the main body. It is worth repeating that, In general terms, you must:

Tell them what you're going to tell them

Tell it to them
Tell them what you havejust told them

For classroom instruction, the content of each section should contain at least the
following elements:

Introduction:

Identify the topic (both verbally and visually) .-

State the Objectives (behaviourally worded, verbally and visually displayed)
Motivate the students (to gain their interest)
Outline the way in which the.objectives will be achieved (the strategy)
Link the lesson to previous knowledge or experience
Revise the salient paints of the last lesson, perhaps by questions or summary
-
Expectations outline the instructors expectations of the students
-
Questions to ensure that any initial uncertainties have been resolved

Development:

Approximately 80% of teaching time should be in the development

This is where any new information will be expounded
Teaching points will be established here
Check (by questioning) the understanding of the new material
Summarise the new material, both verbally and visually

Conclusion:

Review the main points of the development

Link back to the lessonobjectives to ensure that they have been covered
Preview the next lesson or activity and connect with the lesson just given
Any final questions (to clear up and last-minute confusion)
 Instructor Attributes

2. In order to deliver an effective lesson or lecture, experience has shown that any
speaker must have the following attributes. It should also be noted that this list forms
part of the basic structure for most instructor proficiency checks, including those of
the CAA etc. .-

a Organisation: Were all the teaching aids ready. Was he generally well organised
Timing: Did the lesson start and finish on time
Demeanour: Was the instructor well presented
Confidence: Did he appesr confident and did he imbue the students with it
Effectiveness: Was he effective in the teaching of the subject lesson
Enthusiasm: Was he enthusiastic and was this also reflected in the students

3. Although these attributes come naturally to some instructors, the rest of we mortals
have to work hard to attain them. The following list, although not exhaustive, once
studied and practised will go a long way to achieving the quality of presentation
required.

a. Eve contact. Maintaineye contact throughout the lesson. This will generate the
following benefits:

Personalise the instruction

Allow the instructor to check for student confusion
Keep students alert and focussed

In other words, it acts as a non-verbal dassroom management device.

b. Stance & Movement. When moving about the classroom it is important to keep in
mind the following:

Be natural yet purposeful (don't march about but don't wander aimlessly)
Use ariy movement to focus attention
Avoid unnecessary distracting actions such as pacing, tapping, rocking, jingling

c. Gestures & Facial Ex~ressions:A good instructor will try to utilise:

Natural yet purposeful gestures

Non-verbal cues to help students to answer (eg, nods, smiles, etc)
Other gestures and expressions as additional classroom management devices
(eg the 'evil eye" to register disapproval)

d. Appearance: A good instructor will display a professional attitude by means of:

Dressing neatly and appropriately

0 Being well-groo&ed
 It should be noted that students will often model themselves on their instructor. if
he appears untidy or disorganised or slouches around the classroom, he can
hardly complain if the students do the same!

e. Language: Students may not have had the benefit of the instructor's on-the-job
experience. Consequently he will need to be aware of any limitations on the
students' prior knowledge. Instructors should therefore avoid, at least initially, the
use of jargon, abbreviations, mnemonics and acronyms. It should go without
saying that bad language and profanity might raise a laugh from some class
members, others may strongly disapprove. In other words, play it safe and don't
swear.

f. Voice: The voice has a major effect on the communications process. Voice
characteristics can be summarised as volume, clarity, modulation and pace.

Volume: Don't speak too loudly (keep them actively listening) nor too softly (to
avoid sleep). Project the voice by keeping your head up. (Maintaining eye contact
helps here).

Clarity: Enunciate your words clearly. Don't mumble

, Modulation: Vary the pitch of your vcice as well as tone and volume. This can
add variety and emphasis to the lesson. It can also serve to jolt the class into
waking on a hot day after lunch.

Pace: Verbal delivery should flow smoothly. Although varying the pace is an
acceptable technique to maintain student awareness, (A well-timed pause can add
considerable emphasis), avoid the use of 'ums, ahs and errs", and above all,
don't speak too quickly.

g. Or~anisation:The organised instructor will exude an immediate air of professio.na1ism

thus instilling class confidence from the outset. Make sure you have with you
1 everything you need to start the class. Check all equipment before your entrance.

h. Enthusiasm: Students will readily follow the instructions and guidance of an

interested, enthusiastic and confident instructor rather than the teaching of a
disinterested, lethargic and faltering one.

j. General: The instructor who takes a holistic and professional approach to his subject
will always be thoroughly prepared and willing to assist his students. This will make
him much more effective that a disinterested and poorly prepared colleague.
LESSON 2.1 - STUDENT TALKS

LESSON 2.2 - STUDENT TALKS

 LESSON 2.3 -STUDENT EVALUATION AND TESTING

LEVELS OF LEARNING

1. The ultimate objective of training is to change behaviour. The student

generally goes through four levels to reach the level of behavioural change:

. Awareness - the student experiences (is introduced to) the learning

situation or event.

Understanding or knowledge -the student places the learning event in

context.

Skill - the student applies the understanding or knowledge learned.

Attitude or values - the student undergoes a change in behaviour and

values as the resutt of the training event.

At the skill level, the student can perform the new sequence. At the attitude
level, the student wishes to perform the new sequence.

Several key events occur between the onset of sensory learning input and
performance. While we generally agree WHAT the events are, we aren't
sure HOW individuals accomplish them. The 'how" is locked in the
workings of individual minds and is probably accomplished differently with
each person. All are influenced by the trainer.
 EVALUATION

1. The following words constitute an evaluation in the evaluators:

OPINION

MEASUREMENT

JUDGEMENT

All are subjective words and great care is necessary to ensure that a common
performance grading is used. More than one person awarding ma'rks can only
mark truly against an identifiable recognised scale.

2. A method of awarding marks might be:

100%
1 'A - &XCEP JIONAL -
80 100%
2 B - ABOVE AVERAGE 70 - 79%
3 C - HIGH AVERAGE -
60 69%
4 D - AVERAGE -
50 59%
5 E - LOWAVERAGE -
40 49%
6 F - BELOWAVERAGE 30 - 39%
'7 G - UNSATISFACTORY -
0 29%

3. What is an acceptable mark? What is average?

Definition

Middle
Middle of the Road
Stzndard
Middle Grade

However, an Average may not reflect the average standard of

knowledge or skill level required. Furthermore, average performance must
be aligned against a flexible base line. For example, is maintaining straight
+ +
and level within 200 feet and 10" average. I f its Flight Lesson 1 it may
be above average, if its towards CPL level then its below average.

. A student who has worked in his own time can for example reproduce the
fuel syst'em before a lecture. Initially, he will be Above Average. Proper
reporting will show whether he can retain this knowledge and perform
always Above Average.
STUDENT FLYING RECORDS - PROGRESS TEST PERCENTAGES

For each dual exercise the performance of the student is to be rated in

accordance with the following assessments that best describe the students
demonstrated ability.

A. EXCEPTIONAL: The students performance was wi&"f faolt%-

displayed an unusually high level of skill and as akudent exercise this
could not have been improved upon. Associated airmanship and cockpit
management were to the highest level.
I

B. ABOVE AVERAGE: The student performed the exercise with ease.

The techniques used were corrected and for the student's experience the
exercise was hard to fault.

C. H I ~ HAVERAGE: The student performed the exercise using the correct

techniques to a very good standard. His airmanship and cockpit
management were good and only minor errors occurred.

D. AVERAGE: The student performed the exercise to a good standard

using to correct techniques and with only occasional lapses into non-
critical errors. This constitutes an assessment.

E. LOW AVERAGE: The student performed this exercise to an acceptable

standard using the correct techniques and without assistance. He is fit to
practice the exercise solo if the syllabus allows. This is the lowest
category that may be treated as Plls.

F. BELOW AVERAGE: The student required assistance and some re-

.demonstrationwith this exercise to avoid non-critical errors. Further solo
practice is required to produce the standard required. Following an
assessment of F or lower, solo practice of essential exercises is not
permitted.

G. UNSATISFACTORY: The student required considerable assistance to

complete this exercise or to avoid critical errors. He has failed to master
the correct technique. Considerable re-briefing was required. Not frt to
practice solo.
1. The advanced training phases in which the TRI is involved will require very
careful fault analysis - (one of the most critical areas which will be covered
in detail later.) However, by analyzing and reporting each sortie / lesson
- - c a d d y a n d properly, it is possible to detect a pattern of performance which
may be of concern, for example, repetitive or dangerous mistakes, poor
techniques, lack of application etc.

In isolation any of these errors may not be of concern but a continuing

common chord will be. Thus, evaluating an action takes on a different level
of importance when assessed against the reported background.

Fault Analysis

Identify the error - easy

Why?

Too much in one go

Too much to see

Has he heard

Did he understand

Is he too tense

Did he concentrate. etc.

Can he see the error

Golf swing analogy

Basic fundamentals

EofC1 - S&L - CCHAT

 Reportins

Analyse each sortie

Detect repetitive errors

--
pp

Consider an emerging pattern

Dangerous mistakes

Lack of ability (natural or mechanical)

Lack of application

Lack of attention

Lack of concentration

Reporting becomes a result of Fault Analysis

 MULTI ENGINE FLIGHT REPORT FORM

INSTRUCTOR COMMENTS - Any assessment of level E or below must be amplified

Omissions

Instructor Student Signature

Signature
PROGRESS TESTS
1. Decide the stage to be tested.
--- - -

~stabkk

a. The skill level expected

b. The level of knowledge expected

Unless these criteria are met the student does not have the tools with which to
go forward.
 PROGRESS TEST REPORT

STUDENT EXAMINER

COURSE INSTRUCTOR

DATE

2. Documentation
3. Pre-Flight Inspection
4. Checks Before Starting
5. Starting Procedure
6. Checks after starting
7. Taxying and Instrument Checks
8. Power Check
9. Take off checks

c: CircuitProcedureandChecks
d. 2 Engine Go Around
e. App. & Landing it different

g. Crosswind App. & Landing

h. Aborted Take Off Procedure
ATC Liaison & Compliance
Engine Handling

Sub-section Low Speed Flight

a. Precautions Before Low Speed

b. Recognition

i. Clean, Wings level

ii. Landing Gear & Flaps
Down, Wings Level
 a. Feathering - ouch Drill
b. Fuel Management
c. Eledrics Management

Sub-section 2

1. E.F.A.T.O.&Asymm.Circuit

d. Asymm. Circuit & Approach

e. O/Shoot at Decision Altitude
f. Asymm. Landing
g. Engine Handling

3. Engine Handling
4. Control Smoothness, Co-ordination

5. Airmanship 1 Look-out
6. Crew Co-ordination
7. Situation Awareness
RESULT:

PASS: ................ % FAIL: ...................... %

GENERAL REMARKS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:
(To include comment on Attitude, Technique and Presence)
STUDENT REPORT - Week
 PROGRESS REPORT

Name .................................. Staff No. .............................. ... ..... Licence No. ..........................

A/C Type .........:................... Rank ............................................. Type of Training ...................

Type of Training: .......

Comments
L

Signature.
 Comments
r I

Line Check Valid to: ................................ OPASS DFAIL

Examiner: ....................................... Signature: ............................

I. *.Captains Only
2. Indicate by (S)for satisfactory (U) for Unsatisfactory (NIA) for Not Applicable
as appropriate.

CP: ................................................DATE: ............................................

SfvlFT: ........................................... SMFO: ............................. (/?ail grz5ej

 -
KNOWLEDGE TO UNDERSTANDING

Assessment by Multi Choice. The questions must be set so that guess work will
not prove a student's knowledge.

The question must be written / asked so that the correct answer proves that
while this answer miqht be correct from his knowledge, he actually understands
why it is correct.

'It looks right" means he could know it but not understand.

Search the students understanding.

ASSESSMENT BY DEMONSTRATION
B
The student can demonstrate a particular skill. For example, he can rotate at
the recommended speed at the recommended rate to the recommended angle.
A mechanical action. However, he must also understand why otherwise the
importance of the action is lost.
 CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS

1. In order to describe a person we might say that he is " a man of distinction;

well-dressed; tall and honestn. By classifying people in this way, we are better
able to describe and identify them. We can similarly describe errors. For
example, an a p p r o a c h ~ r s h o o made
t by an airline pilot during a line check
might be described as 'an irreversible, pilot-induced, random error of
commission". ~ l t h o b this
h might not sound familiar in its technical format, what
it describes is: 'he made an uncharacteristic and inexplicable undershoot during
his approach which he did not identify in enough time !o correct." There are
several ways to classify errors, but the most common ones are described below.

Design-inducedlOperator-inducederrors

2. A design-induced error is one which occurs at the L-H or L-S interface. For
example, the countless cases of confusion in handling the flaps or
undercarriage operating levers in the DC3 (and many other aircraft) since they
are of similar shape and are close together. An operator-induced error,
however, can be attributed directly to inadequate performance on the part of the
individual reflecting deficiency in skill, motivation or vision. Occasionally a n
error may be partly design-induced and operator-induced. A further sub-division
is often made between errors involving pure hardware and the ever-increasing
amcunt o i software on modem aircraft by introducing "systems-induced errors"
whish refer entirely to software matters.

Rqndom, Systematic and Sporadic errors

3. The best way to understand the differences between random, systematic

and sporadic errors is to visualize the various way that rifle shots are distributed
on a target.

Random error Systematic error Sporadic error

In figure (a) above, the shots are scattered at random across the target face,
and this is called 'random error". Many factors may influence the range of this
variability. The second type of error shown at figure (b) is the 'systematic
errorn. This is when a 'common" error creeps in, in this case shown by a small
dispersion which is offset from the aiming point. The systematic error is usually
caused by only one or two factors and is relatively easy to identify. The final
type of error in this class is shown at figure (c) and is called a "sporadic error".
This type occurs when, after a routinely good performance, an isolated error
occurs. Sporadic errors are notoriously difficult to predict.
 Errors of Omission, Commission and Substitution

4. One of the most common errors is identified by failing to do something

which ought to be done. For example, missing an item on the checklist. This is
an "Error of Omission". An "Error of Commission", on the other hand, is doing
something_\rvhich .ought-not to be done, such as r a i w flaps at the wrong
speed. The third type of error in this group is the :Error of SubifitXon". This
occurs when we take action at the right time, but thewrong action. The most
common example in aviation is probably shutting down the wrong engine.

Reversible and Irreversible Errors

5. The final class of errors involve reversible or irreversible errors. Closing

down an engine when, for some reason or other, it did not need to be shut
down, i#an 'irreversible e m f , whereas miscalculating the landing weight which
is then re-checked, thereby allowing the error to be reversed, is known as a
'reversible errof.

Examples

a. A trainee pilot who consistently reaches the runway threshold 15 Ms fast

is committing an error which is:

b. A pilot who, on a go-around, inexplicably applies full power and pushes

the nose down is committing an error which is:

A pilot flying an upgraded type where the engine instruments have been re-
grouped from a L-RIL-R configuration to a L-UR-R configuration and then shuts
down the wrong engine following a fire warning could be said to have committed
which type of error:
 2. QUESTIONS

Judging a practical performance is achieved by physically watching the How in

'---
practice. Defining the level of knowledge can only-be marked from written or
- - ----

07alquestioning. Written tests are simple to set and mark. Oral questions are
more searching.

During any training session there will be times when you just want to supply
information or explain how to cio things. But if you talk too long, your audience
will quickly become bored. So you need to interact with your student regularly,
making sure that they are interested, motivated and that you are proceeding at
a pace which is appropriate for them. -

Asking Questions

Closed questions prompt short answers, probing questions make the learner
think. You should think about the kind of answer you will get before you ask the
question. In other words, ask yourself if the question is likely to provide you with
the information you need.

Good Questions

Open questions are used to gather information. Typicaily they begin with words
like: How..? To what extent..? Why..? What i f . . . ?

Reflective questions are used to summarise and claify. Examples include: A m

1right in thinking that you..? So what you am ssying is..?

Probing questions are designed to check deeper understanding. They may be

quite complicated. For example: So how would you deal with fhe situation..?

Not so Good Questions

Closed questions expect a very limited reply. Usually they are to be avoided,
but sometimes can be helpful when you want to make a rambling answer more
focused. Examples include: How many../ When..? Who.. ?

Don't know questions /

,I
The questioner is inviting confrontation and may be using emotive language.
Don't get drawn in. Let the questioner know that you disagree with their views
&
and move on to the next question. .*<-
: ....
{:';
<.>"/

Hypothetical questions ...

(;:j
. Thiscan lead you down all sorts of blind alleys. Avoid the temptation to \

.*.
speculate. Make it clear that the question is hypothetical and outside the remit 6;
of the training session. Again, move on.
.G
c
2
cz-.-:
L-.'

r...
I
(
;:
.:- .
.
'
.

P..
 Forced choice question
Be aware that all the options the questioner proposes may be wrong. Don't be
limited by the choices offered,*t --
offer your own solution.
--

The rnulti question

Get the questioner to identify which question they want you to answer. Then
answer as before.

QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES

3.1 Questioning is an aid to the student for several reasons:

It alerts the leaner to main points.

It requires participation by the student.
0 It reinforces leaning.

3.2 Questioning is an aid to the trainer for several reasons:

It serves as .a participation technique.

It acts as a feedback rnec!!anism.
It is useful as a means to maintain interest and attentiveness.

USES OF QUESTIONS

3.3 Use questions during the introduction to:

Gain attention.
0 Start the student thinking.
Orient students to the subject.

3.4 Use questions during the presentation to:

Emphasize points.
Gain participation.
Acquire feedback.

3.5 Use questions at the end of the-present to:

Obtain feedback.
Clarify points not understood.
Ensure students have achieved the desired performance level.
Reinforce learning.
 3.6 Good questions have the following characteristics:

Have one specific purpose.

Discourage guessing.
0 Are understood by students.
Are not multi-barrelled. Emphasize one point.
Do not suggest the answer.
Require a definite answer.
Encourage analysis and synthesis by the learner.

EFFECTIVE TECfiNIQUES FOR ELICITING QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

3.7 Usually, pose questions to the student as a whole. Pause until all have
had a chance to think of the answer and call upon an individual by name.

3.8 When a student asks a question in class, ensure the whole class heard
the question. If necessary, repeat the question, if appropriate. The
trainer has several options at this point. You may:

Answer the question.

Relay the question to another class member.
' Put the question to another class member.
If a student answers a question, ensure all have heard the reply and that
the answer given is correct. If not, the discussion is continued until the
correct answer evolves and is identified as the correct answer.
Some questions have several acceptable or correct answers. Reinforce
all right answers with positive feedback.

3.9 If a student answers incorrectly, try to encourage the student to expand

on the answer. Give enough help so the student can arrive at the correct
answer. Do not scold or embarrass the learner in front of others. It is
usually better not to ask another student to respond and correct the first
student.

3.10 Avoid debating or arguing with students if the interpretations and

conclusions are questioned. Encourage open discussions.

3.1 1 Do not ignore questions from students.

3.12 Get back to the student if you promise to do so.

You can also prepare the essential 'what if questions. These questions are
usually concerned with Airmanship and Safety or else they may be about
situations which do not often arise but which could occasionally cause
problems.
\--

You should prepare these questions in advance.

ACCURACY LIMITS ON FLIGHT TESTS

1. GENERAL FLIGHT

Inevitably students will want to know what level of flying accuracy they are
expected to achieve during any test. The final assessment made by the
Examiner in each section will be based on many thins, including airmanship,
general awareness, flying smoothness and the candidate's overall approach
to the task. Short-term flying inaccuracies will be viewed against general
flying smoothness and prompt action to regain the required datum and, of
course, the weather conditions. The following figures, then, are given rather
as a general guide to the accuracy looked for rather than specific limitations.

a) Navigation IFR NFR -

Heading plus or minus 5"

Height plus or minus 100 ft
Speed plus or minus 5 Ms
ETA'S plus or minus 2 mins

b) General handlin'q

Take off and clime plus or minus 5 kts

Steep turns (45" bank) plus or minus 5 kts plus or minus 100 ft
Gliding / Gliding turns (40" bank) plus or minus 5 kts (Increase speed
5 kts / 10" bank beyond 30" bank)
Forced Landing Without Power and Engine Failure After Take-off plus
or minus 5 kts (speed increase beyond 30" bank). Initiate go-around
not below 500 ft AGL.
Circuits V approach plus or minus 5 Ms. VAT plus 5 Ms minus 0 Ms.
Height plus or minus 100 ft.

c) Instrument Flvinq

Full Panel Heading plus or minus 5"

Height plus or minus 100 ft
Speed plus or minus 5 kts

Limited Panel Heading plus or mirius 10"

Height plus cr minus 150 ft
Speed plus or minus 5 kts.
 d) Instrument Rating

Altitude or Height

Normal Flight +I- 100 feet

With simulated engine failure +/- 100 feet

Limited or Partial Panel +200

I- feet

Starting go-around at decision altitudelheight -

+ 0 feet

Minimum descent altitudeheight +50 feet, -0 feet (SE +I00 ft; -0 ft)

Circling minima +50 feet, -0 feet (SE +I00 ft; -0ft)

Tracking Radio Aids

All except precision approach within +/- 5 degrees

Precision approach (ILS) within half scale deflection

Azimuth and glide path

Heading

All engines +I- 5 degrees

With simulated engine failure +I- 10 degrees

Limited or Partial Panel +I- 15 degrees

Speed

Take-off + 5 kts; - 0 kts

Climb and approach +I- 10 degrees

V ad V ref + 5 KTD; - 0 KT0

Cruise +/- 5 kts

Limited or Partial Panel +I- 10 MS

With simulated engine failure + 10 kts; - 5 kts

Minimum speed asymmetric Vss (take-off safety speed) or V2

Blue Line speed Vyse - 5 kts; + 5 kts

8 Maximum airspeed error at any time 10 kts

 Students are reminded that the tests are expected to be flown in a sensible,
practical and professional manner. There are no tricks required and the
pilot will not fail 'if he changes heading more than twice on the first leg' say,
if it is clearly sensible and practical to do so. He may fail on navigation,
however, it he is forever changing heading because he cannot fly
accurately, or, indeed, if he does not know how to navigate correctly.

2. TESTING

The TRI is expected to train the student to a standard which he can

demonstrate to an Examiner and achieve a PASS, in either a Flight or
Ground Test.

Various examples of tests are shown as guides to the new TRI to assist in
the Judgement of Progress and to identify the exad requirement of the
relevant Test.
 CONFIDENTIAL

FLYING ASSESSMENT :

NAME

COURSE . .

a .-..'
FLYING HOURS : DUAL: ACT SOLO: ACT TOTAL: ACT
SYL SYL SYL

Givision of attention'

PROGRESS

ATTITUDE

TECHNIQUE :
 LESSON 2.4 - TRAINING PROGRAMMES & SYLLABUS
DEVELOPMENT
1. TRAINING PROGRAMMES

Before establishing a formal training plan a Training Needs Analysis

should be produced; an outline design can then be drawn and developed.

Identify the skills required

Identify the personnel who need these skills
These personnel may have some of these skills - identify the
skill naps
Fabricate the aims to meet these gaps
- Develop stages of skill acquisition

Thus a basic model can be framed. One can almost work backwards and
forwards.

Analysis t-,Designt-,Development t-+ Implementation

I
Evaluation

,a) Analysis

ORGANISATION NEEDS

Analysing the job is the beginning of the design process. This phase
defines the problem by specifying training needs. You may have the
capacity to determine what type of training is required but guessing
is not accurate enough. In this analysis phase the capabilities of the
learners are compared with the performance requirements. The skill
and knowledge required once identified become the building blocks.
 b) Design

m-
COURSE - MATERIALS
I I
Is,,,]
INSTRUCTIONAL

The proposed course content is the input to the design phase. This
established a training development blueprint. The instructional
obiectives are the output from design and are strictly end of training
standards which the student must show, hence to the test profile. In
our case, materials will be books, notes, navigation computers, aircraft,
etc., and the instructional stratenv involves how and where the training
will be delivered.

c) Development

- DEVELOPMENT -
E I
EQUIPMENT

Design is translated into a Develo~rnentphase. Development allows

the syllabus to be written. On initial piactise course flows an
assessment on how the Desian is working can be made. Rehearsal
testing allows us to verify the effectiveness, relevance and ease of use
of method and materials.

d) Implementation

- 1 ~MPLEMENTAT~ON
I - I DELIVERED 1
l-----J (TRAINING 1
 b) Oesiqn

a 1_1
COURSE ,DESIGN -

The proposed course content is the input to the desian phase. This
established a training development blueprint. The instructional
obiectives are the output from design and are strictly end of training
standards which the student must show, hence to the test profile. In
our case, materials will be books, notes, navigation computers, aircraft,
etc., and the instructional strateqy involves how and where the training
will be delivered.

c) Development .

nEST SPECIFICATION : c. .:..

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MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT ,.
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Design is translated into a Development phase. Development allows
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the syllabus to be written. On initial practise course flows an .: ?<:-:
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assessment on how the Desiqn is working can be made. Rehearsal .-...
testing allows us to verify the effectiveness, relevance and ease of use "',.
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of method and materials. ....

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d) Implementation -ti.;.
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 e) Evaluation

During the implementation phase the developer - you - Evaluates the

programme under actual training conditions. In the case of a TRI a
good programme can come to nought if the training facilities, the
environment, restrictions and the operating areas are inadequate.

2. THE SYLLABUS

a) The first step is to identify the Test Standard. Delivered training must
meet this standard. To achieve this it is necessary to: .

Determine essential knowledge

Determine desirable knowledge

= Determine background knowledge = Learning Needs

Determine essential skills

= Determine desirable skills

Using the Planning model, Course Content = Delivered training.

How much time should be allocated to which particular function and in

which particular sequence can be traced through the model and this
apportionment becomes the syllabus. '

b) What the TRI must do is evaluate and assess the students

performance not only against the rate of learning, the time allocated in
the syllabus and the sequence in which the exercise is taught but also,
the students individual performance; a variable not easily forecast
accurately for every exercise on every day. Atterations can then be
made, if necessary.

3. FEEDBACK

Feedback from the results of Delivered training is essential. It is available

from the instructors own observations and evaluations and importantly,
from debriefing the student. However, essentially it is available from the
student himself either directly or from his performance, in progress terms
or final test achievement.
 COURSE VALIDATION

Course Validation is a process through which an existing course of instruction

is administered and revised until learners effectively attain the pre-set and
agreed objectives. When a course of instruction is first established, the
constructors will--ave conducted a Training Needs Analysis (TNE) during
which tne trainee entry and intended exit standards are compared and the
remaining gapsbill constitute the basis for the course curriculum. In the case
of this Basic Instructors Course, the JAA have already set down certain
training requirements. These, in turn, have been slightly modified by the
customer, Gulf Air. Qatar Aeronautical College then produced the training
material to meet the revised aims. In some areas, because of our wide
experience, we have included additional material which we have considered
to be necessary to achieve the training aim.

INTERNAL VALIDATION

, This is a validation process where, by means of either testing, evaluation,

trainee questionnaire, or any combination of these three methods, we as the
course suppliers might choose to modify the course content if we feel that
indications show that the course is lacking in some areas. This is a
continuous process of imp~ovementand may invoive additional lectures or
printed matter.

EXTERNAL VALIDATION

This is a validation process where, by means of customer evaluation of

trainee performance or skill levesl following the course of instruction, the
customer may conclude that the course does, or does not, meet its
requirements. For example, newly-trained TRls may have difficulty in
evaluating line-pilot's communication skills. This, in turn, might then require
additional course material or a re-emphasis in certain existing areas of the
course. The customer will, in addition, ask the immediate opinion of its
trainees as to the quality and value of the course recently attended. This may
also take the form of a company questionnaire. All of these activities
constitute External Validation.
 Case Studv 1.

2 pilots, CPL (H) need type rating on a Twin.

Ground Traininq
-- - - _ -
-pp

Aircraft systems
Jet engine theory and handling
Rotorcraft
Principles of multi engine flight
Minimum control and safety speeds
Weight and balance
Effect of engine failure on systems and performance
~der~encies

~ l i d hTraininq
t

!nitial type conversion

General handling and circuits
Single engine fIight
Critical and safety speeds
Single engine performance
Instrument flying
Emergencies

Companv Operations

Passenger handling
Loading
Rig operations
Transit routes
Operations and training manual

Tests

To CPL level in groundschool.

To CPL level in flight.

 Case Study 2.
(Use the model to Plan a Programme and Syllabus)

Test Standard Description

- - -.-=e4ligbt -

Obtains and assesses all elements of the prevailing and forecast weather
conditions for the route.

Completes an appropriate flight navigation log.

Completes the required ATC flight plan(s).

Determines that the aeroplane is correctly fuelled, loaded and legal for the
flight.

Confirms any aeroplane performance criteria and limitations applicable in

relation to tunway and weather conditions.

Demonstrates suficjent knowledge of the ,%gulatogt reqci~rnentsrelating

,.- to instrument flight.
, .
Aeroplane Inspections t"..

<. .
0 Performs all elements of the aeroplane pre-flight inspections as detailed .
and applicable to the actual or simulated weather conditions. ,
.
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C o n f h s that the aeroplane is in a serviceable and safe condition for flight. I(

Checks and completes all necessary documentation. g~::

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Takes appropriate action with respect to any identified unsatisfactory

conditions. I.<<.::
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Taxying and Take off , .,.
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Completes all recommended taxying checks and procedures.
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Complies .with airport markings and signals. . -.
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Completes all departure checks and drills including engine operations. y.<;$5?
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Obtain A JC clearance. <;:;
.,.

Completes an appropriate passenger briefing. (Emergency handling C?

details should be discussed in the pre-flight brief.)
 Confimrs any perfonnance criteria including crosswind conditions.

Actions any anti-icing procedures.

Positions the aeroplane correctly for take off and advances the throttles to
take OHpower with a p p r o e t e checks.
-

Conforms to the comht take of technique using the recommended speeds

for rotation ( V . and initial climb.

Ensures a safe climb and departure adjusting power and aeroplane

configuration as appropriate.

Completes all necessary after take off checks.

Climb

Maintains directional control and dril7 corrections with acceptable limits of

speed, heading, height and track.

Identifies any navigation aids used.

Follows any noise muting or departure p m d u r e s and A TC clearances.

Completes all necessary climb checks incl:ding altimeter sefting

procedures and ice precautions.

En-Route

Follows the flight planned route or any other ATC mute requirements
within the operating limits specified.

Identifies and uses navigation systems correctly.

Uses the correct altimeter setting p.mcedures and shows awareness of

MSA.

Maintains the flight log for navigation, RFT, and fuel use, suficient to give
position reports and to confirm acceptable minimum fuel states.
- -

Conducts an en-route hold if required by A TC.

Monifors fhe OAT and fhe aeroplane surfaces for ice, and takes the
appropriate actions if necessary. (This will be simulated if there is no
actual icing.)

Uses the correct RFT procedures and phraselogy.

 Instrument Approaches and Holding

Completes an approach briefing and the checks and drills for landing; sets
and identifies any navigation aids; uses the appropriate altimeter setting
and KFTprocedures to liaise with A TC to prevent disruption to commercial
trafit.

Completes any holding procedures with appropriate corrections f ~ r

tracking and timing to achieve a standard hold.

Complies with the published am-val and approach procedures using timing
corrected for wind when necessaiy.

Precision Approach

Selects and complies with appmpriate ILS instrument approach procedure.

Confirms the serviceability of selected navigation equipment.

Complies with all A TC instructions and clearances.

0' Uses correct RTF for instrument appmach reporting pmcedu~.

Establishes the appropriate aeroplane configurntion and airspeed for the

a phase of the approach.

Completesthe necessary aeroplane checks and drills.

Completes the manoeuvring pattern as required to establish the final

approach segment within the specified flight tolerances.

Establishes the final approach segment and maintains the approach path
in horizontal and vertical p n f i e (max 35 scale deflection) to Decision
Height /Altitude.

Contmls the aircraff as necessary to make ac#ustment and achieve a

stable and trimmed final approach path.

Initiates a.missed approach at (not below) Decision HeightIAltitude DWA.

Missed Approach

Demonstrates knowledge o; missed approach procedure.

Initiates the missed approach procedure upon reaching Decision Height /

Altitude if required visual references for landing runway are not obtained.
 Established aeroplane in a safe climb out and initiates aeroplane
configuration changes as required to achieve at least the performance
climb segments.

Follows designated missed approach procedure or as required by A TC.

-
----
~

Non Precision Approach -

Selects and complies with appropriate VOR / NDB instrument approach

procedure

Confirms serviceability of selected navigation equipment. -

Complies with all A TC instructions and clearances.

Uses correct RTF for instrument approach reporting procedures.

Establishes the appropriate aeroplane configuration and airspeed for the

phases of the appmach.

Completes all the necessary aeroplane checks and drills.

Compietes the manoeuvring pattern as required to estabiish the final

approach segment wifh fhe specified flight toierances.

Establishes the final approach segment and maintains the approach track
and vertical profile to Minimum Descent Height /Altitude (MDH /A) and /
or to minimum visibility so as to complete transition to a visual appmach or
manoeuvre for landing.

Transition to Landing

Executes a landing from an instrument approach (MDH or DH) when the

required visual references are obtained.

Considers action required in respect of NOTAMs, wind sheac wake

turbulence, surface condition and other operational kquirements.

C~mpletesthe appropriate circling, approach procedure considering the

aemplane manoeuvring configuration.

Maintains a stable visual approach to the normal or nominated touch down

area using any visual angle of approach indicators if available.

If a circling approach is required applicant must descent to MDH / MDA

and then establish to circling minima.

Note: This procedure is. included

.
for test purposes only so that the instrument
-pa manoeuvre may be assessed separately.
 Simulated Asymmetric Flight

Maintains control following a simulated engine failure afler take-off;-

completes the necessary checks and drills: maintains the correct speed
and continues to follow A TC instructions.

Completes an asymmetric go-around into a circling approach maintaining

control at safe speeds.

Completes a visual asymmetric approach and landing from the circling

approach; complies with A TC instructions and maintains satisfactory
lookout to avoid other circuit traffic.

Approach and Landing -

Considers the actual weather and wind conditions, landing surface and
obstructions.

Plans and follows the circlng approach pattern and orientation with the
;sndiig mnway. ,

Ftvm the circling approach establishes the m m m e n d e d aeroplane

appmach configuration, aqusting meed and rate of descent to maintain a
stabilised approach pattern.

Selects and achieves the'appropriate touchdown area.

Adjusts descent and roundout (flare) to achieve a safe landing with little or
no float with appropriate drfi and crosswind correction.

Maintains control and applies aeroplane brakes for a safe roll out.

Compietes necessary checks and drills.

General Handling

Controls the aeroplane by sole reference to instruments within the

nominated limits (due consideration will be given for turbulence).

Completes flight in straight and level at various speeds, climbing and

descending turns at Rate 1 and tums with sustained 30" bank onto
nominated headings, using the correct technique and demonstrating
correct instrument scan and interpretation.

Recovers from unusual attitudes including sustained 45" bank tums and
steep descending tums using the correct technique to minimize height lost.
Recovers from an approach to the stall in level flight, climbing /descending
tums and in the landing configuration.

Completes limited panel straight and level flight and tums at Rate I onto
given headings. Recovers from unusual attitudes.
 LESSON 2.5 - HUMAN FACTORS IN FLYING INSTRUCTION

GENERAL

1. All instructors, indeed all commercial pilots, should have a good understanding of
HPL (Human Performance and Limitations). It is certainly not within the scope of this
course to cover all the aspects of this important subject. Instead, the most critical
facets will be identified and it is basically up to the TRIITRE to ensure that they are
fully conversant with the subject in its entirety.

PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS

2. The main physiological factors associated with flight are as follows:

a. Hypoxia
b. Hyperventilation
c. Decompression Sickness
d. Carbon Monoxide (CO) poisoning
e. Barotrauma

Hypoxia.

3. This is the state of the body in which the partial pressure of oxygen in the lungs is
insufficient for efficient functioning. It is most likely to be associated with cabin
depressurisation or flying for prolonged periods above FL100 in an unpressurised-
aircraft. The signs and symptoms include: . . .

a. Euphoria
b. Clumsiness
c. Loss of concentration
d. Faulty judgement
e. Loss of vision
f. Cyanosis (blueness of the body extremities)
g. Loss of consciousness. leading to ...
h. Death

It should be noted that the 'Yime of useful consciousness" is about12 secdnds at

FL400 and above, around one minute at FL300, and 5-10 minutes at FC220.
However, the effective cabin altitude will increase by 5,000 ft in the case of a
punctured cabin (the Bernoulli Effect) and by a further 5,000 in the case of personnel
who are regular smokers. Thus, the loss of a cabin door or window at F300 will
cause smokers to lose consciousness in about 12 seconds.

Solution: Breathe oxygen and descend immediately to below 10,000 ft cabin

altitude
 Hyperventilation

4. This is caused by over-breathing which, in turn, washes out the body's normal store
of carbon dioxide (Codand-turns-the blood unnaturally alkaline, hence the medical
--- -

term, 'Respiratory Alkalosis." Apart from nervous passengers, this is occasionally

experienced by flight crew working extremely hard. eg during an emer&ncy or when
undertaking an Instrument Rating or other flying test. The signs and symptoms
include:

a. Tingling in the extremities

b. Palpitations of the heart
c. Increased pulse rate
d. Sweating
e. Blurredvision
f. Spasm (involuntary muscle contractions)
g. Drowsiness

Note that death is not a physiological outcome, but loss of aircraft control could
occilr.

a. Check cabin altitude (to ensure that the likely probjem is not hypoxia)
b. Calm the patient
c. Breath at normal depth and rate
d. Make the patient talk (it is difficult to talk and over-breathe at the same time)
e. Breathe into a paper bag (to re-ingest exhaled C 0 2and increase body levels)

Decompression Sickness

5. This illness i; caused by a sudden reduction in atmcspheric pressure when nitrogen

(Nz), the most prolific of the atmospheric gases and which is not used by the body but
is unavoidably dissolved in the bloodstream, forms bubbles in the blood and body
tissues in much the same way as bubble form when a bottle of fizzy drink is opened.
It is not normally experienced in pressurized aircraft except when the person involved
has engaged in SCUBA (Sub Aqua Breathing Apparatus) diving within 24 hours
before flying. The ICAO ruling is that pilots maynot fly for 12 hour3 if they have been
diving at any depth using compressed air, or within 24 hours if they have dived to a
depth of 30 feet or more.

The symptoms are (progressively) as follows:

a. The Bends: severe pains in the joints, fingers and toes

b. The Creeps: an .'itchingsensation all over the body
c. The Chokes: swelling of the throat causing sever breathing difficulties
d. The Staggers: narcosis of the brain causing dizziness and loss of balance -
 Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

6. Carbon Monoxide is a product of combustion, and that includes cigarette smoke. is

an extremely poisonous gas which is colourless, odourless and tasteless and is-thus-
undetectable by the human senses. Unfortunately it combines readily with the
haemoglobin in the blood to the exclusion of vital oxygen and thus, apart from any
- other toxic effects, immediately tends to make the sufferer hypoxic. The body's
susceptibility to CO poisoning increases with altitude and smoking. Recovery can
take several hours and it can be fatal. The signs and symptoms are as follows:

a. Headache, dizziness and nausea

b. Deterioration in vision
c. Impairedjudgement and memory
d. Personality change
e. Slower breathing rate
f. Loss of muscle power
g. Convulsions, coma and death

Because the cabin heating is light aircraft inevitably depends on warming air by
passing around a jacket surrounding the engine exhaust pipe, cases of CO poisoning 'j
are relativeiy common and pilots should be on the lookout for any of the above signs
and symptoms.

Solution:

a. Shut off the cabin heating

b. Stop all smoking.
c. Open all fresh air vents
d. Land as soon as possible
e. Report to a doctor
f. Have the aircraft flight-checked with a CO indicator

Barotrauma

7. The word 'barotrauma' really refers to any body problem associated with atmospheric
pressure. However, in aviation circles it mainly refers to the trapped gases in the
teeth, middle ear, sinuses, intestines and the stomach.

a. Dental Barotrauma: This can occur during the climb when a dental filling
encloses a trapped bubble of air. When the ambient pressure falls during ascent.
the bubble expands, putting pressure on the dental nerves causing pain. In
extreme cases fillings have exploded causing more serious damage.

Solution: Initiate an immediate descent to a lower cabin altitude.

b. Otitic Barotrauma: Sometimes known as 'Otic Barotrauma', this can occur during
a descent. Air in the middle ear (an airtight chamber containing a one-way
outward relief valve at the end of the Eustacian Tube) escapes freely on ascent
9.3
 but is prevented form re-entering the middle ear during the subsequent descent
because of mucus caused, for example, by a head cold. The increased external
pressure on the outer-ear end of the tympanic membrane (the eardrum) causes
severe distortion and pain on the membrane itself. In extreme case. the .
membrane will actually rupture. Early avoidance of the undesirable pressure
differential across the membrane can be relieved by repeated swallowing,
chewing, or by use of the Valsalva ~anoeuv>~i~ekin~-tke1~0~trils and .

attempting to blow the nose gently.

Solution: If the above methods fail, climb to a higher altitude and descend slowly

c. Sinusitic Barotrauma: This is similar to Otitic Barotrauma except it is the partially

empty bony structures in the head which are affected. Once again a head cold
can fill these spaces with mucus which permit expanding air to escape readily on
the ascent but are more difficult to equalise pressure differentials on the
subsequent descent.

Solution: Climb and, if time permits, initiate a slow descent

d. Intestinal Barotrauma: Gas in the intestines expands in the climb. If it cannot be

released, abdominal pain will ensue.

Splution: Allow the gas to escape in the normal cay (Fletus).

e. Gastric Barotrauma: Gas in the stomach also expands during tQeclimb. This will
also cause pain if not released.

Solution: Allow the gas to escape in the normal way (Burping)

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS

8. There are many psychological factor involved in flying aircraft: stress, disorientation,
illusion being but a few, all of which should be thoroughly studied by the pilot. The
psychologicalfactor which particularly applies to flying instruction, however, is that af
stress, mainly because stress will inevitably cause an immediate deterioration in the
student's ability to learn and perform.

Stress

9. Most adults today can recognise stress in themselves and in others. Stress can be
caused in several different ways: environmental, workplace and domestic. The
amount of stress being experienced influences both the way we feel and our ability to
perform tasks, particularly complex tasks such as flying an aircraft. Stress can also
affect our motivation, attention and our general performance. Whereas moderate
stress is necessary to perform normal functions efficiently without falling asleep,
(often referred to as an optimum degree of arousal), excess stress can have both long
and short term debilitating effects.
B
 Environmental Stress

10.Stress in the cockpit (environmental stress) can be caused by high or low ambient
temperatures (>30°c o r 4 S°C), abnormal humidity (anything'outside the 40160%
band), excess noise (from poor aircraft sound insulation), or vibration where 1-4
can interfere with breathing, 4-10 Hz can cause chest and abdominal pain, 8-12-44z
can cause backache, and 10-20 Hz will often cause headaches, eyestrain, pains in
the throat, speech impediment, and muscular tensions. From all the above, it is
quite clear that Gulf Heli pilots are exposed to widespread sources of environmental
stress in their daily work.

Workplace Stress

11.Stress in the workplac6 can be caused by poor working conditions, poor leadership,
lack of self esteem, and relationships with colleagues and management. Lack of
self-esteem can be cured by training and education giving the person more self-
confidence. Relationships with colleagues may be more difficult, but a watchful
management can do a lot to help. For example, a well-run CRM (Crew Resource
Management) Course can radically change the culture of a whole organisation.
Stress caused by Management, reportedly the greatest source of aircrew workplace s
stress, can be more difficult to eradicate. Policies imposed by management not only \
' affecting the fiying roster but also regarding seniority, promotion, career development
and other related matters can all contribute to aircrew workplace stress.

Domestic Stress

12. Domestic stress can originate from a wide variety of sources ranging fromthe death
of a spouse (scoring 100 points on the domestic Richter scale) down to, say, 10
points for receipt of a parking ticket. It has been found that the effect of these
domestic stressors tend to be curnulathe to the extent that the more points you
accumulate in a given period, the more likely you are to suffer from a stress-related
illness.

Signs and symptoms of stress

12.Stress can manifest itself in various ways depending on the individual. The more
common signs and symptoms are listed below.

a. Phvsioloqical Effects: These are normally brought about by the sympathetic

nervous system and will include sweating, dryness of the mouth. increased
heart rate and possible breathing difficulties.

b. Health Effects: Gastro-intestinal disorders (nausea, ~ndigesiion,diarrhoea,

ulcers, and possibly raised blood pressure. In the longer term, Health Effects
can be more clinical and include asthma, sleep disorders. sexual disorders,
neuroses, allergies. colds and even influenza.
 c. Behavioural Effects: Immediate responses can include nervous laughter,
trembling, impulsive behaviour, excitability, slight confusion, and a tendency to
become more accident prone. In the longer term, this can also lead to loss of
appetite, a return to smoking and excessive drinking.

d. Cognitive ~ f f e c t s 7 ~ ~ I i i 0 1 ~ c hto a thought

n ~ e s process and include lack
of concent~~on, forgetfulness, poor prioritisation and decision making, and
difficulty in 'switching off.

e. Subjective Effects: Anxiety, aggression, depression, fatigue, apathy,

moodiness, tension and irritability

14. Taking all this into consideration, It is therefore clearly important for flying supervisors
and testers to watch for all signs of stress and to make suitable allowances, or even
cancel a sortie, accordingly.

H'UMANINFORMATION PROCESSING

15. The task of flying an airdraft involves obseiving and reacting to events that take place
within the cockpit and in the environment outside the aircraft. The pilot is required to
use the information that he senses in order to make decisions and take the actions
which will ensure the safe and intended flight path of the aircraft at all times. In
essence, the brain processes information from the receptors (sight, sound, smell,
taste and touch), compares what it senses with what it already knows, and comes to
a conclusion about what it has therefore perceived. On that basis it then takes
action, either automatically, or after dedicated consideration. This process can go
wrong, or even be fooled, in several ways. This is how magicians or illusionists
work. They fool the audience's senses into wrongly perceiving the physical facts in
a way that they anticipate and then manipulate to entertain. Consider a person
who, blind from birth, suddenly receives the gift of sight. Show them an apple and
they will not have the slightest idea as to what it is. Let them touch or smell it,
however, and they will immediately 'perceive' it to be an apple. This is because
whereas they had no mental model of a picture of an apple, they could not
successfully compare what they were correctly seeing with any mental model. By
touch, or smell, however, they possessed ample mental models with which to
compare their tactile and olfactory signals and were thus immediately able to state
with confidence that what they were perceiving was indeed an-apple.

16. What can go wrong with this system for the pilot? since we tend to fly by mainly
visual cues, the system can become easily overloaded; for example, the onset of a
real emergency whilst flying IF under difficult conditions. We have therefore to learn
to prioritise our actions, recall basic emergency actions, respond to ATC. and make
important decisions regarding the safe conduct of the flight. We are suddenly under
great occupational stress and quite prone to misinterpretations, illusions, and poor
decisi~nmaking. This is, of course, why we practise emergencies, but we must be
aware at all times of what could, and occasionally does, go wrong.
 BEHAVIOURAL ATTITUDES

17. A behavioural attitude could be defined as the way a person responds, or is likely to
respond, to a given set of circumstances. The behaviour pattern of any skilled
operator (such as a pilot) maybe broadly broken down intb3sepa&eeategorie~:
Skill-based, Rule-based and Knowledge-based

Skill-based Behaviour

18. Skill-based behaviours are those that rely on stored routines or motor programmes
that have been learned with practice and can be executed without conscious thought.
Thus, moving the flying controls or operating the undercarriage lever may be
regarded as skills since the initial conscious intent is translated into action
-
immediabely. Skills may be acquired in different ways. However, once acquired,
skills appear to possess certain definable characteristics. For example, a skill will
normally be stored in the form known as 'nondeclarative knowiedge'. This means
that, i f asked how you do it, it is extremely difficult to put into words. The decision to
exercise a skill is normally made consciously by the central decision (CDM)maker in
the brain. Once initiated, the store of motor programmes involved does not have to
make any further reference to the CCM, except when the decision is made to stop.
This means that often 2 or more skills (such as walking while talking and eating an
apple, all at the same time) can be carried out si~ultaneouslyand quite successfully.

19. Action Slid: Once started, there is normally r,a further monitoring of motor-
programme skills and it is here, particularly on the flight deck, that mistakes are often
- ' made. If the CDM is busy on another task (for example, the pilot is pre-occupied with
some problem or other), he may make the correct initial decision but inadvertently
select the wrong motor programme, and, being preoccupied elsewhere, fail to monitor
his actions. This is known as an action slip and is a frequent cause of cockpit error.
Typical examples are raising flaps instead of undercarriage immediately after take-ff.
A more dramatic example is raising the undercarriage instead of flap immediately
. after landing!

20. Environmental Capture: This is a simiiar type of error in which the pilot, when
entering an area or environment where he usually performs some particular motor
skill, does so on an occasion that he did not intend to use that skill. An example is
-
selecting flaps on finals and calling 'undercarriage down three greens" because
when entering the finals 'environment", that is what he normally%es.

21. It should be noted that these motor-programme skills usually only manifest
themselves when the pilot is pre-occupied with other thoughts, or when he is tired, or
when good conditions have allowed him to relax too much. Additionally, it should be
noted that these particular errors of skill do not often happen to novices since they
have to concentrate on what they are doing. They only occur to those with
experience. -In other words, "careless" errors like these are more likely to happen to
experienced captains rather than inexperienced first officers!
 Rule-Based Behaviour

22. It is probably true to say that fhe development of rule-based behaviours has made
aviation as safe as it is. Every set of events that can be anticipated h a s k e n
'--tbm@&mmidered and reduced to a set of procedures or rule-based behaviours
for the pilot to follow. Examples of rule-based behavioural strategies can be seen in
the check-iist, terminal approach plates, flight manuals, and SOPS.- These
behaviours are not stored as patterns of motor activity but, as the name implies, as
sets of rules, and many of them (for example, 'immediate actionsnin the event of a
particular emergency) are stored in our long-term memories. When they are
actioned, however, they clearly require the involvement of the CDM as well as
working memory since rule-based behaviours are always actioned at a conscious
level. Rule-based behavicurs appear, in'practice, to be extremely robust, and any
errors are either because the pilot has misidentified the initial problem and therefore
initiates the wrong set of rules (eg applying full-power and lowering the nose following
an ~ver-speedwarning), or chooses to ignore the particular warning which should
normally initiate a particular set of actions (eg CFlT following an ignored GPWS
warning).

Knowledge-Based Behaviour

Knowledge-based behaviour could be probably be better entitled as thinking,

reasoning and decision-making. Although, as we have seen, decision-making is
carried out by the CDM, the process clearly requires all of the information available to
the pilot from both his environment and his memory. The fact that the pilot is able to
evaluate and consider evidence and come to conclusions before taking any action
will, in the future, be the only reason for keeping him on the flight deck. The routine
skill and procedural elements of modem flying have broadly been taken over by the
autopilot and the FMS, but the pilot is still a vital ingredient in order to think, reason
and evaluate the unexpected.

24. Nevertheless, and like all other behaviours, there is room for error. Danger areas
when considering rule-based behaviour include the following:

a. Data may be ambiguous

b. People are keen to structure information and make inferences from it
c. Inferences made are heavily influenced by human experience
I T Once an opinion or has been formed. it is difficult to go down another path
e. When testing opinions or hypothesis, only positive correlations are likely
f. Negative correlations can be subconsciously or even actively repressed
g. People make inferences in accord with their wishes and hopes.

Remember, by all means 'Hope for the Best', but you should also 'Plan for the worst'.
Judgement and Decision Making

25. One reason for having more than one person on the flight deck is to produce better
quality decisions and better solutions to problems than would be generated by
having just one flight crew member. It is generally true that the decision made by a
group is of better quality thanhizmemgeiimlividual decision made by any one
individual from within that'grqup. However, it should also be borne in mind that the
group problem-solving ability will rarely improve upon that of the most able member
within the same group. In simple terms, a well-run 'committee' should always be
capable of providing the beset possible solu?ionto a particular problem. Although
the final decision must always rest with the captain, he should use his personal
judgement to select and confirm the best decision from within his group and to
encourage his team Jo follow him accordingly.

26. When making his final decision, however, he should be aware of some of the known
problem areas of group decision-making:

a. Conformity: If a group is responding to a problem and, if 9 out of 10 give the

answer 'A', the loLhperson is highly likely to conform and also give 'A' even
although he initially thought that the correct answer should have been 8.

b. Compliance: This term describes an individual's likelihood of complying with a

request. In general terms, if a request has been made of an individual, it is
more likely to be accepted if it had been preceded by a larger request, or
alternatively, if a smaller request had previously been made and accepted. In
other words, to give yourself the best chance of borrowing QR 100 from a
friend, either (1) ask him for QR 500 first and then reduce the amount, or (2)
borrow QR10 one day and then try him for the QR 100 the next day.

c. Status: The higher the status of a group member, the more chance he has of
convincing the other members of the group that his solution is the best one.

d. Riskv Shift: A more collective term for this phenomenon is 'Group

Polarisation'. This qualification to the quality of a group decision requires group
leaders to be aware that the group members will collectively tend to take a more
risky decision when the individuals feel that they willnot be directly responsible
for the outcome.

e. Group Duration: The length of 5me a group spends together will also affect
the likelihood of a group response. Although there are advantages in forming
'Constituted Crews' there are also disadvantages in that they may tend to use
each others known expertise to contravene SOPS. In addition, a group with
personality clashes, ifkept together, will almost certainly deteriorate with
potentially disastrous results.
Improving Decision-making

27. The following guidelines should improve any group decision-making process:

. a. Avoid arguing for your own individualjudgements. Be logical.

b. Don't change your mind solely to avoid conflict and reach an agreement.
c. Avoid conflict-reducing techniques such as a majority vote or averaging.
- d. View differences of opinion as helpful rather than hinderances.

28. Civil aviation has traditionally been very strong in training individual skills and rule-
based behaviours but has not generally provided pilots with practice in solving non-
routine problems on a group basis. LOFT and CUM are extremely useful in this
respect. Every flight and cabin-crew member should attend an initial CRM Course
and an annual follow-up.
 LESSON 2.6 - INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES AND
SIMULATED FAILURES
INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES

The areas of knowledge and skill required of a flying instructor to give

approved training can be classified broadly under the headings:
(a) operational
(b) instructional

Operational knowledge and skill is that required to perform the air exercises
specified. It is provided from the background of the instructors own
professional licence training plus subsequent experience.
Instructionalknowledge and skill is that needed to develop in the student the
necessary level of learning required to reach the standards necessary for
licence issue.
To develop the necessary levels of operational and instructional knowledge
and skill it is essential that the aspiring instructor has the correct attitude to the
task of instructing. He is then given the correct knowledge and training to
allow proper development of the necessary skills.

His primary task is to teach his student to operate an aircraft efficientfv and
safely.

He has 3 main functions:

1. To teach the many leaming items in a logical sequence.

2. To test for understanding.

3. To analyse and advise the student on his progress.

Learning to Fly
The p r e s s of leaming to fly is a matter of building a store of knowledge and
skill. Exercises are explained, demonstrated and practised until the student
reacts quickly and instinctively to ordinary problems without recourse to
elementary reasoning the solutions being drawn from the store of answers
accumulated through experience. This principle applies to most other forms of
practical training but because of the three dimensional environment in which
flying training is carried out the studer?tis required to think and react quickly. It
is therefore, essential that the student is kept as mentally free as possible to
concentrate on the task. The good instructor~lillsee that all is done to ensure
that the student is physically comfortable and mentally alert.
General Rules for Instructing
Some of the most important rules for an instructor to follow are listed below:
a) Preparation. Prepare every lesson thoroughly. Know the aim of the
exercise, keep it in mind throughout and know exactly what must be
taught.
b) Interest Make the lesson as interesting as possible by showing how it
relates to the ultimate goal and to future exercises.
c) Student Comfort. See that the student is comfortable: Brief in
surroundings where the student is not distracted; in the air ensure that the
student is comfortable in the aircraft and that intercommunication is clear
and without distraction or distortion.
d) Method. The broad method of teaching an exercise in the air is:
i. Demonstration by the Instructor.
ii. Student practice with assistance, verbal or handling until an
acceptable standard is reached. The instructor must allow the
student to fly the aircraft and make mistakes. The temptation to
take control must be resisted unless tine safety of the aircraft is
endangered. Explanations should be avoided whilst the student is
controlling the aircraft. If zn explanation is necessary assume
control before speaking.
iii. Student practises unassisted.
iv. Speech: speak clearly and deliberately.
v. Accuracy. Ensure that the demonstration is accurate and that the
aircraft is doing what the instructor says. Always use the students
instruments when quoting speeds, heights etc.
vi. Explicitness. Make the instructions to the student clear and concise
when setting a task.
vii. Tolerance. Exercise patience when the student makes mistakes;
this is how the student learns.
viii. Student activity. Keep the student busy. Allow the student to fly the
aircraft as much as possible. Learning comes mostly from practice.
The instructor should only take control to demonstrate, to rest the
student or retrieve a situation beyond the student's capability.
ix. Illustrations. On the ground make full use of diagrams, models or
other training aids. When using a blackboard or equivalent do not
bore the student with a mass of written detail. List the important
points, give examples or analogies if applicable to impress these
points. Use colours to highlight different factors. Remember, a
-
good pictlire is worth many words.
x. Personal Interest. Interest yourself in the student as a person, not
as a cipher to be taught the mechanics of flying. Ensure that the
 student knows that you may be approached at any time and are
always prepared to listen and help.
xi. Comparisons. Avoid comparing the standards of students in their
presence. Abilities vary widely; accept that this is so. Resist the
temptation to give undue attention to the 'good' student at the
expense of the 'slower'. Conversely do not neglect the 'good'
student by concentrating on the 'slow'.
xii. Self Analysis. Keep your methods under constant review to ensure
that treatment of individual students is geared to their needs, not
your own. I

2. Errors
Whilst there are certain general rules to be followed by an instructor, so
are there some errors which must be avoided.
a) Anwer. Never display anger with a student. It will be counter-productive
and will cause a rapid deterioration
b) Verborsitv; Never talk too much in the air. Stress the imbortant points of
an exercise and then let the student absorb them. Any lengthy
explanations should be kept for the'postflight discussion on the ground.
c) Hvpercriticism. Do not criticise every mistake. Concentrate initially on
major errors working down to the minor ones as the student progresses.
Avoid mere factual indication of an error, explain or analyse the reason for
the mistakes if possible.
d) Subterfu~e.Never gloss over a mistake you make. Admit the error, point
out what it was and how it should have been avoided.
e) Ostentation. It is good policy to show the aircraft's potential in practised
hands but keep such demonstrations within reason. A student will soon
lose confidence in an instructor who continually shows off.

f ) Post Fliaht Neqlect. Never neglect the post flight discussion. The post
'

flight discussion is very important part of the learning / teaching process.

The flight is fresh in the students mind and this is the time for the instructor
to advise on any difficulties which may have been experienced and to
expand on any points of doubt in the students mind. It also indicates that
the instructor IS interested in the student making progress.
4. The student
Most students volunteer to learn to fly and in most circumstances students
have undergone some form of selection process. This is a big advantage.
However, despite these factors they will all respond differently and at
different rates to instruction. Because they are human they differ in
character and ability and the flying instructor must treat each student
individually.
There are, however, a few common traits, outlined below which may help
an instructor analyse a students shortcomings.
a) Overconfidence. A conceited student often displays a degree of
confidence not matched by ability. This trait can be dealt with fairly easily
_I by the instructor insisting on the highest standards of accuracy and
 airmanship, criticising imperfections firmly but fairly so that the student is
constantly aware of all shortcomings. The very much more difficult case to
handle is that of the student who conceals a feeling of inferiority under a
cloak of aggressiveness. Caught off guard this student will usually give a
clue to this attribute by some form of nervous gesture or mannerism. The
student is one of the most difficult to assess and handle since repressing
the apparent over-confidence may well aggravate the cause. -

b) Underconfidence. The nervous diffident student needs encouragement.

The tendency here is for extreme seH-criticismand the student will rapidly
become discouraged. Calculated praise for a good performance and
careful explanation of mistakes without undue reflection on the student's
ability will be necessary. It is essential with student nkver to show
apprehension in the air when the student has control.
c) Forqetfulness.
material as well as the
great deal of what they facts must be
instilled by constant must obviously be
censured but genuinely poor memory is often encountered. Forgetful
students must be very actively involved during dual instruction and should
be required to repeat at regular intervals what they have learned in the air.
d) Inconsistency. The pace of learning is an irregular one and since flying
training is taking place in an entirely new medium, the mind can quickly
become saturated with new ideas; the students r e p can then
3
deteriorats. Thus the student will from time to time give e impression of
staleness. The instructor should not become discouraged by this but
should revise the earlier lessons until the pace of learning recovers. It is
not uncommon for a student to start the course s l o w then progress
rapidly later as strangeness of learning in the new medium wears off. A
lengthy lapse in progress, however, usually indicates a more profound
difficulty.
e) Apathy. Unusual slowness, in attention or erratic progress can be due to a
number of causes. It may be mere laziness but this must not be assumed
without investigation. It is zhvays possible that it may be assumed without
investigation. It is always possible that it may be caused by same private
problem which the instructor will need tact to discover. Very often a
private problem can be resolved or relieved if discussed with a
sympathetic listener. The most common causes of loss of enthusiasm are
private worries, language dficuHies, distaste for flying or a personal
antipathy between student and instructor.
i. Private Worries. Domestic or financial problemd can be very distracting
and students may be reluctant to discuss them particularly if of an
emotional nature. An indication of a student's problems can often by
gleaned from others on the course. It is perhaps appropriate to include
political problems under this heading.
ii. Lanquaqe Difficulties. Although all students reaching the flying stage of
training will have reached a' minimum standard in the English language
and may give every indication of understanding the instruction they are
receiving, the combination of new language and new environment often
reduces their understanding markedly. The instructor must keep
instruction in the simplest terms in these cases and try to avoid the use
of complex words and explanations particularly in the air. It must be
 remembered that in many foreign nationals to admit to not
understanding English and what is taught is to lose 'face'.

iii. Distaste of Flvinq. Loss of zest for flying in a student who previously
exhibited keenness can often be related to some adverse comments
about the aircraft being flown or the future type scheduled to be flown.
This can often be as a result of an accident either-personally-or
otherwise. Loss of confidence is seldom admitted but often shows in
an expressed dislike for the aircraft being flown or some particular
aspect of training. It often shows up in a groundschool records.
Careful treatment, re-assurance and avoidance of extreme situations
will usuafly help to restore confidence and the condition is usually a
passing phase but it sometimes happens that the student has realised
that flying is better left to others in which case there is no alternative
but suspension from training.

iv. Antipathy. A clash of personalities can destroy the sympathetic

atmosphere so essential between student and instructor. A failure to
progress, particularly in the early stages may indicate that this is
happening and a change of instructor should be made. It is not stigma
on either instructor or student if this happens; in the confines of a small
cockpit antipathy can easily arise.
The above are some of the major rules to follow and errors to be avoided.
There are many'others which can only be learned as experience is gained.
The new instructor should never hesitate to approach a more experierrced
colleague at any time for advice.
TRAIN1NG METHODS

TRANSFER OF KNOWLEDGE
It is the task of the flying instructor systematically to develop the attitude,
knowledge and skill of the student to the level required for licence issue.
Development of Skill
There are many learned books written defining skill and the psycholbgical
processes involved in its development. These are beyond the scope of this
manual. It is sufficient here to say that the instructor must develop in the
student the correct method of converting external and instrument observations
or cues into correct control operations to achieve the desired performance
from the aircraft.
The co-ordination of visual cues, whether from instruments or external
sources, with control movements to obtain a desired performance is based on
the principle of attitude flight. In its simplest form this principle is based on the
assumption that:
POWER + ATTITUDE = PERFORMANCE
Working from this basic it follows that if power and attitude values are
memorised as each new performance setting is established then the same
performance can quickly be re-established by setting those same values.
By working from and developing the principle the student will learn the
technique of selective scan whether the flight is in visual or instrument
 conditions so that as proficiency increases achievement of a desired
performance becomes less mentally demanding thus freeing mental capacity
for other tasks.
In summary development of skill is the learning by the student of:
a) How to think systematically to develop the most economical and eftective
--- ----
methods to organise and-~~~ordinate.

i. The collection of information cues required to control the aircraft.

ii. Their use to set up and maintain accurate flight thereby using the
minimum mental and physical effort.
b) How to anticipate the need for other tasks so that they may be performed
unhurriedly as convenient when control activity is at a minimum.

c) When necessary tc) control an urgent manoeuvre and simultaneously

arrange compleme~tarytasks in the right order and perform them quickly.

THE FLIGHT EXERCISE

The Flight Exercise will follow on from the Long Brief and the Pre-Flight Brief.
(The content and delivery of these is covered elsewhere.) The student will
have little or no doubt in his mind what the conduct of the Exercise and what
will be covered and hopefully achieved.

EXPUNATION

-
-
b Who has control?

EVALUATION 1. By student
2. By instructor
 The air demonstration is given with a synchronised commentary; the whole
manoeuvre is shown including the correct method of achieving the desired
performance. Airmanship points are emphasised. Any subsequent
demonstrations may break down the manoeuvre into constituent parts.
~.

It is important that the instructor remains as silent as possible during student

practice.

The instructors hands and feet should remain clear of the controls except in
emergency.

Identification and correction of faults should include a clear statement of the

errors, their effects and methods of correction.

Following fault analysis and correction the student should be given further
practice.

THE DEMONSTRATION

One of the best ways to teach something is to demonstrate what you want the
student to do. The demonstration is an effective teaching method because

it focuses attention on the correct way to do things

it helps students who may not be very good at following vehal or written
instructions.

A good demonstration will:

attract the students attention

be easy to follow

have an immediate impact on the student

be very practical

HOW TO GIVE A GOOD DEMONSTRATION

As with any training session, preparation is everything. The list of things you
should do in advance is long, and it is recognised that you will not always
have the time to do this in full. But for the purposes of today's session, let us
imagine you live in a perfect world and that you have all the time you need to
prepare for your demonstration. There are three stages to think about:

Preparation before the demonstration.

What to do duciog the demonstration.

 Helping the learner practice after the demonstration.

The Eight Step Plan

i. Make sure you fully understand the task you will demonstrate.
.-

ii. Practice to make sure you are fully expert.

iii. Break the skill down into a series of easy to learn steps.

iv. Write down what you will say at each stage of the demonstration.

v. Prepare the critical questions you will use to check the students
understanding.

vi. Check that the students have the prerequisite knowledge and skills?

vii. Make sure that all the equipment is ready in advance.

viii. Choose the best time and place to give the demonstration.

Duiing the demonstratisrc, ,you should:

explain the purpose of the demonstration

make sure that the student can cze what is going on
describe clearly what .you are doing as you do it
a show each step slowly and carefully
check the learners understanding by asking questions
encourage the learner to ask questions
summarise key points

After the demonstration you should:

give the student a chance to practice the skills

help the student during practice sessions
ask critical questions to check understanding
answer the students questions
praise the students performance during the practice session
IN FLIGHT DEMONSTRATIONS

During flight training the student should understand not only why he is
learning a particular exercise but how the exercise fits into the overall training
syllabus.
----~-.

Do make sure your instructions are clear and explicit, and avoid phrases
such as 'you have a go', 'its all yours'. 'now its your turn'. A student cannot
be expected to make a success of any task unless he knows exactly what
he is to do.

Before fatilt analysis begins, give the student credit for those items which
he has performed correctly. Any errors which he has made can then be
pointed out followed by a positive statement on how such errors can be
corrected or avoided during future practice.

Do not expect perfection after one attempt. Sort out the major errors one
at a time and work down to the smaller ones in turn. Give the student an
opportunity to analyse his errors and correct them, before you step in with
guidance. In making your assessment of his ability, determine first,
whether he has made any progress or whether he is consistently making
the same mistake.

Good instruction technique demands that you break your demonstrations

down into several parts whenever applicable. This allows. the student to
participate more quickly and avoids long instructor demonstrations in
which the student feels he is taking no part.

Do not try to standardise the amount of instruction give to any one flight.
The amount of instruction which a student can absorb on any flight will
vary dependent upon the particular exercise, the stage of training, the
weather conditions at the time, and the receptiveness of the particular
student.

Prepare the demonstration with a short introduction. This is not a briefing,

it is a few words to direct the student's thinking to the exercise planned.
During the demonstration co-ordinate your words and actions, so that you
speak as you do, speak as it happens.

In the early stages back up your words with hand movements i.e., where
applicable, physically point out the items to be observed in order to direct
his eyes to them. Remember that communication in the cockpit is seldom
as good as in the classroom. When you hand over control make sure you
give the student a specific task in a way which will test his understanding.
rather than just asking him to repeat your control movements.
 --
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SKILL ANALYSIS
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Describe E a c ~ t ~ e ~ l o n s t r a t i o n

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During a demonstration it is very important that you say what you are doing
as you are doing it This way, the learner is receiving messages two ways
instead of one. Research has shown that the more senses we use when we
are learning, the better we understand.

Prepare what you are going to say at each stage of the demonstration. Just
describe, in simple words, what you are doing as you are doing it. Note that
this is not the same as a written set of instructions. The learner can see
clearly what you are doing, and so there is no need to descfibe things which
are obvious. Just concentrate on the important points.

Try to involve the learner, and ask questions as you go along.

For example: Can you see the direction in which the nose is moving?
 Now write your script in the space below.

--- -

Write Here What You Will Say at Each Step

6
-
-

Of course this does not mean that you will necessarily use these exact words
when you give your demonstration. Nevertheless, the process of preparing a
@ - script in advance will make it more likely that your instructions are clear when
you actually give the demonstration.

As you go through the demonstration, you should pause every so often to

check that the learner is following what you are doing.

You should also ask questions to check the learner has notid-critical points
-
in the demonstration. Look out for these critical issues they are things which
make a real difference and ensure that the job gets done professionally. By
asking a question you force the learner to concentrate on these important
issues.
 STUDENT PRACTICE

Allow the student to fly the aircraft as frequently as possible.

Do not 'ride' the controls. Rather sit back and monitor and analyse his
performance. . -

'-----~---Qcwmhtag. Aim to rectify major faults first and minor faults afterwards.
Minor faults are best handled by further student practice but when major
faults occur, it is better to redemonstrate rather than allow him to blunder
along.
If errors are persistent, re-think and if possible use a different
demonstration technique based upon the answers to the following
questions:

o Did you cover too much in one go?

o Did you ask him to observe too many things at the same time?
o Is he hearing you clearly?
o Is he suffering from early nausea or discomfort?
o Is he sufficiently relaxed?
o Does he really understand you?

At the end of your demonstration tie the component parts together and ensure
the aim has been achieved.

DEBRIEFING

A student will be unable to respond efficiently to his instruction unless the

instructor communicates after the air lesson as well as before and during the
flight. Post flight discussion is a 'must' and the student needs to be told where
his performance warrants improvement. Just writing on a record sheet is
inadequate.

Make the student give a constructive analysis of his performance at the end of
the flight and have him analyse faults in the following order:

Symptoms - were they recognised?

Cause - is this understood?
Result - what would this have led to?
Correction - what technique should be used?
&evention for future practice.
 GENERAL POINTERS

Do avoid using broad phrases which can be misleading. An example of this

would be the bald statement 'during a turn you will always need to hold off
bank with the ailerons'. This& an incorrect statement. Confusion will be
avoided if the instructor simply statesmaintain the bank anqle by the use of
ailerons'.

If an aircraft were always flown.perfectlyduring in flight demonstrations the

instructor would lose a valuable and very necessary opportunity to
demonstrate how errors should be corrected. Therefore there will be times
when errars occur at the same time, the instructor must select his words
carefully when explaining how to correct for these errors, or
misunderstandings can easily occur.

The correct method of handling this type of situation is to use two separate
sentences, each one being aimed at the particular correction being made.

Remember, we all have the abil-Wto talk a lot and say little, but a good
instructor trains himself to talk little, yet say a lot. However this does not
mean that the use of cryptic comments is auton?atical!y gcoc! instruction. !n
addition, confusing and misleading terminology must be scrupulously avoided.

Finally, the following list of Do's and Don'ts, although not exhaustive, will
cover in a simple fashion many of the important items to be remembered
during the giving of instruction.

DO DON'T
Remember, that patience is the most Use twelve words where six will do.
important single quality that an instructor can
have. Use words he may not understand.

Combine sequences when applicable, from
various main exercises to form a complete
flight lesson.
Make sure the student is comfortable and
that he can hear you.
Make sure of your facts.
Teach in simple terms.
Give clear demonstrations.
Teach from the 'known to the unknown'.
Ask him to do something he has not been
shown and then criticise his efforts.
Forget you are looking for progress not
perfection.
Expect too much from him.
Forget your own airmanship.
Ride the controls.
Fly the aircraft yourself any more than is
necessary.

Match your manner to h ~ temperament

s Indulge In negat~veinstruct~on.
 SIMULATED FAILURES

Practice at handling aircraft emergencies is vitally important. Each Practice

Emergency should be Briefed 1 Demonstrated / Practiced / Evaluated as a
distinct exercise.

Airmanship considerations are extremely.important. The last requirement

needed is a real Emer~encyresulting from a Practice, for example, closing
down an engine at the wrong height and time.

Care must be taken that the student understands Safety Heights /Altitudes
and the use of Touch Drills and proper procedures.

There are several options which can be considered in an Emergency scenario

but usually only one BEST OPTION.

The TRl must, absolutely must, instil into his student the necessity of pre-
planning, pre-thinking, prediscussing Emergency scenarios. Much time
should be spent:

What if this happened there?

What would I do?
Review the options. Decide the optimum.
Then if it happens for real the side issues have been thought through
and an instant life saving decisive action can be taken.
Its too late - I should have thought of that.

The student should be guided through the Emergencies check list and where
necessary the systems re-briefed and understood.

A students performance during simulated Emergencies reflects his

SKILL
SPATIAL AWARENESS
CONFIDENCE
CREW CO-OPERATION
PREPAREDNESS

In short his PROFESSIONALISM.

 AIRBORNE TEACHING TECHNIQUES

AIM

t b e n s u d m K b l n e r s are aware of the essential aspects of-teaching-wbilst

airborne and of the associated safety implications.

OVERVIEW

These are techniques specifically for use during airborne training; either base
or line training. Certain of the techniques are also valid for simulator training,
if only for reasons of training standardisation..

AEROPLANECONTROL

It is important to ensure that one pilot has control of the aeroplane at a11times.
It is vitally important that all concerned know which pilot is in control of the
aeroplane. The Commander must delegate or take control as appropriate. In
the case of a training flight the Commander is the Training Captain.
a
The time honoured method of handing or taking over control should always be
used. i.e. when you as the Training Captain wish to take control you will say 'I
have control' and place your hands and feet on the controls, the Trainee will
respond by saying 'You have control' and removing their hands and feet from
the controls. In order to hand control to the trainee the reverse sequence
would be enacted with you initiating by saying v o u have control' and only
relinquishing when the Trainee has their hand and feet on the controls and
has replied 'I have control'.

There are many occasions when a change of control may occur. It may be
that you wish to demonstrate a particular manoeuvre to a trainee or to debrief
1 rebrief on a particular item after the trainee has attempted a manoeuvre, you
must Qke control to do this. It is not reasonable to expect a trainee to listen to
and follow an airborne debrief 1 rebrief whilst still handling the aeroplane.
Interference on the controls is an insidious danger. If you interfere whilst the
trainee is handling then you run the risk of the trainee unexpectedly, and
probably unannounced, relinquishing control Apart from the potential physical
d a n g e a e student may well have their confidence damaged by what theywill
see as unwarranted interference. Furthermore their confidence in you as their
Instructor may be badly damaged. If you find that some assistance is required
with the trainee's handling of a particular situation then it must be a specific
input with a concurrent explanation.

Example. Ifa trainee was getting 'low & slow' on the approach and clearly
was not judging the thrust corrections required, then in order to rectify the
situation, demonstrate the correct setting I technique. and still leave the
trainee in a position to effect a safe landing then some input would be
 required. The explanation must be specific to your input and you must make
clear to the trainee when the input ceases and they resume full control.

Following through on the controls is a valuable technique that should not be

overlooked. It is necessary to ensure that the student when following through
is only sensing control input andnot appryingany fake whatsoever to the
controls. Careful briefing either before or during flight will cover this case. It
is possible that exceptionally you mayhsw
i to follow through whilst a trainee
flies the aeroplane. In this case you must be careful to make clear to them
that they and not you are flying the aeroplane and that you make certain that
r.0 input or hindrance is made to the controls. If you do in some way impede
the trainee's manipulation of the controls, then they are likely to blame you for
whatever happens next ! The previous statements about uncertainty of who is
in control when interference occurs are also pertinent. I

Guarding of controls (without interfering, unless a gross error occurs) is

necessary particularly with inexperiencedtrainees. It is essential In the
following areas that control guarding take place:-

Guard the rudder to ensure corred and timely control in the event of
engine failure. A number of aeroplanes have been lost in training
accidents due to incorrect rudder inputs being made. Note: for swept
wing trarsports, engine failure at low altitude (i.e. V1 or shortly tfiereafter)
combined with incorrect rudder application will result in a very rapid roll
toward the 'failed engine*which may be beyond your ability to control in
the time available and considering proximity to the ground. Consider for a
moment just how much (or perhaps little) wingtip clearance your aemplane
has at rotation, particularly for swept wing types.

2. Be prepared for a possible rotation at V1 instead of VR when an engine

failure occurs, or is given at or near V1. Be aware also of Vmca and how
close you are to it at your reference speeds.

At the risk o f mpeating the obvious do make sure that you know who is
flying the aeroplane.

Be very careful with the use of words. Don't talk too much or it will become
background noise to the trainee. Equally, silence can be fo&idding. Try to
maintain a balance and always sound confident. Do make sure that you say
exacuy what you mean, this means making certain that your instructions
cannot be misinterpreted. I

.Example: If, on the approach, your trainee is getting a shade low on speed.
but making no correction, you may wish him to increase thrust. However,
-
using a phrase such as 'a little thruse may be taken by a struggling trainee
(who, let's face it, has not appreciated the need for more speed and therefore
mom thrust) as being an instruction to reduce thrust. The resglt is exactly the
 opposite of what you intended, and will turn a perhaps mediocre approach into
a potential disaster.

Example: 'Keep your feet off the rudder". This is not what you really mean
to say and if followed literally by the trainee, could have hidden, unpleasant
- - consequences later. A betterphrase to use might be 'Stop kicking the
rudder".

When it is necessary to 'patter' a demonstration, avoid a continuous

monologue. This will become mere background noise that the student will
eventually disregard. A more appropriate method would be to. announce the
significant highlights, in particular those items which you particularly wish the
student to observe. Do-rememberthat 'advance noticesof the demonstration
is necessary in order that the student knows what they are about to see, and
can watch the development of the occurrence, particularly if it is something
that they have not seen before. It should be remembered that pattering a
demonstration must never interfere with a proper lookout and a full listening
watch must be maintained with ATC.

A difference form of Lvords' which can cause distraction for the student is the
written word. Making notes whilst airborne is distracting to the student and if
you plan to do this, remember to tell him in advance. At least then he will
know that you are being 'up front' with him about why you are note taking

ANALYSE
In order to have an insight into the handling of the aeroplane and a standard
to judge against, it is a valuable exercise to analyse what you do and why,
when you fly the aeroplane.

Be careful to analyse what you see when the trainee is flying the aeroplane.
Handling errors are not always as simple as they seem. It is necessary to
watch for the 'links'. Be aware of the possible case and effect when it comes
to handling errors.

Example: Excessive aileron input may be to counteract improper rudder use,

watch for the secondary (or peripheral) indicators in a case such as this. '
These would include such indicators as: movement of the student's knees to
indicate rudder input; aileron input which is not synchronised with the
aeroplane rolling motion.

Example: Apparent poor pitch control may be caused by poor thrust / trim
setting. This in turn may be due to a lack of knowledge of pitch and power
settings.
TRAINEE REACTIONS

Remember that the cockpit is not the world's best classroom.

Watch for--
signs
-- --
....
of stress in the trainee, these may include:

Breathing rate, heaving breathing or flared nostrils.

-
Temperature control problems the trainee may complain of being
alternately hot or cold.

Both of the above factors are physiological control mechanisms to deal with
the stress that the trainee is currently suffering from. If they graduate to the
stage of perspiring profusely (climate not a factor!) then the two former
regulators have failed and the trainee is now really struggling. Ideally a
strategy to reduce the trainee's workload or stress level would have been
initiated earlier in order to preclude this state. Ifnot, then now is the time to
take action and ease the trainee's burden, preferably without him realising that
you are doing so.

SAFETY

demember to maintain a good lookout at all times.

You still have the responsibility for ATC communications and adhering to
clearances.

SUMMARY
Remember that the cockpit is a lousy classroom.
Always know who is flying the aeroplane.
Be careful with what you say and how you say it.
Watch for deviations from the 'norm' and ask M y " 3
Monitor the trainee.
Never permit training to degrade safety.
 THE ROLE OF THE TRAINING CAPTAIN
AIMS

To enable Trainee Instructors to determine what qualities a trainer requires to

be successful and why those qualities are necessary.

OVERVIEW

It was once assumed that the role of the Trainer was merely to tell the Trainee
what to do. Training is a developmental process and training has indeed
- developed itself to the extent that such simple notions are now discarded. It is
now generally accepted that the most effective training takes place when both
the Trainer and the Trainee are on a more equal footing. In the context of -
Commercial Aviation, both the Trainer and the Trainee are adults of varying
degrees of maturity, but who are nonetheless both professional pilots. The
difference between them being that the Trainer has the knowledge,
experience and skill which the Trainee wishes to acquire or benefit from. This
transfer constitutes the learning experience for the Trainee and must be
controlled by the Trainer. lrrstruction has its natural place in the scheme of
things, but so to does that of facilitation - the allowing of the Trainee to try
what has been taught and to learn to be analytical and self critical about the
result. Thus the Trainer will enable the Trainee to achieve his goal by use of
appropriate means.

Let us examine the strategies that Trainers can use in order to ensure that
their training is effective.

1 Communicate with your Trainee

- -
Listen to the trainee don't just talk to himher
- -
Do not 'lecture' your students are adult professionals
- -
Ask questions your 'quality control' on the trainee's understanding

2 Set the standard

- -
Motivate the trainee use your enthusiasm
- Allow time - don't rush them, miracles take a little longer! (BUT..)
- -
Good use of time it's a scarce resource, don't waste i t
- Relate to the trainee -they need to know that you are on their side.
- -
Set an example you will be your trainee's role model so make it
good.
- -
Distinguish between training & checking if the trainee feels that
you are checking and not training, you will lose hislher confidence.
- Explain bad practices - give reasons why something is being done
badly.
3. Instruction

- The Question to yourself is - 'What do they need to know ? - NOT -

'What do I need to teach themn?
- Know your subject - don't overload the trainee with a depth of - - --

instruction beyond hislher needs.

- Consider the trainee's needs - these will vary as they gain
knowledge and confidence.
- -
Be flexible in your approach the trainee may not always learn at a
constant rate, or in a predictable fashion. Do be prepared to review
your teaching method and try different techniques.

It would be possible, yet impractical, for pilots to teach themselves to fly; the
time-scale, cost and inevitable damage to equipment would be prohibitive.
The trainer is an essential and integral part'of the trainee's leaming i n order to
assist and guide with the following:

> To encourage & motivate

F To assist the trainee prioritise
P To assist the trainee think through errors
P To manage trainee's progress
P , Tl;r help trainee's enjoyment of the learning process
P Identify standards in the overall operation
L Give feedback to the trainee on progress
> Help the trainee to fill their knowledge gaps.
A summary of this is that the effecfivetrainer errables trainees to progress
more rapidly in the time available.

One task of the trainer is to ascertain which of the following their trainee is
closest to:

-
A low skill and low knowledge
-
B high skill and low knowledge
-
C low skill and high knowledge

And then to work with the trainee to enable higher levels of skill and
knowledge.

Both the trainee and the trainer must accept responsibility for ensuring that
learning takes place. The trainer has the responsibility for creating the
conditions where learning is possible.

The purpose of this course is to help new student instructors develop the
necessary skills and strategies required to provide the conditions where
learning can take place.
If asked, the trainee may well provide the following as a list of requirements
that he 1 she needs from their trainer:-

Define my starting point and start with me

Define my objective
Outline my objective
Outline the path between the two points
Tell me where I am on the path
Keep me informed of the quality of my learning
Use my previous experience
Don't go faster than I can
Let me make the knowledge and skill my own
-and acknowledge the msponsibility for my own learning

SUMMARY
Training is a developmental process that is continually changing
Trainers must be continually developing both their skills and strategies to
stay effective:
Trainers must be aware of both their personal strengths and blind spots.
Be aware that Trainers are a powerful influence and a role model -make it
a good one.
Remember that you are a Trainer for the benefit of the Trainees.
 LIMITATIONS OF AIRBORNE TRAINING

..........The Cockpit is a lousy classroom!. .........

AIM

To show Trainee Instructors that the cockpit of an aeroplane is a less than

ideal place to teach in, and why this is so:

OVERVIEW

During the ground school phase of the training, the primary need of the
student is to acquire knowledge. During the simulator phase the needs of the
student to reinforce that knowledge and to gain practical'skills become the
main consideration.- During the ai ome training. the needs of the student to
'T
further reinforce that knowledge, 'and to further improve those skills will be the
primary training need, but will always be secondary to the need to operate the
i.

aer-plane safely.

The Training Captain will have to take account of the following:-

He is the Commander of the aeroplane but must allow the trainee to act as
pilot in command, as appropriate.
He must act as a competent crew member for his trainee.
He must at all times demonstrate 'best practice' to his trainee.
Training inputs must be provided as the situation and progress of the
trainee dictate.
Plan how to introduce training syliabus items into the flying schedule.
Consider the needs of the companies commercial operation.

These pressures will reduce the capacity of the trainer to train - he has to
wear other 'hats' that, from time to time, will take a higher priority. Whilst
d allowing a trainee practice (facilitation) a trainer may have to intervene or
instruct due to these demands. Use of feedback on the ground when they are
lessened, or no longer exist, will help to redress the balance.

The same pressures also reduce the capacity of the trainee.

Time to talk whilst airborne is very limited. This must be supplemented by

good briefing and de-briefing on the ground.
Never compromise safety due to the training taking place. It is possible to kill
yourself and others on the aeroplane. In this context, you must never allow
the student to place the aeroplane in a position which exceeds your capacity
to control it.
 SUMMARY

When in motion the aeroplane is potentially dangerous.

There are limited opportunities to talk and explain in the aeroplane.
Workload and changed priorities can preclude effective training.
The pressures on you also apply to the trainee.
Never compromise~nsafetybecause of training.
\.
Hazards involveb in the simulating of malfunctions and system failures
during flight

SELECTION OF SAFE ALTITUDE

A minimum safe Altitude must be established prior to flight for the simulation
of any malfunctions. The most probable is the simulated failure of an engine.
This may involve the shutting down and relighting that unit. In ttiis event,
clearly the aircraft must be at a sufficient altitude to be able to cope with the
B loss of a second unit 8r other failure. Coincidence is not unknown, nor is
'finger trouble'. This would allow the aircraft to descend under control and
following relight Irectification, stabilise at an altitude which would not
compromise safety.

Most company operations manuals will specify the minimumaltitude at which

such manoeuvres may be carried out for specific aeroplane types. This
' altitude is the minimum, higher altitudes may be required. but lower ones are
not to be contemplated.

TOUCH DRILLS
The use of touch drills to establish that a trainee can correctly identify each
control and in the correct sequence is an invaluable aid to safe airborne
training. If it is envisaged that a particular drill will be carried out whilst
airbome, then the review of that drill on the ground must indude the 'touch
drill' that is appropriate. It is common sense that the airborne drill should not
be attemptsd unless the trainee is 'touch perfect' on the practice.
The use of touch drills whilst airbome is a valid means of checking knowledge
of a drill without the necessity to degrade the aeroplane's capability.

SITUATION AWARENESS
Being aware of the overall situation is vitally important. You must ask yourself
if a particular procedure is appropriate to the situation. Conducting repeated
asymmetric approaches-dominima in icing conditions is an example of an
inappropriate procedure being used.
Remember that, just because it doesn't tell you not to do something in a
manual, you should attempt it. Common sense and a keen appreciation of the
risks involved with deliberately degrading an aeroplane's capability must be
employed.

ADHERENCE TO STANDARD PROCEDURES

Do not be tempted to make up your own procedure. drills, or checklists. Stick
to the standard procedures, even though you may find them tedious, or overly
- complex. or time consuming. ,
 PERCEPTIONS OF TRAINING AND TRAINERS

....If only we had the gift to see ourselves as others see us ...
AIMS

1. To introduce the idea to the trainee instructors that they are working
with people and not only imparting knowledge.
2. To understand that the effectiveness of the training is directly affected
by the manner in which they relate to their trainees.
3. All trainees have their individual worries and concerns which they carry
into the training environment.
4. Tve trainer has a powerful impact on the future career development
and attitudes of the trainee. -Thisperception applies also to how all
view training and trainers.

THE FACTORS

First Impressions

Getting off to a baa start will have a detrimental effect on the trainee, as it will
create a 'distance' between the trainer and the trainee. The first meeting with
the trainer sets the tone for the session and the instructor can create a good
or bad learning environment as a result

Appearance is important, as it affects the initial impression and sets the

standard for the trainee to follow. Trainers should be clean, neat, groomed,
and professional.

!t is important to be aware of 'Judgmental responses'; in basic human

communication when information is being transmitted, the first three areas of .
judgement on the part of the receiver are usually:-
3,
1 Like or dislike
2 Respect
3 Credibility before .any assessment of the actual material is made.

AUTHORITY GRADIENT

A trainer may believe that helshe is of equal status to the trainee. However,
because of the trainer's role they are seen as an authority figure. Indeed,
most Airlines place Training Captains in the Management category. In order
to reduce the gradient a little, the trainer should demonstrate a degree of
enthusiasm and must appear to be enjoying the job, demonstrating warmth.
friendliness and a desire to help.

The trainer needs also to demonstrate that intangible area which makes such
a strong impression, that of animation or 'flair*. This includes a sense of
humour, wit, subtlety, presence and empathy with the trainee. *
 LANGUAGE

The use of open questions ta relax and explore is vital. Using words like 'we'
gets across the idea of a training team of equals, rather than the parentlchild
relationship from schooldays. Speech plays an important part in this and
-
should be
-
pleasant, authoritative, clear and well modulated.

BODY LANGUAGE

The importance of using open body language that 'invites' the trainees to
participate. This will help to reinforce the verbal encouragement that is given.
Suitable facial expressions, movements, proximity and gestures should all be
used as appropriate.

ATTITUDE PROJECTION

The trainer's objective is to create the most effective training environment.

This can be best achieved by remembering to spend some time setting the
scene, relaxing the trainees and recognising any blockages to learning that
the trainee brings with them. The whole approach is designed to show that
the trainer is:

Positive and confident. . .Believes in what helshe is doing. . . .Has valid

experience. .. Possesses knowledge and understanding of the subject. . . Is
able to stimulate and inspire the trainee to respond appropriately.

TRAINERS AND STRESS

it is frequently overlooked that trainers are humans as well, and may bring
their emotional baggage and worldly cam to the training session. This also
may affect the environment and ifthis is the case, the trainer must evolve
strategies to deal with the stress in order not to adversely influence the
training session.

THE NEW TRAINER

Newly appointed trainers have a unique opportunity to consider how they wish
to be viewed as a trainer, and then to behave in a way that will get that
reputation. Like first impressions, a trainer's reputation takes a lot of
zhanging. Instructors should never forget what it feels like to be a new
trainee. All they have to do is think back to their first checks when they first
started flying and remember what it felt like. Empathy and the ability to adjust
training style to suit the trainees are the hallmark of a good trainer.

...
Remember it fakes 5 seconds to gain a bad mpufaffon, 10 years to
restore it to a good one, and 5 seconds to lose it again I
CARE WITH WORDS

It is of paramount importance that all trainers portray their Training

Department as a whole in a positive fashion. Throwaway remarks, even in
jest, about the 'Chop rate', Hit list', or their colleague 'Chopper Smith' can be
taken seriously by both trainees and established line pilots. This can lead to a
situation where 'Rumour Control' g e f ~ o w o 3 I i n no time-at all, an
augmented 'story' of whichhlstoy would be proud is spread amongst the
workforce about some imaginary 'purge' by the training department. It this
sounds far fetched, then consider for a moment some of the rubbish that is put
about crew rooms and believed. Be careful of the way in which you portray -
The Training Department., Your Training Colleagues and Yourself. Image is
never a satisfactory replacement for substance in Aviation. However, the
wrong image can distort the substance of the real work.

SUMMARY

Creating the learning environment is the trainer's responsibility.

The environment that the trainer creates can significantly affect how much
effective learning takes place in a training session.
To successfully create this environment requires forethought of CRM
issues.
Careless talk causes problems!
LESSON 3.1 - STUDENT PRESENTATION

LESSON 3.2 - STUDENT PRESENTATION

-
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 LESSON 3.4 - BRIEFINGS
-

LONG AND SHORT BRIEFINGS

Knowledge is acquired by reading, hearing, seeing, saying and doing. It is

known that students learn most, and retain most from 'seeing' and 'doing'
combined. Thus our optimum teaching scenario for a practical exercise is
to show the student and allow him to practice. However, if a student does
not know what to expect, he will have no concept of what is likely to happen.
That scenario would have the instructor demonstrating and then explaining:
\the wrong way round entirely. The student must be led into the correct
sequence:-

Long briefing

Pre flight briefing

Flight demonstration

Practice

De-brief and post flight discussion.

a) Lona Briefinq

There is no substitute for a detailed discussion of an exercise before it is

flown with emphasis on the principles involved. This detailed discussion
is the Long Brief. While this briefing will include the elements of the pre
fiight brief, its main aim is to fortify the student's understanding of the
fundamentals taught in Groundscho~land how they apply to the
forthcoming Flight lesson. It will take the student from the academic
principles through to the practical application of the factors involved.
 b) Short Briefinq

The Short Brief follows on from the Long Brief and takes the form of a
Pre-Flight discussion in which the task to be done is outlined and the
most important points of the general discussion in the Long Brief are
restated.

This briefing should relate briefly to previous exercises and the student
should be requiredto restate important points, particularly those relating
to airmanship.

The briefing is practical and refers to the weather and any effed this rmy
have on the exercise. Which a i ~ fwill t be used and the intended
d u r a h of the flight, together with any relevant'ATCdetails, such as the
runway in use,etc. should be covered.

The instructor should limit the briefing time to 15-20 minutes, and avoid
writing in great detail. The board should be used to show the basic
outline of the air lesson, including rdevant items such as airspeeds,
power settings, etc. Fromthis basic outline he will expand the briefing
, verbally, implemeniing explanations with an aircraft model as necessary.
Coloured chalk or nrarker pens should be used to bring important details
into relief. Careful use of the boatd to avoid erasing parts ofthe briefing
is important, so that the entire briefing details are on the board at the
finish. Avoid concentratina vour attention on the board, remember it is
the student who requires your attention.

HINTS FOR THE INSTRUCTOR:

When speaking, face the student as much as possible, and when

using an aircraft model, hdd it in such a way that references to
direction make sense to the student. For example, if reference is
made to the model moving left, it must move left as the student sees
it

Principles of Flight should be avoided where possible, and do not

become involved with subjects not relevant to the exerase upon
which the student is being briefed.

~'hember above all that this period of ground instruction is

essentially a practical one and directly related to the air exercise(s)
about to be taught and practised.
 D u r a t i o n : 1hour

h i m : To gil-e to the candidate a sound knowledge of the aerodynamic princip!cr involved i n

nlulri-engined flight in nornlal and asyn~n~etric
conditions.

Briefing C o n t e n t s :

1 T h e mu1 ti-engincd scene:

- Rationa:e for 2 o r more engines
- Configurations of multi-engincd aeroplanes

2 'The multi-engine problenl:

- Engine failure situation, leading to: .
= Asymnletry
= Control capability reduction
= Performancc reduction - LB7

- Thrust
= Offsct thrust line
= Asymmetric blade cffcct
- Drag
= Offsct drag line
= Failcd engine drag
= Total drag
- Lift
= Asymmetry
. .- - -- . = Slipstream cffecr
- Unbalanced flight
= Effect of yaw
.= Sideslip/Sideforces
-. Thrust/Drag, sideforce couples

4 Controllability in Asymmetric Flight:

- Rudder, Aileron and Elevator
= Effcctivencss
= Lin~itations .
- Balanccd/Unbalanccd flight
= Effect of BanWSidcslip
= Fin strength, and stall
= Residual unbalance - cffcct on controls
= Out of balance control loads
= Trimming .
- LASKhrust relationship

Knowlcdgc S t a n d a r d : CPL level

 .q;$.:,.
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@b! A positive statement of the aim of the flight.

f&*. .,
AIRMANSHIP A discussion on safety aspects and awareness of
areas where care is needed.
53
'J
AIR EXERCISE How the exercise will be flown. .%
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LESSON 3.4 - DEMO BRIEFING AND IN FLIGHT VIDEO
-
 LESSON 3.5

FLIGHT TRAINING ADMINISTRATION & RECORDS

1. GROUND AND FLIGHT CURRICULUM

There may be Regulations which state the minimum requirements for

Ground and Flight training for a specific course: In the case of the TRI
course JAR'S suggest such at AMC FCL 1.365 (JAR - FCL 1.365) Part 1
of this Regulation will be covered by QAC, Part 2 by the operating
Company. This will be either for a TRI Multi-Pilot (or CRI Single Pilot
mu!ti-engine).

AMC FCL 1.365

TECHNICAL TRAINING

1. The course should be ieiated to the type of aeroplane on which the

applicant wishes to instruct. A training programme should give details of
all theoretics! knowledge instruction.
2. Identification and application of human factors (as set i n the ATPL syllabus
040) related to multi-crew co-operation aspects of the training.
3. The content of the instruction programme should cover training exercises
as applicable to the aeroplane type.
4. The TRI rating applicant should be taught and made familiar with giving
instruction from the seat normally occupied by the -pilot.

Trainincr exercises

5. Simulator

a) use of checklist, setting of radios 1 navigation aids;

b) starting engines;
c) take-off checks;
d) instrument take-off, transition to instrument after lift off;
e) crosswind take-off;
f) engine failure during take-off between V I and V 2;
g) aborted take-off prior to reaching Vi;
h) high mach buffeting, specific flight characteristics (if necessary);
i) steep turns;
j) recovery from approach to stall 1 take-off, clean, landing configuration;
k) instrument approach to required minimum decision height or minimum
descent height / altitude, manual one engine simulated inoperative
during approach and landing or go around;
3) rejected landing and go around; and
m) crosswind lancing.

Category II and Ill operations, if applicable

 6. a) precision approaches, automatic with auto-throttle and flight director to
go-around caused by aircraft or ground equipment deficiencies;
b) go around caused by weather conditions;
c) go around at DH caused by offset position from centreline; and
d) one of the CAT II ICAT Illapproaches must lead to a landing.
\_
i

-7-.--a+Prliti;trisation with controls during outside checks;

b) use of checklist, setting of radios and navigationaids, starting engines;
c) taxying;
d) take-off;
e) engine failure during take-off shortly after v2, after reaching climb out
attitude;
f) other emergency procedures (if necessary);
g) instrument approach to required minimum DH, manual one engine out
during approach and landing or go around;
h) required minimum OH; and
i) one engine (critical simulated inoperative landing.

2. GROUND TRAINING

This syllabus is concerned only with the training on multiengine

aeroplanes. Therefore, other knowledge areas, common to both single-
and mufti-engine aeroplanes, should be revised as necessary to cover the
handling and operating of the aeroplane with all engines operative, using
applicable -ens of the Ground Subjects Syllabus for the flight instructor
course (AMC FCL 7.340). Additionally, the ground training should include
25 hours of dpssroom work to develop the applicants abiliG to Cach a
student the knowledge and understanding required for the sir exercise
section of the multi-engine training course. This part will include the long
briefing for the air exercises.

3. TRAINING MANUAL

The operator would normally be required to maintain a Training Manual as

part of the AOC Regulations. In this manual the following subjects would
be covered:

a) Res~onsibilities.Details the supervisory positions and nominees.

b) Qualifications. Identifies the licence and 1or experience requirements-

c) ~ l ~ i n Lists
q - the necessary checks necessary: Base check, Line
check, IR cheCk, Area check and Operational checks.

d) Ewmencv ISurvival. Training and testing in specified periods to

develop and maintain the necessary skills for self, crew and passenger
care and survival.

2) Trainincr and Competency Records. (Sample attached.)

 Aircrew Emergency ISurvival Test

Name: ............................ Lic Type & No: ................................

--
- - ~ -- -

Date: ;..... .,. ..................... Tested by: ..................... -.-..-....-.---.-

Section 1
Knowledge of Location and Use of Emergency Equipment (13 months)

Initials
a) Location (see attached Diagrams) PASS IFAIL
b) Written test PASS IFAIL

Section ll \
Practice in simulated use of Emergency Equipment (13 months)

Initials
a) Aircraft Evacuation
i. Donning of lifejacket
..
11. Door operation
iii. Emergency exit (touch drill)
iv. Subsequent action (discussion)

a b) Fire Drill
i. Cabin fire in air
..
11. Engine fire on ground
..-
111. Simulated operation of fire extinguisher

Section I11
Practice in Actual Use of Emergency Equipment (Every 3 years)

Date Conducted by Next Test Date

a) Emergency exit operation
b) Fire Extinguisher operation
-
c) Lifejacket wet drill

4 certify that Captain ........................... has carried out the apprepriate

procedures, drills and tests and is competent to deal with emergency 1 survival
situations in Piper PA28.

Signed: .......................... Name: ......................... Date: ................

I concur with the above assessment.

Signed: ......................... Name: ....- a t e : ................

(Chief Instructor (QAC))
Other important documents / records:

1. Personal Log books and signatures

2. Study Materials

3. Flight Manuals

4. Aircraft Documents

5. Company SOPS and Signatures

6. ilight Authorisation

7. Operational Manual
8. Licencing

9. Reports and Assessments

I . ' APPLICATION AND REPORT FORM FOR THE CPL SKILL TEST I
r

Applicant's last Dame: First name:

Licence held: Ndmber:

1 .. . .
Details of the flight
. .- ...-
ClassfType of
;aeroplane: Departure aerodrome:

Registration: Lkstination aerodrome:

Block t~meoff: Block time on:

Total block time: T a k e 4 time: '

Landing time: Date: A

2 ..-,-
,,-: .:: - Result of the test
....
.
* delete as necessary

Passed' Failed* Partial pass'

3 Remarks

r
Type and number of
Location and date: FE's licencelauthority:
Name of FE, in
&nature of FE: capitals:
 SECTION 1
DEPARTURE
FE INITIALS
I I

a Pre-flight, documentation mass and balance determination, weather brief

-

\
b Aeroplane inspection and servicing

c ( Taxying and take-off I

I
d

e
Performance consideration trim

Aerodrome and tram pagem aperation

I
-
f
I
Departure procedure. althneter setting collision avoidance (lookout) I
Q -
ATC liaison complinix IUT procedures I
SECTION 2
AIRWORK
I I
a 1 Control of the aeroplane by external visual reference I 1
1 I
b Flight at critically bw airspeed including recognition of and recovery from incipient
and full stalls

c Turns. including turns in landing conf~uration

d Flight at critically high airspeeds. including recognition of and recovery fmm spiral
dives

leI I /
Flight by reference solely to instruments, including:
i
ii
Level flight, cruise configuration. control of heading, altitude and airspeed
-
Climbing and descending turns 1O' 30' bank
iii Recoveries from unusual attitudes. limited panel instruments I
SECTION 3
EN ROUTE PROCEDURES

a Control of aeroplane by external visual reference

b Orientation, map reading

c Altitude. speed, heading control. lookout

 FE INlTlALS

d Ahmeter setting

e Monitoring of flight progress, flight log, fuel usage, assessment of track error and re-
establishment of correct tracking

f Observation of weather conditions, assessment of trends. divers~onplanning

9 Tracking, positioning (NDB. VOR) identiftcat~on

of facilities. Implementation of
dwersion plan to alternate aerodrome

SECTION 4
APPROACH AND LANDING

a Arrival procedures. altimeter sett~ng,checks

5 ATC liaison: compliance. R / l pioced~res

c Go-around action from low height

d Normal landing, crosswind landing (if suitable conditions)

e Short field landing

f Post flight actions

SECTION 5
ABNORMAL AND EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

An app/icant is expected lo indicate the measure lo be taken ana cany out touch dnIIs, but is not required
to perform any operating action. This section may be combined with sections 1 thmugh 4.

a Simulated engine failure after take-off (at a safe altitude

b Alternative landing gear extension equipment malfunction

c Forced landing

d Approach andlanding with idle power

e Land~ngwithout flaps I
 SECTION 6 (if applicable)
SIMULATED ASYMMETRIC FLIGHT

This section may be combined with sections 1 thrrwgh 5.

The tesl shall have mgard to the contrd d t h e ae~plane,identKcatbn of the failed engine, immediate
adions (touch driils), follow up actions and checks, and flying accuracy, in the fdlowing situations:

a Simulated engine failure during takeoff and approach (at a safe altitude unless
carried out in a FNPT I1or a flight simulator
-
b Asymmetric awroach and goaround ,

c Asymmetric approach and full stop landing

3
..-.
. DUAL :
SOLO :
TOTAL:

QFI Date CFI Date

 CONFIDENTIAL
L -

-%
FLYING ASSESSMENT : - ,

NAME

COURSE

! FLYING HOURS : DUAL: ACT SOLO: ACT TOTAL: ACT

I
SYL SYL SYL

APTITUDE
SKILL LEVEL TECHNICAL ABILITY CAPACITY
Control Airmanship Retention
Accuracy FtJT Attention span
Discipline Procedures Division of attention
Logic scan rate Judgement
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PROGRESS

ATTITUDE

TECHNIQUE :

Date Date
 I STWENT FIINAL REPORT 1
Namc:

Number:

Coursc:

Start Date:

Finish Date:
FLYING HOURS
SJNGLE ENGINE

MULTI ENGINE

-
TESTS
SINGLE ENGINE MULTI ENGINE

NA RRA TI I/E:

CHIEF FLYING INSTRUCTOR

INSTRUCTOR COMMENTS - Any assessment of level E or below must be amplified I\

<

D Omissions
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c,
D
Overall Assessment
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............__..__. --..------
('..;
Instructor Student Signature
Signarure <;;:.,
 SOLO CLEARAKCES

D = Demoed P = Practised S = Fit Solo

Progress Tests (Delere \\.hen complere)

2 *
Essential Esercises (Stalls, PFL, EFATO, Powered approach and landins)
Exercise I I I
Date I I I

X-Wind Limit - 7kts 10kts. 15kts I I -~

Limit . Date I 1 . .

1 Alax l5kts Inst c/s I I I

Date CIS Reason

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Solo Ciea ra nce Re.moved ..- . . .. .

Solo Re-Clea red

Solo Clearance Removed 1. . . .
. . . .

Solo Re-Clea red

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DATE OCCURRENCE INITIALS

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 HANDOVER REPORTS
To ensure that Trainers are fully aware of a Trainee's requirements and
performance to date
- - -

"r A brief commeqary

3 Appraisal of standards achieved

P Pointers towards the next requirement

These form part of a continuous and permanent record of the Trainee's progress

Poor reports here will hinder the next Trainer

\
9
AIDE MEMOIRE A -E
A = Accurate

B = f3alanGd

C -- Concise, contain details agreed with the Trainee

D -- Details of techniques used

E -
- Easily read (or legible)

Is this what you really meant

Is this objective

Is this widely based

 RTI

To implement a reporting system which will provide an accurate

information flow
The information will describe in total the Trainee's personal and
professional qualities, performance and potential
It will be read by the Training Manager '

It will also be read and discussed with the Trainee

The Trainer must never lose sight of the fact that he is reporting on the
Trainee and the Trainee's stage of training, position and development. It
would be folly.to raise a report on a 19 year old bachelor Second Officer using
the same criteria used for a 30 year old married First Officer.

It is also important that the Trainer makes his best effort to remain impartial.
Trainers are human and as such have human frailties 'they can't like
everyone a!l of the time'.

PERSONAL QUALrrlES

he following sub headings may assist the Trainer in his assessment:

Sense of Duty

Time conscious? Does he let personal interest over-ride his routine

obligations? Is he reliable?

Integrity

Sound standards? Does he regulate his life according to a correct

sense of right and wrong?

Has he set a good example wherever he his? He is regularly well

turned out and smart. Is he a good representative of the airline?

lntelliqence

Has he commonsense, imagine, the ability to identify and solve

problems his own?

Energy

Does he display an appetite for work, accept the challenge readily or is

he more prepared to stand back or shirk?
Physical Fitness

Good shape? Overweight? Active? Regularly 'fit-to-fly"?

Criticism

Does he have the ability to criticise his own performance and standards
and importantly, can be accept criticism, discuss it and react sensibly?

PROFESSIONAL QUALITIES

Determination

Is he willing to tackle the task an3 does he persevere; if he doesn't get

it right the first time will he try again and again?

Reliability

Can he be trusted professionally? Does he face the truth? Can he be

relied upon? i

Is his judgement usually sound or does he panic into a decision? Can

he determine and allocate priorities?

Self Confidence

A good balanced attitude; can he admit to mistakes and seek guidance

to correct them? Does he act or dither, &ill he a d on his swn initiative
but not blindly and within his own limitations?

Level of Knowledqe

What is his overall level or depth of knowledge in all related subjects?

Will he rectify deficiencies or accept low standards?
HANDLING ABILITY

The details here are an expansion but still a pr6cis of the details which should
have appeared in sortie and progress reports.

For example, the following aspects, good or bad should be noted:-

Flying accuracy and Precision

Control Sensitivity
Co-ordination
Application of Techniques
Attention Span
Aspect Appreciation
Appreciation of rate of Change
Reaction Time
Judgement
Orientation
Single Source Fixation
Instrument Scan
Powers of Retention
..
Spare Capacity
ACTION IN EMERGENCIES

AIRMANSHIP

Stress Control
Craw Co-operation and Teamwork
Communication
Spatial Awareness
Situational Awareness
Knowledge of procedures and SOPS
Leadership l Followership
Risk-Taking
Safety Awareness
SUMMARY

It is important to remember that your report constitutes a permanent record

of that candidates performance overall, and of his professional and
personal qualities.

Bear in mind, that all reports are read by the Flight Training Manager, and
that on larger fleets, he may not personally know the strengths and
weaknesses of the Trainee. Your report is the only way that he will receive
feedback on how the Trainee is progressing.

Do record what you have seen - be honest. Remember that a Trainee

also receives a copy of the report.

Avoid bland 'catchall' statements - describing a candidate's performance

as 'Satis' shows more about the Training Captain's attitude than the
candidate's ability.

Highlight good areas as well as weaknesses.

Make sure the'report encompasses all the candidate should know.

Do make suggestions for improvement

Name: ALI SMITH I Rank: SIO 1 Licence: 1 ATPL(F) '
Course JET CONVERSlON Hours on Course .....
PERSONAL
SIO Ali Smith displays a ready and willing attitude to trairiing and is always
punctual. He applies himself well in groundschool, simulator and the aircraft.
and cleariy does his homework. He has produced excellent results in the
aural technical and procedural tests. A bright and intelligei'ityoung man, who
could create a more agreeable impression if he paid attentionto the state of
his uniform. He also has a reluctance to shave when the exercises are
planned early in the day. He has not missed a groundschaol or simulator
session through sickness. He must beware that his ready wit and penchant
for jokes doesn't interfere with the task in hand. This perhaps reflects his
youthful exuberance.

PROFESSIONAL
A natural aviator, he attacks the task with enthusiasm, but with a balanced
approach. He has the ability to allocate priorities and shows an above
average maturity on the flight deck, reacting calmly and logically during
emergencies. His depth of knowledge shows through well when discussing
minor unserviceabilities, but he can be too dogmatic, assuming that he is
-
right He has yet to learn to listen at the moment a CRM deficiency.

HANDLING
He handles the aircraft well and is developing a nice feel, but can relapse into
using rapid control movements in his anxiety for accuracy. He has needed
several reminders that it's the amount of deflectionwhich matters, not the rate
at which the controls are moved. On four occasions, he has rotated far too
forcefully on take off.
Well aware of his situation, he has shown that he possesses spare capacity
and is always well set for the descent profiles and procedures.
It is to his credit that he spends much time on the ground preparing himself for
emergency situations. This is reflected in his well-controlled handling of
emergencies. He appears to have 'time to spare' and thinks well ahead,
giving timely and accurate briefings and M a t to do next" actions.
Initially he would make decisions a little too quickly, e-g. he would opt to go
around too early, although progressively, he has begun to strike a more
reasonable balance and take positive action at the right time. Furthermore, he
has shown that he will not enter the risk zone where he considers danger to
lurk.

CONCLUSION
SIO Ali Smith has progressed well and continues to do so. He makes minor
random errors only, now that his control at rotate is sorted.
He is a pleasure to train and crew with, and has much potential. There are
more ticks than buts.